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Electron = -1.602 19 10 C = 9.11 10-31 kg Proton = 1.602 19 10-19 C = 1.67 10-27 kg Neutron = 0 C = 1.67 10-27 kg 23 6.022 10 atoms in one atomic mass unit e is the elementary charge: 1.602 19 10-19 C Potential Energy, velocity of electron: PE = eV = mv2 1V = 1J/C 1N/C = 1V/m 1J = 1 Nm = 1 CV 1 amp = 6.21 1018 electrons/second = 1 Coulomb/second 2 1 hp = 0.756 kW 1 N = 1 TAm 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 Power = Joules/second = I R = IV [watts W] Quadratic Kinetic Energy [J] b b 2 4ac x= Equation: KE = 1 mv 2 2 2a
[Natural Log: when eb = x, ln x = b ] m: 10-3 n: 10-9 p: 10-12 : 10-6 f: 10-15 a: 10-18
-19
Rectangular Notation:
Z = R jX where +j represents
inductive reactance and -j represents capacitive reactance. For example, Z = 8 + j 6 means that a resistor of 8 is in series with an inductive reactance of 6. Polar Notation: Z = M , where M is the magnitude of the reactance and is the direction with respect to the horizontal (pure resistance) axis. For example, a resistor of 4 in series with a capacitor with a reactance of 3 would be expressed as 5 -36.9 . In the descriptions above, impedance is used as an example. Rectangular and Polar Notation can also be used to express amperage, voltage, and power.
To convert from rectangular to polar notation: Given: X - jY (careful with the sign before the j) Magnitude: Angle:
X 2 + Y2 = M (negative sign carried over Y from rectangular notation tan = X in this example)
R = tan 1
Ry Rx
To convert from polar to rectangular (j) notation: Given: M de X Value: M cos itu gn M Ma Y (j) Value: M sin
Multiplication of Vectors:
Cross Product or Vector Product: Positive direction:
i j=k
j i = k i i = 0
j i k
In conversions, the j value will have the X same sign as the value for angles having a magnitude < 180. Use rectangular notation when adding and subtracting. Use polar notation for multiplication and division. Multiply in polar notation by multiplying the magnitudes and adding the angles. Divide in polar notation by dividing the magnitudes and subtracting the denominator angle from the numerator angle.
i j = 0 a b = ab cos
ii =1
Derivative of Vectors:
Velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time:
v=
d dx dy dz ( xi + yj + zk) = i + j+ k dt dt dt dt
a=
dv y dv dv d ( v x i + v y j + v zk ) = x i + j+ z k dt dt dt dt
[Newtons N] where:
E=
kqr R3
E=
Electric Field:
kq r2
q F E=k 2 = r q
E = electric field [N/C or V/m] k = 8.99 109 [Nm2/C2] q = charge [C] r = distance [m] F = force
Electric field lines radiate outward from positive charges. The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
Em 2 Bm2 c W/m = = 2 0c 2 0
2
W = watts Em = max. electric field [N/C] 0 = 4 10-7 c = 2.99792 108 [m/s] Bm = max. magnetic field [T]
Relationship of k to 0:
k=
1 4 0
where:
A positive charge moving in the same direction as the electric field direction loses potential energy since the potential of the electric field diminishes in this direction. Equipotential lines cross EF lines at right angles.
Electric Dipole:
2k E= = r 2 0 r
d -Q +Q
p
z
kqz E= 2 ( z + R 2 )3 / 2
or if z >> R,
E=
kq z2
E = electric field [N/C] k = 8.99 109 [Nm2/C2] q = charge [C] z = distance to the charge [m] R = radius of the ring [m]
2kp z3 1 p E= 2 0 z 3 E=
when
zd
E=
1 2 0
2 2 z +R z
2 ymv 2 = qEL2
E=
2 0
y = deflection [m] m = mass of the particle [kg] d = plate separation [m] v = speed [m/s] q = charge [C] E = electric field [N/C or V/m L = length of plates [m]
Gauss' Law:
0 = qenc 0 E dA = qenc
0 = 8.85 10-12 [C2/Nm2] is the rate of flow of an electric field [Nm2/C] qenc = charge within the gaussian surface [C]
CAPACITANCE
Parallel-Plate Capacitor:
C = 0 C = capacitance [farads F]
qq PE = q2V1 = k 1 2 r
U = U f U i = W U = W W = F d = Fd cos
f
Cylindrical Capacitor:
C = capacitance [farads F]
W = q E ds
i
V = V f Vi =
f
W q
Spherical Capacitor:
V = E ds
i
ab C = 4 0 ba
C = capacitance [farads F]
= E dA = E(cos )dA
E is the electric field vector [N/C] A is the area vector [m2] pointing outward normal to the surface.
