Process Engineering

CHAPTER – I
PROCESS ENGINEERING FUNCTION
1. INTRODUCTION :
In any industries involved in manufacturing of discrete parts, the process planning or
process engineering is a common task. Generally the parts that are manufactured are hardware
parts i.e. parts made of metals and non-metals like plastics and rubber. The various industries
performing this task includes industries manufacturing from small items like locks handles,
cooking utensils, guns, tools to other products like appliances, automobiles, electronic devices,
aircraft and other larger products. The task of process planning department consists of
determining the manufacturing operations required to transform a rough part or Raw material to
a finished state as per the engineering drawing of the part. The first step involves the analysis of
the part’s engineering design specified either on engineering drawing or in a CAD format. The
general characteristics of the part like description of the part, configuration i.e. shape and size,
geometric and dimensional features, material specifications, etc, should be evaluated in order to
select appropriate sequence of the operations and the machines required for manufacturing. The
next step involves determining the specific processing details. In case of machining process, this
step include determining the depth of cuts, speeds, feeds, toolings, so an and so forth. In essence
these activities involve matching the design requirement of the part with the processing
capabilities of the selected machines. The resultant process plant is then documented as either a
operation sheet or routing, or a cost estimate. Although process planning is a common task, it is
referred to under a variety of titles, such as process engineering, material processing,
manufacturing activity planning, machine routing, and operation planning and so forth further
more. While most process planning activities involve cutting or machining processes, process
planning is also applicable for planning forming operations like stamping drawing, forging etc.
The principles of process planning presented here will not find applications in the industrious
manufacturing, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals and medicines. This text is not intended for use in
relation to the industry, which makes raw materials. In other words, the plants, which produce
sheet metal, bar stock, tubings, pigs, metal powders, or plastic powders, are not considered
manufacturing plants. Plants. Which cast, forge or extrude raw materials in rough product forms
may find limited use of the information presented.
FIG. 1.1 PROCESS ENGINEERING
Design Requirement Process Capabilities of
of the Product selected machine
Match
Process Engineering

Operation
Routing
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Process planning received very little attention till 1970’s. Though informally this
function has been performed ever since some one first developed instruction to manufacture
some parts, the industrial revolution fostered a need to formalize process planning in the
manufacturing environment. Initially, manufactured parts were relatively simple, involve less
number of operations and manufactured by few people and hence need for formal process plan
was not felt. It is with increase in number of manufactured parts and their complexities, a need
for formal process plan was recognized.
FIG. 1.2 PROCESS

Process Finished Part as

Raw Material (Unfinished Part) per Drawing

1.2. PROCESS.
The term process referred here is defined as a method of transforming the raw material or
a unfinished part into the part as per the drawing specifications. The processes used in
manufacturing industries may be broadly classified as under. The further divisions of these
processes are also given in front of them
(a) Casting and moulding: - Sand casting. Steel casting. Investment casting, Die-casting.
Permanent mould casting, Powdered metal moulding, Compression moulding.) Transfer
moulding, Extrusion, Injection moulding, Laminating.
(b) Cutting or machining – Turning, Drilling, Milling, Shaping. Cut off, Broaching,
Grinding, Honing.
(c) Forming – Forging, Extrusion, Punching, Trimming, Drawing Rolling, Forming, coining,
Swigging, Spinning.
(d) Assembly – Soldering, Brazing, Welding, Mechanical fastening. Cementing, press
fitting, Shrink fitting.
In addition to above four basic categories of shaping processes a fifth category of a non
shaping process. Viz. finishing is required to be performed after or during the four processes.
(e) Finishing – cleaning, blasting, deburring, painting, plating, heat treatment, buffing,
polishing.
Nearly all products, manufactured required at least two or more of the five general
categories of the processes. Hence, it is necessary for a process engineer to have the knowledge
of all the five categories of the processes.
1.3. PRODUCT ENGINEER:
The process engineer’s function starts directly after completion of products design by the
product-engineering department. Hence let up first study the work of the product-engineering
department. The product to be manufactured is first conceived by the product engineer. He first

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determines the need for a new product or a new model of the old product. But in the process of
design of new product not all but one among the 500 new ideas, materializes into a new product.
That is why it is essential to have following few qualities in a person to be a successful product
designer.
(a) Creative thinking.
(b) Curiosity and imagination.
(c) Capacity to think
(d) Persistence
(e) Systematic planning approach.
Initially a product designer makes the experimental designs, prepare scale models and test
them. Finally all facts found in test are corrected to create the actual production design. The
design is represented on the paper as a part print (i.e. a line drawing of the part with all
specifications, dimensions, numbers, names and necessary notes) to illustrate the product
graphically, or in a CAD format.
The main functions of the product designers can be listed as under.
(A) Product designing to meet the functional requirements.
i] Building the test model.
ii] Providing the part prints
iii] Providing manufacturing guidelines like master layout, templates, master models, etc.
iv] Preparation of standard manuals which should include detailed material specifications, for
special processes e.g. carburize hardening to a depth of 0.3 mm.
v] Specifications for the joining processes such as welding, brazing, etc.
vii] Preparation of specification of special features like threads, gears, spines etc.
(B) Product designing for customer satisfaction.
(i) Bringing sales appeal in the product through improved appearance, and design changes
to meet customer needs.
(ii) Bringing the durability and life expectancy of product in relation to cost.
(C) Product designing for cost effectiveness i.e. low enough to complete with similar parts in
the market, high enough to provide sufficient profit margin, and in correct relationship
with durability and life expectancy.
(D) Product designing for ease of maintenance and assembly
(i) Easy access for repairs and maintenance e.g. replacement of wheels of Bajaj scooters
vis-À-vis Kinetic Honda.
(ii) Easy assembly and disassembly i.e. simpler design with minimum number of parts e.g.
opening of side cover of Bajaj Scooter vis-à-vis Kinetic Honda for cleaning of air cleaner
or spark plug etc.

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(iii)Preparation of drawings for maintenance and assembly methods.

(E) Transmitting the relevant information about product to the process engineer likes,
(i) Part prints.
(ii) Engineering releases viz. (a) Annual production rates, (b) sub assembly and assembly
numbers, (c) Release date i.e. the date on which processing, tooling and all planning
may start, (d) part name, number and material.
(iii) Changing part print and changing engineering releases when revisions are made after
original part prints area distributed.

1.4. PROCESS ENGINEERING:

Once the design of a component is over, the planning phase of manufacturing
commences. It is concerned with determining the sequence of individual manufacturing
operations, needed to produce a given part or product. The resulting operation sequence is
documented on a form typically referred to as, operation routing, job routing etc. These sheets
may contain set of instruction which may include any or all of the following set of instruction
which may include any or all of the following: operation sequence, machines, tools, materials,
tolerances, notes, cutting parameters, processes such as how to heat-treat), jigs, fixtures,
methods, time standards, set up details inspection criteria, gauges, and graphical representations
of the part in various stages of completion. It is obvious that process planning can be a very
complex and time-consuming job requiring a large amount of data. In addition several people
may participate in developing process plan, because no one person may have the broad expertise
required. This is further complicated by the fact that the process plan is a critical element in
making the part correctly and economically. The various process planning activities or functions
can be listed as under.
[1] Selection the principal process of manufacturing and deciding the various major process
operations, and auxiliary operations required for manufacturing.
[2] Classification and sequencing of these operations.
[3] Selection and listing of tools and gauges required for manufacturing.
[4] Selection and listing of machine tools, manufacturing equipments required.
[5] Selection and listing of work piece holding devices and datum surfaces.
[6] Selection and listing of inspection devices.
[7] Determination of optimum cutting parameter for each operation.
[8] Estimation of cutting and non-cutting times (setting time, inspection time) for each operation.
[9] Modification of the operation sequence after giving the consideration of eliminating any
operation or combining few operations with a view of cost reduction or quality improvement.

