AS CHEMISTRY CHEMICAL BONDING

CL - Bonding

TYPES OF BOND
The physical properties of a substance depend on its structure and type of bonding present. Bonding determines the type of structure.

CHEMICAL strong bonds

ionic (or electrovalent) covalent dative covalent (or co-ordinate) metallic van der Waals forces dipole-dipole interaction hydrogen bonds - weakest - strongest

PHYSICAL weak bonds

Ionic Bonding
How are ions formed and how do they attract each other? When an atom loses an electron a positive ion (cation) is formed usually in metallic elements (2, 8,1)

Na+ + e1s22s22p63s1 1s22s22p6

Na Cl2 + 2e- 2Cl-

(2,8)

When an atom gains an electron a negative ion (anion) is formed usually in non-metallic elements. (2, 8,7) 1s22s22p63s23p5 1s22s22p63s23p6 (2,8,8) When a metal is combined with a non-metal, there is transfer of electrons from the metal, losing all outer-shell electrons to the non-metal which gains a full, octet outer-shell of electrons.

CL - Bonding

Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely-charged ions resulting in the transfer of electrons to a non-metallic atom.

Dot-cross diagram

Page 32 SAQ 3.2 Page 35 Draw dot-cross diagrams

Sodium chloride

Na

Cl

SODIUM ATOM 2,8,1

CHLORINE ATOM 2,8,7

Sodium chloride

+ Na

Cl

SODIUM ION 2,8

CHLORIDE ION 2,8,8

both species now have full outer shells; ie they have the electronic configuration of a noble gas

Sodium chloride

+ Na

Cl

SODIUM ION 2,8

CHLORIDE ION 2,8,8

Na
2,8,1

Na+
2,8

e
ELECTRON TRANSFERRED

Cl
2,8,7

Cl
2,8,8

magnesium oxide

The ionic bonding is stronger than in sodium chloride because this time you have 2+ ions attracting 2- ions. The greater the charge, the greater the attraction. The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO

.
CL - Bonding

Magnesium chloride

Cl

Mg

CHLORINE ATOMS 2,8,7

MAGNESIUM ATOM 2,8,2

Cl

Magnesium chloride

Cl

Mg

2+

CHLORIDE IONS 2,8,8

MAGNESIUM ION 2,8

Cl

Lattices
There are two types of solids non-crystalline solids crystalline solids

Particles not arranged in a regular pattern.

Particles arranged in a regular 3-D pattern called a lattice. The repeating units in a lattice are called unit cells.

Giant ionic crystal lattice

Oppositely charged ions held in a regular 3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

ClChloride ion

Na+
Sodium ion

The Na+ ion is small enough relative to a Cl ion to fit in the spaces so that both ions occur in every plane.

Giant ionic crystal lattice

Oppositely charged ions held in a regular 3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl (co-ordination number = 6) and each Cl is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).

Giant ionic crystal lattice

Oppositely charged ions held in a regular 3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl (co-ordination number = 6) and each Cl is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).

What are the properties of ionically-bonded compounds?

They are made up of ions in a giant ionic lattice, with +ve and ve ions alternating in a 3-D arrangement. In the lattice, the attraction between oppositely-charged ions is greater than the repulsion between similar charges. A lattice has a regular repeating pattern of ions.

The smallest repeating unit in a lattice is called a unit cell.

The arrangement of ions depends on their relative sizes. Sodium chloride has a cubic ionic lattice each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. Oxides and sulphides of Mg, Ca & Ba and halides of Li, Na and K, have a similar structure.
CL - Bonding

What are the properties of ionically-bonded compounds?

They have high melting and boiling points, which increases with an increase in charge eg. Sodium chloride has singly-charged ions 1074K magnesium oxide has doubly charged ions 3125K They are crystalline, hard and brittle

Displacement of the plane of ions could be due to the force of a knife.

This causes ions of similar charge to come together

Repulsion of similarly-charged ions causes shattering

CL - Bonding

What are the properties of ionically-bonded compounds?

They are often ( Group I salts, metal chlorides, metal nitrates) soluble in water but insoluble in non-polar solvents. However, with increasing ionic charge, they become are less soluble. To be soluble, energy must be provided to overcome the strong electrostatic attraction between ions in the lattice. In a hydrated ion, the oxygen atoms of water molecules are attracted to the cation and the hydrogen end to anion. Hydroxides Group I Group II Group III NaOH Ca(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Solubility in water high sparingly Very low

They conduct electricity in the molten state.