For capacitors connected in series, the charge Q is equal for each capacitor as well as for the total equivalent. If the dielectric constant is changed, the capacitance is multiplied by , the voltage is divided by , and Q is unchanged. In a vacuum = 1, When dielectrics are used, replace 0 with 0.
UE =
QV CV 2 Q 2 = = 2 2 2C
U = Potential Energy [J] Q = Coulombs [C] V = volts [V] C = capacitance in farads [F]
Resistivity: E J RA = L
[Ohm Meters]
q A
u = 1 0 E 2 2
u = energy per unit volume [J/m3] 0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 10-12 C2/Nm2 E = energy [J]
= resistivity [ m] E = electric field [N/C] J = current density [A/m2] R = resistance [ ohms] A = area [m2] L = length of conductor [m]
0 = 0 ( T T0 )
Capacitors in Series:
Capacitors in Parallel:
1 1 1 = + ... Ceff C1 C2
Ceff = C1 + C2 ...
Capacitors connected in series all have the same charge q. For parallel capacitors the total q is equal to the sum of the charge on each capacitor.
CURRENT
Current Density:
[A/m2] i = current [A] J = current density [A/m2] A = area [m2] L = length of conductor [m] e = charge per carrier ne = carrier charge density [C/m3] Vd = drift speed [m/s]
Time Constant:
[seconds]
= RC
= time it takes the capacitor to reach 63.2% of its maximum charge [seconds] R = series resistance [ohms ] C = capacitance [farads F]
i = J dA
if current is uniform and parallel to dA, then:
[coulombs C]
i = JA
q = Q(1 e t / )
V = VS (1 e t / )
discharging:
q = Qe t / V = VS e t /
Drift Speed:
q = charge after t seconds [coulombs C] Q = maximum charge [coulombs C] Q = CV e = natural log t = time [seconds] = time constant RC [seconds] V = volts [V] VS = supply volts [V]
J = ( ne)Vd
[Natural Log: when eb = x, ln x = b ] Q = # of carriers charge/carrier t = time in seconds n = # of carriers q = charge on each carrier vd = drift speed in meters/second A = cross-sectional area in meters2 1. 2.
Kirchhoffs Rules
The sum of the currents entering a junctions is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. The sum of the potential differences across all the elements around a closed loop must be zero.
I=
Q = (nqvd A) t
RESISTANCE
Emf: A voltage source which can provide continuous current
[volts]
2. = emf open-circuit voltage of the battery I = current [amps] R = load resistance [ohms] r = internal battery resistance [ohms]
= IR + Ir
3.
MAGNETISM
Andr-Marie Ampre is credited with the discovery of electromagnetism, the relationship between electric currents and magnetic fields. Heinrich Hertz was the first to generate and detect electromagnetic waves in the laboratory.