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[10] Origination of orders for designing, building or buying the tools, gauges, equipments etc
and does the follow up of the progress as per plan and takes corrective actions.
[11] Study the existing product for any change required for ease of manufacturing, value addition
or cost reduction and do necessary changes in operation routing sheets and/or part print.
[12] To assist the product engineer to design a part which is feasible and economical to
manufacture.
FIG.1.3 ROLE OF PROCESS ENGINEER

1.5. ROLE OF PROCESS ENGINEER: AS A HUB

The process engineer has to perform various functions as mentioned earlier. While doing
so, he has to maintain contact with the product engineering and other departments of the
organization. All problems in product manufacture are referred to him. He then decides and
determines if the problem can be solved best by product change or process change. Thus, he acts
like a hub, which has to keep the contact with the organizational wheel constituted of various
departments. The nature and direction of flow of information between the process engineer
(hub) and the various departments of the organization (outer rim) is shown in fig 1.3. To
perform his role effectively certain criteria or qualities mentioned as under are required.
1. A good process engineer should have an experience in the various areas like tool design, tool
building, plant layout, methods and time study etc.
2. The process engineer should not try to be an expert in all areas but rather he should consult
with experts in each department to obtain the best results.

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3. He needs knowledge of operations of all departments.

4. He should be able to use knowledge and experience available in the organization to assist the
planning process. He then becomes a sorter, selector and final judge in choosing the best
overall plan.

1.6. IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS ENGINEERING:

(1) Process engineering is a link between engineering design and shop-floor manufacturing.
(2) Since, it determines how a part will be manufactured, it is major determinant of
manufacturing costs and profitability.
(3) Whereas the product designer creates on paper a product or device of excellent functional
utility, the process engineer, actually has to produce the part by preparing manufacturing
process plans and instruction based on in-depth knowledge of process and equipment
capabilities, tooling availability, material processing characteristics, related costs and shop
practices.
(4) The economic future of the organization demands feasible and low cost process plans,
which are consistent with plans for similar parts in the market.
(5) It represents feedback link from shop floor to design engineering regarding manufacture
ability part design.

1.7.SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION:
The process engineer acts as a hub, and hence lot of transfer of information between
process engineering and other departments of the organization take place. This exchange of
information or communication is thus most critical phase of process engineering. This is
because people are persuaded not by what you have communicated (verbally, through written
text or drawings), but by what they have understood from that. The product engineer
communicates his product design ideas through part prints, engineering release, and
manufacturing specifications. Any error in the interpretation of his ideas can cause huge loss to
the organization. These errors result because the part print does not convey ‘What is wanted’ to
the process engineer. Frequently, the part print are found with some errors like specified
tolerances mentioned closer than what is needed, the dimensions contradicting with each other,
missing dimensions etc. Thus, the process engineer is supposed to examine the part print
critically and should never assume the part print to be perfect.
Other errors in communication may be caused by process engineer in communicating this
idea with the tool designer. This may be because of non-standardized terminologies or improper
use of process pictures, etc. The too much paper work may many times lose the original ideas.

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Too little paperwork can be as harmful as too much paper work to create confusion. It necessary
thus that the paperwork must be complete and simple.
Apart from product design and tool design the process engineer has to keep contact with
various other departments in the organization. Thus, it is necessary to improve the
communication by taking certain precautions as under.
[1] Establish standard drawing and drafting practices in the organization.
[2] Use standard forms, colour and number codes.
[3] Make the written communication simple and complete i.e. not too big or not too little avoid
confusion.
[4] Develop habit to ask for clarification with open mind in case of doubt.
[5] Get the right information from proper person in the organization.
The communication is key to success in any organization so it is necessary for a process
engineer to be a good communicator.

1.8 APPROACHES TO PROCESS PLANNING:

Traditionally, the process planning has been performed manually by most companies. As
the companies seek to automate this function, two approaches are being through of namely
variant and Generative. Thus, there are three approaches to process planning.
[A] Conventional/Manual approaches
[B] Variant approach computer assisted approach
[C] Generative approach.
[A] Conventional approach: -
This is the manual approach involving the experience of the process engineer. The
accumulation and use of the knowledge by process engineer concerning the process and machine
capabilities, tooling, materials and shop practices etc, are used to develop the plan, which is
feasible and consistent with the plan for similar product. In some cases, the task involves
recalling and identifying process plans for similar parts and then creating a process plan for new
part as a variant of an existing plan. Workbooks and other database management methods are
often used to manually classify, store and retrieve information for these parts. In other cases, a
totally unique new plan may be required to be generated as the parts requirement are not
common to the family of parts existing in the organization. Irrespective of whether the new part
is generated or a variation is done in the existing plan, the task is highly subjective, labour
intensive, time consuming, tedious and often boring and requires trained and experienced
personnel.

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1.5 VARIENT PROCESS PLANNING APPROACH

Study & Analysis of

part print (Manually)

If do not match Manually check for If matches

match- plan for
existing part

Prepare a new Modify the

unique process existing plan
plan for the part

Despite of many demands and drawbacks, the manual approach is often the best approach
for small companies. The process planner can give consistent and feasible process plans with
this method for the small number of parts and processing alternatives. The advantages of this
approach are flexibility and low investment cost.
This approach however produces inconsistent plans and may be more time consuming if
the number of process plans and revisions to those process plan increases. Further more
irrespective of size of the task, manually generated plans often reflect personal experiences,
preferences and prejudice of the process planner.
FIG.1.5 VARIENT PROCESS PLANNING APPROACH.
Coding of the Part
as per G.T.

No Matching of part Yes Retrieve with Exact Yes

code with family matching Matches
code Matches process plan

Prepare New Accept

Plan and store No

Modify and
accept

[B] Variant approach (Computer assisted) –

The variant approach to process planning is a computer-assisted extension of the manual
approach whereby the process plan is created for a new part by recalling, identifying and
retrieving an existing plan for the new part. The computer assists by providing an efficient
system for data management, retrieval, editing and high-speed printing of the process plans.
The variant system required that a catalog or library of process plans be developed and
stored in computer database. The group technology-coding scheme is employed to classify code
and store the plans. The variant system also consists of software to examine the new part being
planned in terms of the GT based part coding scheme in order to identify and retrieve any

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existing standard plans that have code numbers that match the code of new part once retrieved,
the analyst realize on his own experience and shop knowledge to either accept or edit the
standard plan via a visual display terminal and editor. If no similar plan exists, then the analyst
must create a new plan from scratch.
In general, variant systems are most applicable in the situations where the majority of
parts can be neatly coded and classified into families of similar parts. Further more, there should
be relatively small number of families with large number of parts per family.
There are several advantages of the computer assisted variant approach
(i) Reduction in boredom and time consumed in paper handling and hand copying work due to
efficient data management, retrieval, and editing abilities of computer.
(ii) Consistency in the process plan is achievable due to classification and coding system. The
variant approach has disadvantages as under
(a) In case of availability of new machines or processes the existing database requires manual
revision test by the process engineer. This may be more time consuming and costly job.
(b) The experienced process planner is required to construct, maintain, modify and consistently
edit the standard process plans. In fact the computer is only the tool to assist in manual
process planning activities.
[C] GENERATIVE APPROACH.
The generative approach utilizes on automatic computerized system consisting of
decision logic, formulas, technologies, algorithms, and geometry based data to uniquely
determine many process decisions for converting a part from a rough to a finished state. Unlike
the variant approach, no standard manufacturing plans are previously stored. Instead, the
computer automatically generates a unique operation sheet for a part every time the part is
ordered and released for manufacturing.
FIG.1.6 GENERATIVE APPROACH

Reading & Transmitting Physical Features of Engg.