Electrolysis
CL - Bonding

Electrical properties of ionically-bonded compounds

SOLID IONIC COMPOUNDS DO NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY

ClNa+

Na+

ClNa+

Na+

IONS ARE HELD STRONGLY TOGETHER + IONS CANT MOVE TO THE CATHODE - IONS CANT MOVE TO THE ANODE

ClNa+

ClNa+

Cl-

Cl-

MOLTEN IONIC COMPOUNDS DO CONDUCT ELECTRICITY SOLUTIONS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS IN WATER DO CONDUCT ELECTRICITY

Na+ Na+

Cl-

IONS HAVE MORE FREEDOM IN A LIQUID SO CAN MOVE TO THE ELECTRODES

ClNa+

Cl-

Na+

Cl-

DISSOLVING AN IONIC COMPOUND IN WATER BREAKS UP THE STRUCTURE SO IONS ARE FREE TO MOVE TO THE ELECTRODES

Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond forms between two non-metals when the electron in the highest energy level of each atom is shared to give a full outer shell of electrons for each atom. The shared pair of electrons creates a bond between the two atoms because it attracts the positivelycharged nuclei of each atom and resists the separation of the two atoms. This creates stability. Atoms are held together because their nuclei which have an overall positive charge are attracted to the shared electrons Formation between atoms of the same element N2, O2, diamond, graphite CO2, SO2

between atoms of different elements on the RHS of the table; when one of the elements is in the middle of the table; with head-of-the-group elements

CCl4, SiCl4

BeCl2

Covalent Bonding in molecular orbitals

Molecular orbitals are formed from an overlap of atomic orbitals . A sigma () bond is a single covalent bond formed by a pair of electrons in an orbital in a molecule with the electron density between the nuclei. It can be between two s-orbitals or an s and p-orbital.

A pi () bond has sideways overlap of two p-orbitals. Electrons are concentrated on either side of the line between the two nuclei above and below the plane of the molecule. A double covalent bond, C=C, is made up of a and bond. The pi orbital cause restricted rotation Page 34 SAQ 3.3
CL - Bonding

Hydridisation of orbitals
2p 2 2s

The electronic configuration of a carbon atom is 1s22s22p2

1s

Hydridisation of orbitals
2p 2 2s

The electronic configuration of a carbon atom is 1s22s22p2

1s

If you provide a bit of energy you can promote (lift) one of the s electrons into a p orbital. The configuration is now 1s22s12p3

2p 2 2s

1s

The process is favourable because of the arrangement of electrons; four unpaired and with less repulsion is more stable

Hydridisation of orbitals
The four orbitals (an s and three ps) combine or HYBRIDISE to give four new orbitals. All four orbitals are equivalent.

2s22p2

2s12p3
HYBRIDISE

4 x sp3

sp3
HYBRIDISATION

Hydridisation of orbitals
Alternatively, only three orbitals (an s and two ps) combine or HYBRIDISE to give three new orbitals. All three orbitals are equivalent. The remaining 2p orbital is unchanged.

2s22p2

2s12p3
HYBRIDISE

3 x sp2

2p

sp2
HYBRIDISATION

Structure of alkenes

In ALKANES, the four sp3 orbitals repel each other into a tetrahedral arrangement.

In ALKENES, the three sp2 orbitals repel each other into a planar arrangement and the 2p orbital lies at right angles to them

Structure of alkenes

Covalent bonds are formed by overlap of orbitals.

An sp2 orbital from each carbon overlaps to form a single C-C bond.

The resulting bond is called a SIGMA () bond.

Structure of alkenes

The two 2p orbitals also overlap. This forms a second bond; it is known as a PI () bond. For maximum overlap and hence the strongest bond, the 2p orbitals are in line. This gives rise to the planar arrangement around C=C bonds.

Bonding in alkenes
Unsaturated molecules with double bonds have 2 types of covalent bonds: 1. A sigma bond formed by the overlap of two sp2-orbitals 2. A pi bond formed from the sideways overlap of two p-orbitals 1.

An sp2 orbital from each carbon overlaps to form a single C-C bond. 2.

The resulting bond is called a SIGMA () bond.