mv r= qB
r = radius of rotational path m = mass [kg] v = velocity [m/s] q = charge [C] B = magnetic field [T] B = magnetic field [T] 0 = the permeability of free space 410-7 Tm/A I = current [A] r = distance from the center of the conductor B = magnetic field [T] 0 = the permeability of free space 410-7 Tm/A i = current [A] = the arc in radians r = distance from the center of the conductor
[Newtons N]
B=
0I 2r
F = qvB sin F = qv B
F = force [N] q = charge [C] v = velocity [m/s] B = magnetic field [T] = angle between v and B
i B= 0 4r
Hall Effect: Voltage across the width of a conducting ribbon due to a Magnetic Field:
( ne)Vw h = Bi v d Bw = Vw
F1 0 I1 I 2 = l 2d
F = force [N] l = length [m] 0 = the permeability of free space 410-7 Tm/A I = current [A] d = distance center to center [m]
[Teslas T]
B = 0 nI
[Newtons N]
F = BI l sin F = I l B
F = force [N] B = magnetic field [T] I = amperage [A] l = length [m] = angle between B and the direction of the current N = number of turns B = magnetic field [T] I = amperage [A] A = area [m2] = angle between B and the plane of the loop
B = magnetic field [T] 0 = the permeability of free space 410-7 Tm/A n = number of turns of wire per unit length [#/m] I = current [A]
= NiA
= NBIA sin
N = number of turns of wire i = current [A] A = area [m2] B = magnetic field [T] A = area of loop [m2] = angle between B and the perpen-dicular to the plane of the loop
= BAcos
Amperes' Law:
= B dA
B ds = i
0 enc
B = magnetic field [T] 0 = the permeability of free space 410-7 Tm/A ienc = current encircled by the loop[A]
d E ds = E 2 r = dt B B = BA = B r 2 d dB =A dt dt d = N dt
E = electric field [N/C] r = radius [m] t = time [s] = magnetic flux [Tm2 or
Webers] B = magnetic field [T] A = area of magnetic field 2 [m ] dB/dt = rate of change of the magnetic field [T/s] = potential [V] N = number of orbits
Joseph Henry, American physicist, made improvements to the electromagnet. James Clerk Maxwell provided a theory showing the close relationship between electric and magnetic phenomena and predicted that electric and magnetic fields could move through space as waves. J. J. Thompson is credited with the discovery of the electron in 1897.
Faradays Law of Induction states that the instantaneous emf induced in a circuit equals the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. Michael Faraday made fundamental discoveries in magnetism, electricity, and light.
N L= I
= N
In an RL Circuit, after one time constant ( = L/R) the current in the circuit is 63.2% of its final value, /R.
RL Circuit:
current rise:
V I = (1 e t / L ) R
current decay:
= Blv
B = magnetic field [T] l = length of the bar [m] v = speed of the bar [m/s] N = number of turns A = area of loop [m2] B = magnetic field [T] = angular velocity [rad/s] t = time [s] L = inductance [H] I = current [A] t = time [s] L = inductance [H] l = length of the solenoid [m] 0 = the permeability of free space 410-7 Tm/A n = number of turns of wire per unit length [#/m] A = area [m2]
I=
V t / L e R
UB = Potential Energy [J] V = volts [V] R = resistance [] e = natural log t = time [seconds] L = inductive time constant L/R [s] I = current [A]
U B = 1 LI 2 2
= NAB sin t
QV CV 2 Q 2 UE = = = 2 2 2C
= L
I t
UE = Potential Energy [J] Q = Coulombs [C] V = volts [V] C = capacitance in farads [F]
L = 0 n 2 A l
fR =
1 2 LC 1 LC
fR = Resonant Frequency [Hz] L = inductance [H] C = capacitance in farads [F] = angular frequency [rad/s]
q V = IR C R VX VR = =I X R V 2 = VR 2 + VX 2 VC =
VC = voltage across capacitor [V] q = charge on capacitor [C] fR = Resonant Frequency [Hz] L = inductance [H] C = capacitance in farads [F] R = resistance [] I = current [A] V = supply voltage [V] VX = voltage across reactance [V] VR = voltage across resistor [V]
q = Qe Rt / 2 L cos( t + )
where
= 2 ( R / 2L) 2 = 1 / LC
When R is small and :
X VX = R VR V R cos = R = V Z tan =
( would be negative in a capacitive circuit)
Q 2 Rt / L U= e 2C
Parallel RCL Circuits:
= Phase Angle [degrees] X = reactance [] R = resistance [] V = supply voltage [V] VX = voltage across reactance [V] VR = voltage across resistor [V] Z = impedance []
q = charge on capacitor [C] Q = maximum charge [C] e = natural log R = resistance [] L = inductance [H] = angular frequency of the undamped oscillations [rad/s] = angular frequency of the damped oscillations [rad/s] U = Potential Energy of the capacitor [J] C = capacitance in farads [F]
IC
IT = I R + ( IC I L ) tan = IC I L IR
IR V IL
Z 2 = R2 + X 2 E = IZ Z XC R = = V VC V R Z = R jX
Series RCL Circuits:
= Phase Angle [degrees] X = reactance [] R = resistance [] V = supply voltage [V] VX = voltage across reactance [V] VX = voltage across resistor [V] Z = impedance []
The Resultant Phasor X = X L X C is in the direction of the larger reactance and determines whether the circuit is inductive or capacitive. If XL is larger than XC, then the circuit is inductive and X is a vector in the upward direction. In series circuits, the amperage is the reference (horizontal) vector. This is observed on the oscilloscope by looking at the voltage across the resistor. The two vector diagrams at right illustrate the phase relationship between voltage, resistance, reactance, and amperage.