Drg. Specifications in to computers Interpretable Data

Use of Decision Logic & Data to match the physical

features with manufacturing Capabilities

Prepare a unique operation sheet for the part & print

A generative process planning system essentially consists of two major components is as

shown in fig. 1.6. The first component is geometry based coding scheme for translating physical
features and engineering drawing specifications into computer interpretable data. The coding

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defines all geometric features, feature size and location and feature tolerances for all process
related surfaces. The coding scheme not only describes both rough ad finished state, but must be
defined in similar terms for the individual machines and processes in terms of their capability to
transform the part in each operation. Consequently the coding scheme for a generative system
required for greater detail than required in variant method.
The second component of generative process planning system is that process knowledge
in terms of decision logic and data in order to compare the part geometry requirements to
manufacturing capabilities. This logic used to automatically determine appropriate sequences,
selecting the machines for each operation; determine the cut planning or other operation details
subject to available tooling and fixtures and calculating the set up and cycle time for each
operation. An additional element of system is the software for printing the operation sheet for
reference of the various departments. Furthermore, if the machine selected for a processing
setup is numerically controlled, then it is often economically feasible to have the computer to
generate the coded instruction necessary to control the tool tasks and functions of the NC
machines.
Although a truly universal system has yet to be developed, a number of generative
systems are available for specific manufacturing processes or types of parts e.g. computerized
production process planning system (CPPP) is prepared for cylindrical work pieces.
The generative method of process planning has many advantages like greater accuracy,
consistency, and cost control primarily in large job manufacturing environments. Up to date an
operation sheet is generated each time a part is ordered. Thus there is no human intervention to
construct, maintain, modify or create consistent process plans except for major revisions to the
decision on logic due to new equipment or processing capabilities.
However, designing and developing a generative process planning system is a formidable
task furthermore, the development of a generative process planning system should be viewed in
light of future needs of integrated design and manufacturing functions. Hence, a through
understanding of tasks involved and a feasible strategy for designing decision logic of the system
is essential.
ORGANIZATION CHARTS:
The process engineer deals with five different categories of the processes. In order to
understand the role of the process engineer it is necessary to know his position in overall plant
organization. The process engineering department may be a separate department may be a
separate department in an organization if the size of the organization is big otherwise the process
engineering functions are carried out as a part time job by one or more individuals. Thus
regardless of title or position, the function of the process engineering must exist in all the
organizations.

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Fig. 1.7 Organization Chart

The basic purpose of developing organization chart is to indicate relative authority of
various individuals or departments. Rarely does two organizations have identical charts. Any
organization develops a suitable organization chart to best meet need of the plant. These charts
are modified as new needs arise or improved organization is needed. Despite a lack of complete
similarly most organization follows one general pattern. A representative chart for a large
organization is shown in the fig. 1.7 the process engineering is shown as a separate department
under production engineering. In some organization this may be separate department on an
equal level with production engineering. The process engineering is a staff department, which
assists the manufacturing department.
1.10 DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS:
(a) Part Print – The line drawing having two or three views of the part to be manufactured. It
also includes all specifications, dimensions, numbers, names and necessary notes.
(b) Part: The final finished product having all the specifications and dimensions as shown on the
part print.

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(c) Assembly: Completely joined parts that have been joined either temporarily or permanently
according to assembly print.
(d) Workpiece: A partially finished part or assembly, which does not yet have also the print
specifications.
(e) Operation: The smallest category of work done on workpiece while in one machine or in one
holding device or by one operator. Several different workpiece surfaces can be shaped in one
operation.
(f) Routing: A master plan showing the sequence of operations, tooling and equipment needed
to make a part or assembly.
(g) Equipment: The machines conveyors and other powered devices used to shape workpieces
or transport workpieces. Often called capital equipment, machines or machine tools.
(h) Tooling: The devices used to adapt the machines to a given workpieces, Includes, tools, tool
holders, workpiece holders, gauges, special dies, patterns for moulds.
(i) Process picture: A sketch of an operation showing workpiece, locators and clamps, along
with dimensions produced and surfaces created.
(j) Workpiece control: The exactness with which the relationship between the workpiece,
tooling and machine is maintained to reduce the variation in workpiece dimensions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Q.1 What is processing? Which industries find application of process engineering? Or what is
the scope of process engineering?
Q.2 What is a process? How are the processes used in industry classified?
Q.3 What are the functions of product engineer? What are the qualities desired by the product
engineer?
Q.4 what information the product engineer to the process engineer transmits?
Q.5 What is the role of the process engineer? Or why is the process engineer called hub of an
organization?
Q.6 Why is the process engineering or processing function very important?
Q.7 What is the significance of communication in organization?
Q.8 What are the various approaches to process planning?
Q.9 What is computer assisted variant approach of process planning? What are its advantages
and disadvantages?
Q.10 What is generative approach of process planning? State its advantages and limitations?
Q.11 Where is the process-engineering department located in the organization?
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 Process Engineering

CHAPTER 2
PRELIMINARY PART PRINT ANALYSIS
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of part print or drawing is to provide means of conveying the ideas of
product designer to those concerned with transforming them into the physical product as per the
part print specifications. In fact, the part print is the most important document, which transmits
more information than any other document to the process engineer to start his processing job.
In this chapter, we will see how to read and interpret the information given in the part
print, the problems encountered in the process and the remedial measures to avoid them. Thus
while doing the preliminary study of part print the process engineer must ask himself two
important questions.
(1) What is wanted by the product engineer?
(2) What must be done with the information disclosed by the part print to get what is wanted?

Study of part print

Real & interpret and establish if required use

auxiliary method General characteristic of the part

Identify principal process &

Alternate process of Manufacturing

Identify the functional surfaces (Product critical

areas) and process critical area from the w/p

Rotate the workpiece characteristics with the

nature of job to, be done.

Find the need of finishing operations from the

specification and means mode place for the part
identifications

Relating the part to the

assembly

Fig. 2.0 Preliminary Part Print Analysis

2.2 PROBLEMS IN READING AND INTERPRETING THE PART PRINT:
The process engineer has to extract most of the information about the part from the part
print. In reading and interpreting these part prints he is likely to face some difficulties and may

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have certain confusion about the actual part. The general problems faced in the interpretation of
the part print can be listed as under –
(i) Non standard design and drawing techniques: - Although continuous efforts are made to
standardize design and drawing techniques, designers and draftsman still have a considerable
degree of individualism in their work. To add to more confusion the organizations themselves
set up their own standards, and in general introduce all sorts of variations from standard
practices, usually to satisfy the needs peculiar to that enterprise.
(ii) Complexity of parts - Some times the drawing of part is very complex. The problem of
interpretation of such part prints becomes more difficult if the designer uses the notations and
other details from an outside firm. Further too much of dimensions, specifications and other
notes can also cause error in interpretation.
(iii) Temptation of interpretation – In case of confusion about interpretation of some
symbols or notations, or complex part prints there is a danger of process engineer’s temptation to
interpret the part print in his own way. Hence to avoid this it is better not to second-guess of the
product engineer in case of doubt and contact him for clarification.
(iv) Revisions and changes – Some times during discussions or meetings some changes
are suggested in part prints for value addition or ease of manufacturing etc. Such changes if not
recorded properly the process engineer is likely to process the wrong part print.
Thus, to avoid above problems in interpretation of part prints for complex parts,
following precautions can be taken.
(i) Use of standardized design techniques,
(ii) Never to second-guess of the product engineer and contact designer for further
clarification.
(iii) Before starting processing of part check whether correct latest revised drawing is used.
(iv) Use various auxiliary methods mentioned below for visualizing part prints of more
complex parts.
The various auxiliary methods for visualizing the complex parts are as under.
(a) Reconstructing the drawing without dimensional details – some complex parts
showing many dimensions, notes, specifications may create confusion. Reconstructing such
drawing without such details can aid in visualization process.
(b) Exaggerating the scale - Consideration should be given to scale of the drawing.
Exaggerating the scale may aid in interpreting certain details not completely clear on drawing as
it is received. By “blowing up” scale of these details, the process engineer can often develop a
better mental picture of the workpiece and work-out many problems such as blending of radii,
determining the best surfaces for locating, supporting, and clamping the workpiece and many
others.