The two 2p orbitals also overlap. This forms a second bond; it is known as a PI () bond. This gives rise to the planar arrangement around C=C bonds.

Bonding in alkenes

two sp2 orbitals overlap to form a sigma bond between the two carbon atoms

two 2p orbitals overlap to form a pi bond between the two carbon atoms

s orbitals in hydrogen overlap with the sp2 orbitals in carbon to form C-H bonds

the resulting shape is planar with bond angles of 120

Lone pairs of electrons

Sometimes electron pairs in the outer shell are not involved in covalent bonding. These non-bonding electron-pairs are called lone pairs.

Lone pairs: affect the shapes of molecules form dative covalent bonds are important in reactions of compounds such as water and ammonia.

CL - Bonding

Dative covalent or coordinate bond

. It is a type of covalent bond formed when both pair of electrons (lone pair) comes from one atom.
lone pair of electrons

+
H H H N H
x

. H x . N: .
x

H+

. H x. N: H+ .
x

H ammonia .

H dative bond ammonium ion

CL - Bonding

Ammonium ions, NH4+, are formed by the transfer of a the lone pair of electrons from ammonia to a hydrogen ion from hydrogen chloride. When the ammonium ion, NH4+, is formed, the fourth hydrogen is attached by a dative covalent bond, because only the hydrogen's nucleus is transferred from the chlorine to the nitrogen. The hydrogen's electron is left behind on the chlorine to form a negative chloride ion.

Page 36 SAQ 3.4

CL - Bonding

3-D arrangement of bonds around a central atom

Bond goes into plane of paper

Bond lies on plane of paper

Bond comes out of plane of paper

Shapes of molecules

Molecules possess a definite, unique, 3-D shape. Shapes of molecules are determined by the angles between the bonds between them. and bond angles are determined by the arrangement of the electrons in each atom. The outer electrons are arranged in pairs, forming clouds of electron density, which repel each other as far as possible

CL - Bonding

The electron pairs in the outer valence shell of electrons will experience the least repulsion when they are as far apart from each other as possible. The effect of these electron pair repulsions determines the 3-D shape of the molecule. Therefore the expected shape for a molecule is the one which minimises the electron pair repulsion. The total number of electron pairs helps to predict the shape of molecules or ions with single covalent bonds It depends on the number of electrons originally in the outer shell, the number of shared electrons and the loss or gain of electrons

CL - Bonding

Molecule

Dot-cross

Bond angle Shape Tetrahedral

Methane

4 bonding pairs, no lone pairs

Ammonia Pyramidal 3 bonding pairs, one lone pair Bent Water 2 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs

CL - Bonding

Molecule Carbon dioxide

Dot-cross

Bond angle

Shape Linear

Boron trifluoride

2 pairs of bonding pairs (double bonds) no lone pairs Trigonal planar

3 bonding pairs No lone pairs

Sulphur hexafluoride

6 bonding pairs No lone pairs

Sulphur has expanded its octet to allow it to bond with the six fluorine atoms

Octahedron

VSEPR Theory
Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion - predicts the shape of molecules. 1. Draw a dot-cross structure of the molecule and count the number of electron pairs around each atom. 2. These pairs will take up positions where they are as far apart from each other as possible. The angles between these pairs will depend on the number of pairs around each atom. 3. Orbitals of lone pairs are larger and more electron-dense than those containing bonded pairs. They take up more space around the central atom and are generally held closer to the nucleus. This makes them have a greater repulsion on other pairs that surround the atom. The order of repulsion is: lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bond pair > bond pair-bond pair 4. Lone pairs are not included when the molecules shape is described eg. All of these molecules have 4 pairs of electrons in the valence shell of the central atom but only one is actually tetrahedral. 3 NH pyramidal has 3 bonding H2O bent CH4 pairs has 2 bonding tetrahedral pairs

Predicting the shapes of molecules

1. Add the number of valence electrons from the central atom, and the number of electrons contributed to bonding by the ligands; include the ion charge if there is one. 2. Divide the total by 2 to give the number of electron pairs, and so the electron distribution around the central atom.
NCl3 Valence electrons Electrons from bonding atoms Electrons from molecular charge Total electrons Electron pairs Electron pair arrangement Ligands Bonding pairs Lone pairs Molecule 8 4 Tetrahehrally 5 (nitrogen) 3 (chlorine) PCl45 (phosporus) 4 1 10 5 Trigonal bipyramidal 4 4 1 Pyramidal ICl4+ 7 9iodine) 4 -1 10 5 Trigonal bipyramidal 4 4 1 Pyramidal