XL R I XC VL VR I VC
To find total current and phase angle in multielement circuits, find I for each path and add vectorally. Note that when converting between current and resistance, a division will take place requiring the use of polar notation and resulting in a change of sign for the angle since it will be divided into (subtracted from) an angle of zero. Equivalent Series Circuit: Given the Z in polar notation of a parallel circuit, the resistance and reactance of the equivalent series circuit is as follows:
R = ZT cos
X = ZT sin
AC CIRCUITS
Instantaneous Voltage of a Sine Wave:
V = voltage [V] f = frequency [Hz] t = time [s] I = current [A] V = voltage [V]
Z 2 = R2 + ( X L X C )2
Z=
R cos
Impedance may be found by adding the components using vector algebra. By converting the result to polar notation, the phase angle is also found. For multielement circuits, total each resistance and reactance before using the above formula.
Z = R2 + ( X L X C )2
tan =
X L XC R
B
e nc itta m Ad
G
Conductance
ELECTROMAGNETICS WAVELENGTH c = f
c=E/B
1 1 2 S= EB = E 0 0 cB = E
space 410-7 Tm/A E = electric field [N/C or V/M] B = magnetic field [T] c = 2.99792 108 [m/s]
1 = 10-10m
LIGHT
Indices of Refraction:
Quartz: Glass, crown Glass, flint Water Air 1.458 1.52 1.66 1.333 1.000 293
WAVELENGTH SPECTRUM
BAND METERS ANGSTROMS
Longwave radio Standard Broadcast Shortwave radio TV, FM Microwave Infrared light Visible light violet blue green yellow orange red Ultraviolet light X-rays Gamma rays Cosmic rays
1 - 100 km 100 - 1000 m 10 - 100 m 0.1 - 10 m 1 - 100 mm 0.8 - 1000 m 360 - 690 nm 360 nm 430 nm 490 nm 560 nm 600 nm 690 nm 10 - 390 nm 5 - 10,000 pm 100 - 5000 fm < 100 fm
1013 - 1015 1012 - 1013 1011 - 1012 109 - 1011 107 - 109 8000 - 107 3600 - 6900 3600 4300 4900 5600 6000 6900 100 - 3900 0.05 - 100 0.001 - 0.05 < 0.001
2
Angle of Incidence:
The angle measured from the perpendicular to the face or from the perpendicular to the tangent to the face
n
n=
c v
0 n
n = index of refraction c = speed of light in a vacuum 3 108 m/s v = speed of light in the material [m/s]
0 = wavelength of the light in a vacuum [m] = its wavelength in the material [m]
2 < 1
2 refracted
n1
1
Source
1
Source
P I= s2 4 r
I = intensity [w/m2] Ps = power of source [watts] r = distance [m] 4r2 = surface area of sphere
Critical Angle:
n2 n1
The maximum angle of incidence for which light can move from n1 to n2
n2 n1
refracted
sin c =
for n1 > n2
Source
reflected
Sign Conventions:
F=
IA c
Pr =
I c
When M is negative, the image is inverted. p is positive when the object is in front of the mirror, surface, or lens. Q is positive when the image is in front of the mirror or in back of the surface or lens. f and r are positive if the center of curvature is in front of the mirror or in back of the surface or lens.
F=
2 IA c
Pr =
2I c
h i M= = h p
h = image height [m] h = object height [m] i = image distance [m] p = object distance [m]