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(c) Drawing a cross sectional view – A cross sectional view can convey information
which is not disclosed in various projections but it is important to determine what cross section is
being pictured and direction in which it is taken.
(d) A pictorial sketch - A pictorial sketch can often be helpful in interpreting some
complex shapes. This is usually done when the two or three views are unable to convey what is
wanted.
(e) Actual part – Although the proceeding suggestions can often be of great assistance to
the process engineer, nothing can substitute actual part. In some cases, the product engineer may
go for an actual part produced for experimental or other purposes. This makes the job of process
engineer easy.
(f) A wooden or wax model – If the actual part is not available, then a model can be made.
Models vary from simple ones carved from a cake of soap to wooden or plastics models. Three-
dimensional models are usually quite expensive to produce and are avoided unless the part is too
complex to be visualized in two-dimensional drawing.
(g) Preparing a drawing in CAD format – If the drawing is reconstructed using some
computerized drawing software like AutoCAD etc. The various aids like seeing three-
dimensional view from any angle, exaggerating the scale etc. are readily available for better
visualization.
2.3 SPECIFICATIONS:
For analyzing part print it is necessary to understand certain notes on the part print.
These notes, which provide information relating to both general and specific characteristics of
the workpiece that are not provided within the conventional dimensioning system, are called
specifications. Specifications usually pertain to – the material of the workpiece, - its heat
treatment quality of finish, - general tolerance level to be achieved, - references to other
drawings., - notations that cannot be included as part of dimensions etc.
The Specifications are of two types as given below –
[A] Explicit Specifications –
(I) These are specified in sufficient detail on the part print and are needed before the part
can be made, (ii) they are clearly stated and hence there is no danger of misinterpretation. (iii)
Examples – (a) Specification of surface hardness – “surface ‘A’ to be carburize hardened to 0.60
± 0.1 mm”. (b) Specification of part number say “place of part number is at the top”. (c) Surface
finish notations “for details of surface finish see IS 123” (d) general notes indicating size of
fillets and radii and
[B] Implied Specifications
(I)They are not always specified on the part print but are correctly assumed either by general
knowledge or convention to be in effect. (ii) They are left to good judgment of the process

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engineers and manufacturing people and hence there are dangers, of misinterpretation due to
unintentional omissions. Hence it is good to check with product engineer before making a
questionable assumption. (iii) Example – Machine workpiece to size of 100 mm x 50 mm x 100
mm, clearly implies that corners should be square and it is unnecessary to specify 900 angles at
each corner.
2.3 ESTABLISHING GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WORKPIECE:
The real work of the process engineer cannot start unless he establishes certain general
characteristics of workpiece. This is a preliminary step for establishing more general
characteristics of workpiece. The ease with which this task can be achieved depends upon the
part print itself. The process engineer determines following things from the part print at this
stage.
(1) General description of the part.
(2) General configuration (shape and size) of the part
(3) What is the material of the part?
(4) How is the part originated?
(5) Recorded changes in design.
(6) Resistance to damage in the process.
(1) General Description of the part - This information is obtained from the title block on the
part print. The information is briefly given due to limitation of space. If required the process
engineer may clarify the doubts from the designer. The main information in title block includes
name of part, part number. Number of assembly or subassembly of which it is a part. The part
name may aid in associating it with given shape. For example, shaft-drive arm implies it is a
shaft like part for drive arm; similarly valve rocker lever gives us information that it is a lever
like part, which reciprocates about central hole to operate valves.
(2) General Configuration of the part - Configuration means shape and size of the part. During
interpretation one must check scale from title block. The shape and size of part can be related to
many manufacturing problems as under.
(a) Handling:
Big sized heavy parts needs different material handling methods than small light weight
parts e.g. Heavy castings may require some special lugs cast on them to be picked up by OH
crane. Whereas small parts can be moved by chute, or belt conveyors as per requirement.
The shape of workpiece also decides the method of handling e.g. coil springs get tangled
if thrown together. Round or cylindrical parts can be moved by gravity because they roll freely.
Rectangular parts can be slid down the chutes on flat surfaces.
(b) Type of tooling:

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Size and shape of workpiece often gives clue to the type of tooling required. For
example shaft made up from several cylinders generated about a common centerline needs a
series of turning operations and may not need any jig or fixture. Whereas parts like valve rocker
lever may require various operations to be performed on drilling, turning, grinding and milling
machines, using special jigs and fixtures. Small parts need delicate toolings, which can be
moved about by hand on a machine table whereas for large parts toolings are less mobile.
(c) Type of machine:
Generally speaking large parts must be produced on larger and slower machines mainly
on too/room basis because of difficulty in handling. On the other hand small parts can be
produced on faster machines on mass production basis. But now due to advancement in
production techniques, even large sheet metal parts can be produced on mass scale at relatively
high speed.
(d) Sequence of operations:
Shape and size affects the sequence in which the various operations must be performed.
To achieve good dimensional control certain operations are done prior to other operations.
(e) Rate of production:
Shape and size of workpiece influences its mobility and thus affects its rate of
production. It also affects number of operations, which can be combined. If shape is such that
feeders and hoppers can be used, the rate of production can be significantly increased.
Thus, from the above discussion it is clear that seemingly simple examination of parts
gives important information to the process engineer for preliminary estimate of the job.
(3) Material specification –
It is very important to know the material from which the part is made because different
materials have different machinability as well as different manufacturing costs. The information
about the material is available either in the title block or as a general note on the part print.
(4) The originating operation:
The information about the originating operation or basic process operation i.e. the
operation from which the workpiece has been produced before the processing of the parts starts,
may not be directly given on the part print, but can be either understood by certain foot notes or
by general knowledge. The basic process operation decides amount of probable variations in the
manufacturing e.g. ‘cast pattern number here’ implies that basic process operation is casting.
Certain drawings are more explicit about basic process operations and give set of drawings
together e.g. forging drawing and machining drawing.
(5) Recorded changes in design:
Failures to check the revisions made in part print can cause costly manufacturing
mistakes. There are various reasons for part print revision like correction of errors, cost

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reduction, improvement in the manufacturing and inspection methods; improvement of quality

etc. Many times such revisions are made at the request of process engineer.
Design changes must be checked out completely before the process is planned because
they may have effect on operation sequence, tooling, location system, auxiliary and supporting
operations, and overall manufacturing economy. Checking the revisions in the individual part
will be too superficial, because, the part is either a part of some subassembly or assembly and
hence it is necessary to check as to how these changes tie with other related drawings required
clarifications should be requested from the product designer for any omissions in the related
drawings.
(6) Resistance to damage in the process:
Studying the part print can also give important information as to whether the part is
susceptible to damage during the manufacturing. Material specification or general configuration
of part can give a fairly good idea about this. For example, forgings or castings are less
susceptible to damage than the fragile parts like parts of electric control. Generally as the
workpiece progresses through its manufacturing sequence, it becomes more susceptible to
damage because more finished surfaces are exposed.
2.5 DETERMINING PRINCIPAL PROCESS AND ALTERNATE PROCESS:
The principal process is the main process out of cutting, forming, casting and assembly,
by which the part is produced from the workpiece obtained from basic process or originating
operation. Once the basic process is decided from the part print the principal process is easily
decided. If casting or forging is basic process operation then the cutting or machining is a logical
principal process operation. A sheet metal part may require series of stamping operations, or a
product made from several fabricated parts need assembly as a principal process operation. The
process engineer is mainly concerned with the principal process and hence it is necessary to
determine the principal process in the preliminary part print analysis.
As the one best method for, manufacturing a product has not been discovered the process
engineer has to think of alternative solutions to manufacturing problems. The possible alternate
process can be planned from the information gathered from part print, imagination and process
engineers knowledge of known processes. Though the product engineer is mainly concerned
with design of a product acceptable to the customer functionally, aesthetically and economically,
it is the process engineer who decides how the part is manufactured to these specifications. The
economy of manufacture can be achieved if the efforts of both design and manufacturing people
are co-coordinated. Only a careful analysis can justify whether to use casting, forging or rolling
(bar stock) as basic process. Hence the process engineer or for that matter any other person can
contribute for changing the part print specification to achieve the desired goals. The planning of
process will be dealt in more detail in later chapter.

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2.6 IDENTIFYING PRODUCT AND PROCESS CRITICAL AREAS/SURFACES:

During the preliminary part print analysis certain areas are identified from part print, which
are required to be developed or machined to accomplish certain function. On these surfaces/
areas are called functional surfaces or product critical areas. No surface is in fact machined
unless it makes physical contact with other part, unless appearance is of prime importance. On
the other hand certain hidden rotating parts are machined in its entire for balancing purposes.
Such areas can be identified from the part print from the following.
[1] Surface finish - certain surface finish symbols indicate whether the surface needs
machining or not.
[2] Basic geometry – May be indicated by certain symbols for specifying geometric
tolerances for flatness, roundness, angularity etc.
[3] Tolerances - Degree of dimensional tolerances specifies whether the surface is product
critical area or not.
There are same surfaces or areas, which decide the ease or difficulty with which the part
can be located, supported, and held throughout the manufacturing sequence. These areas are
important from the manufacturing point of view or are critical for the process and are called
process critical areas. These areas can be identified from the part print by
(1) Looking for baselines from which dimensions are measured, (2) close tolerances, and
(3) Natural centerlines.
While identifying the process critical areas a specific order is followed. According to
which first the areas best qualified for locating during processing are selected, followed by areas
best suitable for supporting during processing. This specific order is followed in selection of the
process critical areas because.
(1) To get the workpiece out of rough in shortest possible time and achieve quick workpiece
control over the consequent operations in the sequence, the first choice is to select areas suitable
for location.
(2) As no workpiece is rigid the unsupported workpiece at point of maximum deflection caused
due self weight, cutting force etc lead to lack of mechanical control the next surfaces selected has
to be best qualified for supporting during processing and
(3) As no choice is left for area suitable for clamping during processing such areas are selected at
last.
Areas best suitable for supporting are as areas on the work piece where maximum
deflection occurs and which do not interfere with the areas suitable for location and areas which
are to be machined and areas which do not interfere with loading or unloading of the workpieces
from tooling.