Number of electron pairs 2 3 4 5 6

Shape of electron cloud Linear Trigonal Tetrahedral Trigonal bipyramidal octahedral

3 3 1 Pyramidal

Example - Predict these shapes Valence shell of carbon atom in molecule contains 8 electrons, arranged in four bonding pairs with no lone pairs tetraheral

CCl4

BF3

Linear 180 BF2 AlCl3 SiH4 SO3 SO2 Trigonal planar 120 Tetrahedral 109.5 Trigonal planar 120 Non-linear 120

Valence shell of boron atom atom in molecule contains 6 electrons, arranged in three bonding pairs trigonal planar

Electron deficiency not meeting the octet rule

Boron trifluoride does not have the full octet of bonding electrons. This can happen because the orbitals of the same atom can overlap and hybridise to form a new set of orbitals. One S and two p orbitals hydridise to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals

2 1 3

The three electrons in the valence shell of the boron atom occupy the three sp2 orbitals singly allowing bond formation with fluorine.

In the boron trifluoride molecule, only three groups are arranged around the central boron atom. In this case, the 2s orbital is combined with only two of the 2p orbitals (since we only need three hybrid orbitals for the three groups), forming three hybrid orbitals called sp2 hybrid orbitals. The other p-orbital remains unhybridized.

Exceeding the octet rule

The phosphorus atom in covalent compounds can expand its octet. It can utilize the empty 3d orbitals in its bonding, enabling ten valance electrons to be permitted. 3s

3p

3d

3 unpaired electrons

One of the 3s electrons can be promoted to the 3d orbital to form five unpaired electrons. sp3d hybridisation in PCl5

Find out the type of hybridisation in sulphur hexafluoride

Ethene bond angles and shape

4 pairs of electrons around each carbon atom with 2 of them grouped together to form the double bond. This gives 3 groups of atoms around each carbon atom - trigonal planar shape

In the molecule C2H4, ethene, both carbon atoms will be sp2 hybridized and have one unpaired electron in a non-hybridized p orbital. These p-orbitals will undergo sideways overlap and form one pi bond and the s orbitals will form a sigma bond. The 3-dimensional model of ethene is therefore planar with H-C-H and H-C-C bond angles of 120o.

Bonds of intermediate character

Some bonds are neither purely ionic nor purely covalent in nature.

If an ionic compound shows characteristics of a covalent compound, then it means it has polarised anions. Polarisation is caused by the distortion of the electron charge- cloud on the anion by the cation. Anions greater charge, larger radius = more polarisation Anions smaller charge, smaller radius = less polarisation Cations greater charge, smaller radius = more polarisation
CL - Bonding

An ionic compound with anion about to be polarised.

Polarisation tends to place some of the electron chargecloud on the larger ion between the two ions.

This results in a covalent bond formed between the two nuclei. However, the molecule still has some positive and negative charge (an electric dipole), which is a polar molecule.

Electronegativity and bond polarity

Since electrons are not always shared equally in a covalent bond, it is likely that the two atoms will have different electronegativities. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a Increasing covalent bond to itself. electronegativity Atoms become smaller & proton number increases so nucleus attracts electrons more. Electronegativity depends on effective nuclear charge The nucleus of the fluorine atom has an EN value of 3.98 has more protons and a higher effective nuclear charge than that of carbon with an EN of 2.55. So it is able to attract electrons more strongly than carbon. This will cause a partial movement of electrons towards fluorine creating a bond. The partial charge separation is represented by delta ()

Example Predict the direction of polarisation in the following:

Bond enthalpy (energy) and Bond length

Bond enthalpy (energy) is the energy required to break one mole of a given bond in a gaseous molecule. Units: kJmol-1 It is represented by E(X-Y) where X-Y is the molecule. The exact bond enthalpy value depends on the environment of the molecule therefore they are usually given as averaged values. Since bond breaking is an endothermic process, the bond enthalpy value is given a +ve sign.

Bond length is the average distance between the nuclei of bonded atoms. Units: pm (pico metres) It decreases across a period and increases down a group.