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FIG.2.1a Symmetry Assisting Common Set Up FIG 2.2 Machining Possible In One Set Up

C B A

X X’

SKETCH SHOWING SURFACES WHICH ARE NOT

RELATED TO THE DEGREE THAT OPERATIONS ON
THEM CAN COVENIETLY COMBINED

SYMMETRY NOT ASSISTING

COMMON SETUP

SKETCH TO ILLUSTRATE DEGREE OF

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SURFACES

Areas best suitable for clamping are decided from following guidelines.
[1] Select areas other than areas to be machined unless it is on its entire surfaces.
[2] Select areas directly opposite to the areas suitable for location. But if such areas are to be
machined select the areas, which direct the resultant force against the locators.
[3] Select areas, which are not susceptible for distortion and which are sufficiently large to
evenly distribute the force instead of, localized application.
[4] Select areas, which are not previously machined.
2.7 NATURE OF WORK TO BE PERFORMED:
The workpiece characteristics have been studied up till now in preliminary part print
analysis primarily to relate them to the job to be done. The process engineer may ask following
five questions to assess the nature of work to be done to produce the part to the part print
specifications.
(1) What is the degree of symmetry found in workpiece?

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(2) How many machining surfaces are related to each other?

(3) What is the relationship between these surfaces?
(4) Is it possible to combine or group these related surfaces so as to achieve lesser
Number of machining setups?
(5) How many operations must be performed on each surface?
Let us study the above aspects in details.
(1) Degree of symmetry:
If workpieces have surfaces symmetrical about a axis or a centerline, they can be
machined in fewer setups by selecting common locating system for developing various surfaces.
The advantages resulting are increased accuracy economy and ease of holding, especially when
work piece is made up from basic cylindrical shapes generated about the same centerline, as in
turning operation.
However, neither all-symmetrical part is cylindrical and required to be not machined in
few setups, nor permit use of common locating system to reduce the number of setups. Thus as
can be seen from the figure 2.1 a part showing symmetry in two or three views cannot be
produced in one setup. Thus, it needs shifting of locating system from one to another increasing
potential error in the final product.
(2) Number of related surfaces to be machined:
The dimensioning system is the best guide in finding out the number of surfaces that can
be related in one setting of the workpiece. As in case of symmetrical part, related surfaces often
share same seat of registry. For example, if two parallel slots are to be produced on a rectangular
slab and if both the slots are dimensioned from same surface of the blocks; then both the slots
can be gang milled in one setup (fig 2.2)
(3) Degree of relationship between surfaces:
The primary reasons for relating surfaces on the part print are to guarantee accuracy of
workpiece and economy in manufacturing. Thus, it is necessary for a process engineer to
establish relationship between surfaces, to achieve specified accuracy. The economy can also be
achieved as more good parts are produced or less part are rejected.
Actually, on a given workpiece all surfaces are related to each other directly or indirectly.
The degree or the closeness of there relationships is indicated by the dimensioning system. Each
dimensions indicates a direct first-degree relationship between the two surfaces or lines. The
number of direct dimensional relationships or connecting dimensional links that must be
considered in relating one surface to another indicates their degree of relationship. For example
in fig 2.3 surfaces ‘A’ is directly related to surface B, D, & F. Surface A is indirectly related to
surface E i.e. through D by two-dimensional links and hence second-degree relationship exists
between them. Similarly the relationship between the indirectly related surfaces the tolerances

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on the interrelated connecting dimensions are tightened to such a level that their collective
variations do not exceed these desired in the indirect dimension.
(4) Grouping related surfaces or areas:
The primary purpose of relating the surfaces is to think of grouping them so as to
machine them in one setup. The most conveniently grouped or combined operations are parallel
surfaces and internal and external cylinders. These are the basic shapes generated by machine
tools. Some surfaces through closely related dimensionally, cannot be combined readily for
machining because of differences in surface positions. Two surfaces bearing an angular
relationship to each other may be difficult to combine because they cannot be matched with the
geometry the machine was built to produce work piece in fig 2.4 cannot be gang milled in one
setup.
(5) Number of surface treatments:
To achieve desired surface characteristics number of operations may be required. This
can be found from part print from specification of surface roughness, dimensional tolerances, or
geometrical tolerances. For example a hole with a specific surface finish may be required to be
bored and honed, or drilled and reamed etc. A surface may require machining, surface hardening
and grinding. Thus, the process engineer must find out what surface treatments are specified
before he can set up sequence of operations.
2.8 FINISHING AND IDENTIFYING OPERATIONS:
The finishing operations are not always directly related to principal process. The finishing
operations like anodizing, painting or plating etc. are sometimes mentioned on the part print. As
the process engineer has to pan through these types of operations he should search for mention of
any such operation on part print.
Sometimes workpiece identified with a number or identification mark. There are various
methods of part identification like (1) raised numbers on certain castings or forgings – (2)
stamped numbers on certain gears, TATA chassis, (3) fixing of identification tabs, Ashok
Layland chassis.
When raised numbers are present on casting or forgings these areas should be avoided for
location purpose. But when numbers are to be stamped such operations should be placed at
convenient stage in the operation sequence; provided the identification is preserved throughout
the operation sequence. Metal tab are usually fixed late in the operation sequence if attached by
adhesive.
Not all parts require identification. In fact the identification number on some parts cannot be
tolerated. Parts like automobile door panels are identified from make model and year of
manufacture for aesthetic reasons. Whereas standard parts such as washers, nuts and screws are
easily identified and hence for economic reasons never numbers are placed on them.

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2.9 RELATING PART TO ASSEMBLY.

The great majority of individually fabricated parts ultimately become a part of something
else. Thus, to examine only the part drawing without relating it to whole assembly would be
superficial and could be dangerously costly. In fact, subassembly and assembly drawings
usually provide information without which the process engineer could not carry out his
functions.
If the assembly drawing is studied with the individual parts more detail information can
be obtained which will help the process engineer for processing of the part. Unfortunately it is
not as simple to start with the print of the individual part and work back to individual drawing as
it is to work down from the assembly drawing. Now a day this process can be made easy if the
drawing is given in CAD format.
QUESTIONS:
Q.1 What is preliminary part print analysis? How is it done?
Q.2 What problems are faced while reading and interpreting the part prints?
Q.3 What are the methods used to visualize the complex parts?
Q.4 What general characteristics of workpiece are established in preliminary part print
Analysis?
Q.5 What is the impact of part configuration (shape and size) on manufacturing of the part?
Q.6 What is originating operation? How can it be identified from the part print?
Q.7 What are the product critical areas or functional surfaces of the workpiece?
Q.8 How are they identified?
Q.9 Why a specific order is following in establishing various process critical areas?
Q.10 What order should be followed in establishing process critical areas?
Why should this order be followed?
Q.11 What key point should be considered in deciding nature of work to be
Performed on the workpiece?
Q.12 What do you understand by the term “degree of relationship”?
What is its significance to the process engineer?
Q.13 What are specifications?
Q.14 What are identifying operations? Do all parts need identifications?
Q.15 Why is necessary to relate the part to the assembly drawing?

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℡2422684 23
 Process Engineering

CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS OF DIMENSION
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The preliminary part print analysis reveled the process engineer as to what is wanted by
the product designer. He could get an idea about the originating process, principal process. He
could know about product and process critical areas. The general nature of work to be performed
had to be studied with an eye towards relating the various surfaces of the part. All this was
necessary for making the process engineer aware of the job to be done.
In the today competitive age there are more technical problems than in the past because
of more demand for quality, reliability and economy of product. This essentially means demand
for less manufacturing costs. Hence apart from preliminary part print analysis a more
comprehensive study of part print is required to be carried out. This chapter and next chapter
attempts to provide detailed information to develop dimensional qualities demanded by process
function for revealing more specific information from part print for producing acceptable
product.
3.2 TYPES OF DIMENSIONING SYSTEMS –
There are two systems of dimensioning usually practiced in drawing. They are (i)
Rectangular system (x, y) or Cartesian system or co-ordinate system or rectilinear system (2)
Angular system (r.φ) or polar system.
In the rectangular system a point is specified by showing its distance from two mutually
perpendicular lines. Whereas in the angular system the distance of a point from the reference
point and its inclination with a line passing through the reference point or origin is specified.
Every part has certain geometric shapes to its surfaces. To measure position of one
surface from other surface it is very convenient to use flat as a reference plane. On the other
hand cylindrical surfaces like holes are defined by centerlines. Because the centerline on the part
print is only an imaginary line on the workpiece; measuring hole locations is more difficult than
measuring between flat surfaces. The certain geometric shapes may cause varying degrees of
difficulty in their measurement, and hence the possible simple dimensioning possible should be
used viz. angular or rectangular as stated above. Whenever possible the rectangular system of
dimensioning is preferred over the angular one because of the following reasons.
(1) Linear dimensions can be measured more accurately than the angular dimensions because
angles are initially laid down by rectilinear co-ordinates.
(2) There is possibility of conversion error on the shop floor, while converting angular dimension
into rectangular one for ease of manufacturing.

24 ℡2422684
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(3) The machines are also built in with basic movement along the three mutually perpendicular
axes, which assists the rectangular system of dimensioning.

Fig. 3.2 The advantage of using a datum for correctly interpreting geometric tolerance
3.3 GEOMETRY OF FORM:
Apart from size tolerance sometimes the other tolerances related with the geometry or
form of surface are specified. The part print demands that geometry of workpiece as far as
flatness; roundness squareness, concentricity etc. must lie within a specific limit. While
specifying the various terms associated with geometry of form. It is always better to specify the
datum or reference surface. But due to some practical constraint the datum is not easily
employed. For example machining of a single surface on a rough casting or forging present
problem of establishing datum. Similarly it is difficult to establish some imaginary datum like
centerline of a hole or a cone. In such cases actual measurement are to be done with respect to
surface. Thus, apart from size tolerance part print may show geometric tolerance. The various
parameters associated with geometry of form are explained below with neat sketches.

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 Process Engineering

Fig. 3.3
FLATNESS

3.4 REPRESENTATION OF GEOMETIC TOLERANCE:

The geometric tolerances related to various characteristics are represented using a two or
three box tolerance frame depending on whether a single feature is specified or related feature is
specified as shown under.

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Fig. 3.4 PARALLELISMS

(1) Flatness (Symbol: ) – It is defined as permissible surface deviation from a plane. It
should not be confused with surface finish. If flatness is not specified then in the worst
conditions the deviation from the plane can be taken equal to the deviation between the
minimum and maximum size limits (i.e. size tolerance) in other words geometric tolerance
equals to the size tolerance (fig 3.3a) but when geometric tolerance with datum is specified the
geometric tolerance zone lies within the size tolerance zone. Thus a workpiece even if accepted
by size tolerance may get rejected because of geometric tolerance exceeding specified limits
(fig.3.3 b)
(2) Parallelism (symbol //) – It is defined as condition which exists when two or more planes or
straight lines extended in same direction and are equidistant at all points. If parallelism between
two surfaces is not specified as shown in fig 3.4a the permissible deviation will be 0.25 mm i.e.
equal to size tolerance in worst condition. If parallelism is specified between two planes as
shown in fig.3.4 b). The geometric tolerance of workpiece i.e. 0.05 must lie within size
tolerance, otherwise a workpiece accepted as per size tolerance may get rejected due to non
conformance to the geometric tolerance (i.e. parallelism in this case)
Fig 3.4 (c) shows how parallelism between two straight lines (i.e. centerlines here) is
specified. Thus, for holes (or cylindrical surfaces) position of their axes or centerlines are
specified. In above case the upper hole must lie within a cylinder of 0.03 mm diameter and
parallel to datum axis.
(3) Straightness: (symbol: -) It is a permissible deviation of a line, axis or a surface from a
straight line the deviation has to be measured by transferring it to the surface. This can be
achieved by rotating these cylindrical or conical objects between centers and checking the
eccentricity. Yet this might not be true indicator as the surface may be out of round.
When straightness is specified for axis of cone, the axis must lie within a cylinder of
0.07mm diameter. When straightness notation is applied to surface of cylinder (fig. 3.5(b)), no
element of cylindrical surface must deviate more than 0.07 mm from a straight line.

℡2422684 27
 Process Engineering

Fig 3.5 Straightness as applied to the surface of cylinder

(4) Squareness or perpendicularity (symbol:) - This term specifies right angle relation-
Ship between planes, lines or lines and planes. A datum always exists.
For specifying the squareness between two plane surfaces (fig 3.6a), the noted surfaces,
must lie between two planes no more than the specified geometric tolerance (0.07mm) apart
perpendicular to datum plane.
Similarly, for specifying squareness between two lines, (the centerlines of two hole in
this case (fig. 3.6(b)) the centre line of the noted hole must lie between two planes 0.07 mm
(geometric tolerance zone) apart perpendicular to the datum which, in the case is centreline of
horizontal hole.

Fig. 3.6 SQUARENESS

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In relating squareness of a line to a plane the line must lie within a cylinder whose diameter is
equal to total tolerance specified in the squareness notation. Obviously the plane surface is taken
as datum as it is easier to relate the line to a plane than a plane to a line.

3.7 ANGULARITY
(5) Angularity: (symbol: ∠) - It is the tolerance applied to control angle (other than right
angle) at which a line or surface must lie in relation to a given datum. As stated earlier the
accuracy of measurement of angles is more in co-ordinates than by actual angles. But many
times such conversion into co-ordinates is not always practical.
Angularity can be specified by geometric tolerance (as in case of squareness) or by
circumferential tolerance. In later case the variation varies zero at vertex. to even greater than
size tolerance with its distance from vertex. But in the former case like squareness the actual
surface should lie within two planes apart by a distance equal to tolerance zone (0.07 mm)
inclined at specified angle with datum.

Fig.3.8 BOUNDNESS

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Fig. 3.9 CONCENTRICITY

(6) Round ness (symbol: 0) this term relates to the distance of all points of surface of
cylinder or cone from its axis. The geometric tolerance related to roundness specifies the
spacing between two concentric circles within which all the point on the surface must lie. When
both size and geometric tolerances are specified the geometric tolerance must like within the size
tolerance. The maximum error can be equal to size tolerance if the geometric tolerance is not
specified. When measuring sphere the term spheroids can be used instead of roundness. In fig
3.8 the roundness is specified with both size and geometric tolerance.
(7) Concentricity and Eccentricity (Symbol:) These terms apply to features found in
cylinders cones and spheres. Interpretation of these term related to cylinders are discussed here.
While defining these terms the out of roundness may create separate problem hence only
perfect cylinders are considered. If a cylinder is rotated about an axis other than its true axis, it is
said to be eccentric by the amount in which its rotational axis has shifted from its true axis. As
there is no physical way of measuring between two imaginary lines, an indicator is usually used
to measure from the surface. The total indicator reading is twice the eccentricity.