Energy level diagram for an Exothermic reaction

Energy level diagram for an Endothermic reaction

Energy need to break bonds is less than energy released when bonds are formed. Exothermic is a bond-forming process

Energy need to break bonds is more than energy released when bonds are formed. Endothermic is a bond-breaking process

Generally, reactions that break weak bonds or form strong bonds are favoured Practical - Measuring the enthalpy changes of exothermic and endothermic reactions

Energy changes in Reactions

Activation energy minimum amount of energy needed to start a reaction H = Energy is energy stored in the bond H = Change in energy = amount of heat energy taken in or given out from a reaction system at constant pressure. H = energy needed to break bonds energy needed to form new bonds

2H2(g) + O2(g) --> 2H2O(g)

Bond energy values

Bond C- H O=O C=O H-O C-C C-O H-I H-H I-I Bond energy (kJmol-1) 435 497 803 464 347 358 299 436 151

Use the above bond energy values to calculate the energy changes for the following reactions: 1.2HI -- H2 + I2 2.CH4 + 2O2 - CO2 + 2 H2O For each reaction, determine whether it is exothermic or endothermic and draw its energy level diagram.

Bond

Bond Length (nm)

Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1)

FF

0.142

158

Cl Cl

0.199

242

Br Br

0.228

193

II

0.267

151

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is formed by the strong attractive force between a sea of delocalised electrons and a lattice of positive ions. The more outer shell electrons, the more delocalisation of electrons and the stronger is the attraction. Melting point of Al > Mg > Na
Property Reason High There are very strong forces between melting and the cations and electrons so a lot of boiling energy is required to break the bonds. points Very good electrical and thermal conductivity . Poor Solubility The delocalised electrons are able to move freely in the 'sea'. These mobile electrons are therefore able to carry charge or heat energy. The electrostatic attraction between ions and electrons is too strong to be broken by the solvent.

Use pages 40 & 41 to complete this table for other properties of metals. Include their uses under Reason. Page 41 SAQ 3.7

Intermolecular Forces
As we go down group O, boiling point increases with increase in atomic number. Helium has the lowest boiling point The noble gases are monoatomic with no bonds between the atoms but has some forces holding the atoms together. Boiling points increases as the atoms gets larger. This means these forces become bigger as the number of electrons increases.

Consider a helium atom with two moving electrons in its shell.

At any instant, there could be a greater electron density to one end of the atom.

A dipole is developed in the atom when one end of the atom has a slight positive and the other end, a slight negative charge.

The dipole is instantaneous and will change from one moment to the next.

2+

How does the dipole affect neighbouring atoms?

It repels electrons in the next atom

An induced dipole is formed in the neighbouring atom + -

There is a weak electrostatic attraction between neighbouring polarised atoms

+ ..... + -

These instantaneous dipole induced dipole forces create weak electrostatic attractions called van der Waals forces. Helium has weak van der Waals forces so has a lower boiling point. Neon has more electrons, greater instantaneous induced dipole forces and therefore greater van der Waals forces. So it has a higher boiling point.

Applications of instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces

The slippery nature of graphite it is used as lubricant due to the layers of hexagonal carbons which are held by weak van der Waals forces. This allows the layers to slide over each other Graphite also has a high melting point used to line walls of industrial furnaces. Each carbon atom uses only three electrons in covalent bonding so there is a fourth electron which contributes to a delocalised cloud of electrons. Therefore graphite conducts electricity used as an electrode. Diamond is very hard. Each carbon atom bond to four other carbon atoms. It is used for cutting and grinding hard materials and as a gemstone.

Applications of instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces

Chain lengths in fats and oils. Butter is solid at room temperature it has long zig-zag chains of carbon atoms lying parallel to each other with van der Waals forces between the chains. Cooking oils are liquid at room temperature it has long chain carbon atoms but with angles along their lengths, where the zig-zag changes direction or branches. It has fewer van der Waals forces between molecules that is why oil is liquid at room temperature.

Low-density poly(ethene) Molecules are branched forming a tangled mass transparent to light Not packed closely Instantaneous dipole induced dipole forces are weak. Weaker tensile strength

High-density poly(ethene) Molecules are parallel/regular material is denser - makes them opaque to light Can be packed closely Instantaneous dipole induced dipole forces are strong Stronger tensile strength

Applications of instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces

The volatility (low boiling point) of bromine and iodine their atoms are held by strong covalent bonds but they are joined by weak intermolecular forces. There is a weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces between the oil (being used in a frying pan) and teflon, poly(tetrafluoroethene) (PTFE) which lines the frying pan.