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Fig. 3.10 SYMMETRY

Concentricity requires comparison between two cylindrical surfaces. Fig 3.9 (a) shows measurement
of concentricity using true axis of cylinder A where as in fig 3.9 (b) concentricity is, measured using
surface of cylinder A as datum. As datum is usually established by. Using surface the second method i.e.
shown in fig 3.9(b) only give true comparison.
(8) Symmetry: (symbol:) The symmetry means presence of same contour or features on either side of a
datum (or a plane or axis common with datum). The tolerance zone lies between two planes parallel to
median plane, or axis. The 3. 10(a) shows symmetry applied to slot whereas fig
3.10b shows symmetry applied to holes.
3.4 REPRESENTATION OF GEOMETRIC TOLERANCE:
The geometric tolerances related to various characteristics are represented using a two or three
box tolerance frame depending on. Whether a single feature is specified or a related feature is specified
as shown in fig 3. 11
In the three boxes in the box I the symbol of geometric tolerance is shown in box II,
value of geometric tolerance is specified in mm. and in box III the datum is specified in case of
related features. In case of single feature the box III is not shown.
3.5 SURFACE QUALITY:
In previous sections of this chapter we have considered the problems of identifying and
measuring geometry of form. Such characteristics result from machining of workpiece. In this

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section we will consider the surface quality, which must result when the geometry of form is
established.
Surface quality is commonly referred to as surface finish. To understand various
terminological associated with surface quality and to measure this quality is of paramount
importance to process engineer to achieve the basic objective of processing i.e. to produce a
product that will be acceptable to the customer functionally, economically and appearance wise.
Different processes produce, different geometric irregularities on the surface of workpiece. How
different they will be depending upon the cutting action of tool, abrasive or other finishing
devices used. The condition of the tool and type of material being worked has important
influences on surface finish.
The surface texture has three components as under.
1] Roughness - The short wavelength or finely spaced irregularities arising from the production
process caused by cutting action of tool edges and abrasive grains by the feed of machine tool.
2] Waviness - The longer wavelength (or greater spacing than roughness) irregularities upon
which the roughness is superimposed. The waviness may be induced by machine or work
deflection, vibration, hard spots, and heat treatment.
3] Lay: The lay is the direction of predominant surface pattern. It is caused by tool marks
and abrasive grains on surface and is determined by the production method used. The direction
of lay with respect to edge of surface. Produced by different manufacturing process are
(a) Parallel (indicated by symbol =) as obtained in shaping process or end view of turn or O.D.
grind
(b) Perpendicular (indicated by symbol ⊥ ) as obtained in end view of shaping, or longitudinal
view of turn and O.D. grind.
(c) Cross or Angular (indicated by symbol X) as obtained in side-wheel grind, and transverse end
mill.
(d) Multidirectional (indicated by symbol M) as obtained in Lapping or super finishing.
(e) Circular relative to centre (indicated by symbol C) as obtained in facing on lathe
(f) Radial, (indicated by symbol R) as obtained in workpiece surfaces ground on, turn table,
fly cut and indexed on a mill.
Representation of surface finish:
As per International symbol the surface finish can be specified as shown in fig. As per IS
3973 (Ra values of surface finish can be specified by triangles as per table given below.
Symbol Ra (µm)
Above 25
8 to 25
1.6 to 8

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0.25 to l6
< 0.025
Measurement of surface finish -
The surface roughness is measured in direction that gives maximum reading (usually across
lay). There are three basic methods of measurement of surface roughness.
(1) By means of a direct reading stylus type instrument.
(2) By tactual comparison
(3) By visual comparison
Measurement by direct reading for this instrument is equipped with a stylus pickup, which
moves across the surface to be measured. The instrument magnifies the vertical movement of
F*13.sl which can either be read from meter or permanently recorded on oscillograph. Actually,
several characteristics can be shown by direct reading, stylus type instruments. Roughness
height and roughness width can both be interpreted as well as waviness height and width.
Measurement by Tactual comparison - It is obvious that it is not feasible to utilize the
above method throughout the plant. So to make this measurement easier economical and quicker
some roughness standards have been developed. These standards are usually developed from
hard phenolic thermosetting plastics or with steels. Each type can be used for both fingernail
tactual and visual comparison. Though tactual method gives satisfactory results its accuracy may
be, questioned in very accurate measurement.
Measurement by visual comparison:
Again, as in previous methods, some standard comparison is necessary; comparisons
using the unaided eye are not considered, as accurate as the tactual method because of
difference in colour, reflection, characteristics, and differences in the material being compared.
However, the stereoscopic comparison microscope can give highly satisfactorily results.
3.6 BASELINES:
In part print analysis it is major task to select areas best qualified for locating the
workpiece in each of the operations performed upon it. A study of degree of relationship
between the various surfaces gives an idea about the baselines. The baseline is the surfaces,
which relates the various surfaces in such a way that the tolerances and tolerances built up can be
adequately controlled. It can be compared with, the datum used in measuring geometry of form.
When dimensions are shown with respect to common baseline or datum; it is possible to achieve
higher degree of control over the workpiece.
Some times part print shows large number of (group) dimensions originating from same
surface. We are naturally directed to select this surface as a baseline. But as can be seen from the
part shown in the fig 3.12 this surface being a cast surface good control over the machining of
other critical surfaces is not achieved resulting in more scrap. A shift of datum (baseline) is

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required not only from dimensional point but from the mechanical stand point. The details of the
processing difficulties of this part will be covered in the topic workpiece control.

A .02

.07 A

Feature Symbol
Flatness Symbol of Geometric Datum
Tolerance
Parallelism
Tol. in mm
Straightness
Squareness
Angularity
Roundness
Concentricity
Symmetry

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3.7 DIRECTION OF SPECIFIC DIMENSION -

The concept of a baseline or to a specific conclusion that the dimensions have specific
directions. The placement of arrowhead at each end of dimensions line only indicated that the
distance between two surfaces is same irrespective of direction of measurement. It does not
indicate which surface is control surface. This knowledge is necessary for proper selection of
surfaces of registry in each operation. When group of surfaces have same surface of registry or
control surface best dimensional control is achievable as first degree relationship exists between
the control surface and the surfaces to be machined. When second or third degree relationship
exists the correct order should be followed in achieving, the dimensions between these surfaces.
3.8 THE SKELETON PART:
If anatomy of the part is studied much of the problems in achieving the workpiece control
can be solved. For this we should understand how the various shapes of the parts could be
developed from planes or lines. For example shapes rectangular in nature can be developed from
or about plane. The circular shapes are developed about an axis or centreline.
For understanding how the particular shape is developed one need to imagine the design
procedure for the part. The study of the function can reveal why a particular shape and size of a
part is developed. For example, if two components are mating with each other, the size of one
component decides size of the other or a size of a link joining two parts is decided by the
dimensions of the parts and the spacing between them.
To develop a part design engineer must establish the relationship between the centerlines
and then built the standard geometrical shapes from them. This is nothing but a skeleton of part
about which the rest of its physiognomy is developed and related. This can be understood from
the analogy of how a human body is developed around a skeleton.
The figure shows skeleton of a part shaft clamp. The entire part can be generated by
cylinders about the various centerlines located at specific distances. In fact, for forgings or
castings, the centerlines physically do not exist and cannot be used for location directly. Rather
location must take from the surface of the workpiece in such a way as to ‘protect’ the position of
theoretical axis as closely as possible is consistent with function and economy. The control of
theoretical centerline posses unique problems when workpiece variation is considered.

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Fig. Development of the part from its axes

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Q.1 “It is more difficult to measure a distance between two hole rather than between two flat
surfaces” Explain.
Q.2 Which system of dimensioning is more preferred and why?
Q.3 What do you mean by geometry of form? Name the various ways of specifying the
geometry of form.
Q.4 Define the terms
(a) Flatness, (b) Parallelism, (c) Straightness, (d) Squareness, (e) Angularity, (f) Roundness, (g)
Concentricity & eccentricity, (i) symmetry.
Q.5 how does the term straightness applies to cylinder? What problems arise in measuring
straightness as it is defined?
Q.6 Explain the relationship between squareness and angularity. Are they ever same? Explain.
Q.7 A cylindrical shaft is specified as round with ±0.20. It must also be concentric to its true
axis within ±0.10. Shows by diagram the maximum and minimum dimensional conditions,
which could exist.
Q.8 If a cylindrical workpiece is specified with a size tolerance of ±0.25 and roundness within
0.06 show by diagram the maximum and minimum dimensional conditions, which could exist.
Q.9 Distinguish between concentricity and eccentricity.
Q.10 What is meant big surface quality?
Q.11 What is meant by surface finish? How is it represented on part print?
Q.12 What are baselines?
Q.13 What is meant by “Dimensional with direction”?
Q.14 What is meant by skeleton part?