Permanent dipole-dipole forces

Polar molecules have permanent dipoles eg. H+ - ClMolecules of permanent dipoles attract each other - +ve end of one to the ve end of another. H+ - Cl-...... H+ - Cl-....... H+ - ClCharged nylon rod Water molecule attracted to the charged nylon rod because it has a permanent dipole. This force of attraction is called a permanent dipole-dipole force. The strength of such a force is about one hundredth that of a covalent bond. -- - - - - ------ - - - - - --

Properties of water

Water expands as it freezes. The density of ice is less than the density of water ice floats on water Water is highly polar due to the large difference in electronegativity between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

Group VI

Group VII

The boiling points of hydrides generally increase down a group. But from the graph above, the boiling points of HF and H2O go against the trend due to hydrogen bonding in water.

Ice
In water, four hydrogen atoms tetrahedrally surround each oxygen atom. Two hydrogen atoms are linked to an oxygen atom by covalent bonds at a distance of 1.00 . and the other two hydrogen atoms are linked to the central oxygen atom by hydrogen bonds at a distance of 1.76. The hydrogen atoms of water molecules are located at the corners of the tetrahedron. As a result of tetrahedral arrangement of H2O molecules in the solid state, the ice structure extends in three dimensions. Molecules of H2O are not packed closely as hydrogen bonds between oxygen and H atoms are longer than covalent bonds between them. This results in vacant spaces being present in the crystal structure. It gives rise to an open cage like structure for ice, having a larger volume for the given mass of water. Thus, the density of ice is less than water.

Water

When ice is melted by increasing its temperature, the open cage structure starts collapsing due to partial break down of the hydrogen bonds. H2O molecules start to come closer; also the water molecules separated from ice structure fill the vacant spaces in open-cage structure. This results in concentration of volume. Hence, the density of water starts increasing on heating above the melting point of ice and becomes maximum at 4 C.

Further rise in temperature, the kinetic energy of molecules increases and they move away from one another. This causes expansion, which is much more than the concentration caused by breaking of hydrogen bonds. Therefore, above 4 the density of water once C again starts decreasing. Thus, the maximum density of water is at 4 C.

Hydrogen bonding
It is the strongest type of intermolecular force but about ten times weaker than a covalent bond. It is a special case of a dipole-dipole attraction, which exists between a lone pair of electrons on a N, O or F atom and a hydrogen atom.

With water, each water molecule can form two hydrogen bonds to other water molecules

Find out about hydrogen bonding in proteins - effect of perming on disulphide bridges and breaking hydrogen bonds in the keratin helix

Atomic lattice

Molecular lattice

Bonding

Unit cells are atoms

Unit cells are compounds

Molecular atomic lattices eg. Solid argon

Simple molecular lattices eg. ice

No chemical bonding. Only dipole-dipole, instantaneous dipole or hydrogen bonding Giant covalent

Macromolecular covalent lattices eg. Diamond or silicon Metallic lattices eg. Iron or solid metals

Macromolecular covalent lattices eg. Silicon (IV) oxide Ionic lattices eg. Sodium chloride or calcium carbonate

Ionic

Monatomic

Simple molecular

Giant covalent Elements: Si, diamond, graphite Compounds: SiO2 Lattice structure in which all atoms are joined to others by covalent bonds

Ionic

Metallic

Substances

Group 0 elements

Elements: H2 O2 N2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 S8 P4 Compounds: non-metal with nonmetal Individual molecules with weak forces between them (atoms within molecules are joined by covalent bonds)

Compounds: metal with nonmetal

Elements: metals

What the structure is

Individual atoms with very weak forces between them

Lattice structure of positive and negatively charged ions (ions are held together by attraction between the + and ions (this +/- attraction is known as an ionic bond, though it is just an electrostatic attractive force)) e.g. MgCl2 ratio of Mg2+:Clions is 1:2 through the structure

Lattice structure of metal ions with outer shell electrons free to move through the structure

The formula

Just the symbol e.g. Ar

e.g. H2O each molecule contains 1 O and 2H atoms

e.g. SiO2 ratio of Si:O atoms is 1:2 through the structure

Just the symbol e.g. Fe