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CHAPTER 4
TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Mass production uses concept of interchangeability. That is even if the mating part are
produced at different machines they should be assembled without reworking or hand fitting.
However, two parts can never be produced exactly alike even under most closely controlled
conditions. As long as man can measure the differences some variations from workpiece, to
workpiece, will always be found. This condition is called workpiece variations.
Thus, to take advantages of interchangeability the inevitable variations in the parts must
be controlled within certain limits or the limitations be placed on the amount of inaccuracies that
can be tolerated (i.e. tolerances).
Although the design engineer is primarily responsible for selection of limits and
tolerances that appear on part print and to develop a functional part, the process engineer is
primarily responsible to select proper process and establish necessary controls to meet these
specifications economically. The process engineer has to think about the economic way of
production of these parts and for this knowledge of the various terms associated with analysis of
tolerance is necessarily required to be studied. This chapter covers the causes of workpiece
variations; various terms associated with workpiece dimensioning, tolerance and limits stacks &
cost aspect of tolerance selection.
4.2 CAUSES OF WORKPIECE VARIATIONS:
The workpiece variation can be there due to one or combination of the following causes –
(i) The machines, which perform the operations on workpiece, may have inherent
inaccuracies built into them. This is because the machines too are made up from the assembled
parts, which also have been produced within some tolerable inaccuracies but to a lesser degree
than the parts produced on these machines.
(ii) The tools used on these machines are subject to wear in due course of cutting or change
in shape caused due to resharpening after wear.
(iii) The materials used in the process are subject to variations. A sand casting, for example
may vary in composition or shape from piece to piece or batch to bath. Presence of hard
constituent, in these castings can cause excessive tool wear or breakage and affect the surface
finish. Similarly, the changes in material specifications frequently influence properties like
machinability or drawability etc.

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(iv) The human element contributes greatly to workpiece variation. The errors in reading
machine settings, or inability of the operator to make perfect settings are main cause of variations
due to human element.
(v) The chance causes i.e. the causes that occur but cannot be definitely identified as one of
the above causes, may also cause workpiece variation.
4.3 TERMS USED IN DETERMINING WORKPIECE DIMENSIONS:
To properly control dimensional variation adequately, it is first necessary that process
engineer should understand the various terms associated with it.
[1] Dimension:
A linear or angular size specification shown by means of numerals and arrows indicating
extremities. The linear dimensions are usually given in millimeters and angular in degrees.
Fig 4.1 An example of dimension.
FIG.4.1 AN EXAMPLE OF DIMENSION

2.5

[2] Limits:
Limits are extreme permissible dimensions of a part. Limits are expressed as decimals
showing the maximum and minimum size of dimensions. Maximum limit is placed above the
dimension line and minimum limit below the dimension line for external dimensions. Whereas
the minimum limit is placed above the dimension line and maximum below the dimension line
for internal dimensions (fig 4.2)
FIG. 4.2 EXAMPLE OF LIMITS

20.35
20 25

20.25
20 35

[3] Nominal size:

It is that designation that applies primarily for general identification. It has no specified
limits of accuracy but indicates a close approximation to some standard size. For example, a
standard 10 φ bolt will fit into a 10 φ hold easily.

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[4] Basic size:

In contrast to nominal size, the basic size represents the exact theoretical size from which
limits are established through the applications of allowances and tolerances. The basic size is the
size of a part would be made if there were no variations in production.
[5] Allowance:
An allowance is an intentional difference between maximum material limits of mating
parts. A positive allowance gives the minimum acceptable clearance between mating parts i.e.
clearance fit. Whereas a negative allowance specifies maximum interference that can be
tolerated between mating parts i.e. press fit or interference fit.
[6] Tolerance:
A total permissible variation from specified basic size of the part. The value of the
tolerance is specified in decimals as ± value. The tolerances can be unilateral i.e. showing
deviation either on higher side or lower side with the deviation on other side as zero or bilateral
with equal tolerance on both side or unequal tolerances on both sides (fig.4.3)
FIG 4.3 UNILATERAL & BILATERAL TOLERANCES
+.00
50.2 −.05 50.0 ± .05

Equal Bilateral
+.05 +.05
50.2 −.00 50.0 −.03

Unequal Bilateral

Unilateral Tolerance Bilateral Tolerance

4.4 TOLERANCE STACKS:
A tolerance stack occurs where accepted tolerances on individual dimensions combine to
produce acceptable or an unacceptable variation in overall dimensional relationship.
When extreme accepted, tolerances on individual dimensions combine to produce an
unacceptable variation in overall dimension it is called a limit stack.
Fig.4.4 indicate several possibilities. Cubes are machined to 10 ± 0.10mm. If two cubes are
stacked it is desired that the combined height should be 20 ± 0.1mm. It can be seen immediately
that if the tolerances of the two cubes are to stack and remain within ± 0.2mm then full use of
blue print tolerances cannot be permitted.
The condition at (a) and (b) shows limit tolerance stacks. Here the extreme acceptable
dimensions and cubes combine and add up to 20.20 and 19.8 mm respectively. These are not

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acceptable due to oversized and undersized overall dimension. Whereas in fig 4.4(c) the
individual dimensions added up to give a acceptable overall dimension and in fig 4.4(d) the
individual overall dimensions added up to give unacceptable overall dimension. These are
examples of tolerance stacks. Many other such combinations are possible.
a) NOT ACCEPTABLE (OVERSIZED) b) NOT ACCEPTABLE (UNDERSIZED)

FIG 4.4 TOLERANCE STACK AND LIMIT STACKS.

Although in some case it can be shown that the probabilities of extreme tolerances
combining in same directions are rare, it is common the overall tolerance stacks. There are many
causes of tolerance stack and most of them can be traced to
[1] The product design
[2] The methods of processing and gauging;
[3] Or combination of both.
Because some variation cannot be avoided, tolerance stacking will always continue to be
problem requiring careful control. Accordingly unacceptable tolerance stacks always requires
(i) Holding the workpiece to closer tolerances than called for on the part print.
(ii) Thus requiring additional operations.
(iii) More accurate tooling and
(iv) Greater skill
(v) Excessive scrap
And hence the inevitable increase in the manufacturing cost. The compromise between
tightening tolerance and hence going for interchangeability and not tightening the tolerance and
going for selective assembly, has to be done if the product is to be both functionally and if
economically produced.
4.5 TYPES OF TOLERANCE STACKS:

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The tolerance stacks can be divided into two main categories mainly –
[1] Design tolerance stacks – created by the product designer and found on the part print;
[2] Process tolerance stacks created by improper process planning.
When a design tolerance stack occurs, it should be eliminated as far as possible because it
may affect measurability the functioning the part or assembly e.g. the connecting rod, crankshaft
and cylinder block assembly. If the piston height centre-to-centre distances between connecting
rod holes are on higher side and cylinder block height is on lower side the compression ratio of
the assembly changes significantly (as seen from fig.4.5)
The design tolerance stacks can also be found in individual parts besides the assembly but
in this case use of correct dimensioning system viz baseline dimensioning system can solve this
problem. This can be illustrated from the following example shown in fig 4.5.

Fig 4.5 Diagram of compressor showing the effect of product tolerance stacking on volume
of compression chamber
The part shown in fig 4.5 illustrates a common problem. Suppose the tolerances on all
dimensions not specified on the part print must be held to ± 0.10mm as indicated in the drawing
notations. The dimension x should not exceed to ± 0.25mm. However, it can be seen that X
can have maximum variation of ± 0.20mm. If this dimensioning system is retained the
tolerances an all dimensions must be tightened to ± 0.25mm, if dimension X is not to exceed ±
0.10mm. This problem can be solved by using the baseline dimensioning system shown below
where surface A is treated as baseline and all the dimensions are shown w.r.t. This surface. The
tolerance dimension ‘X’ can thus be maintained with ± 0.010 mm as specified in the drawing
notations.

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200 ±. 05

50 ±. 05 50 ±. 05 50 ±. 05 x

A B C D

50 ±.05
100 ±.05
150 ±.05
200 ±.05

FIG.4.6 DESIGN TOLERANCE STACKS

Now it is the product designer who has created this design tolerance stacks the process
engineer may not be held accountable for their existence although he may be held responsible at
various stages of manufacture for their control. His job is to produce part print specifications.
However it would be foolish to say that his responsibility ends, if he has done to his part in
meeting the objectives of the enterprise. As a part of his function stated in preliminary part print
analysis he is supposed to analyze the part and find out what is wanted. Therefore, process
engineer has responsibility of getting all facts straight before he decides on the process or any
sequence of operations. If any troublesome design tolerance stack exists, or if the information on
the part print is incomplete in any way he should consult not second-guess – the individual
responsible for design. For him to do otherwise is to imply that he is willing to accept, the total
responsibility of mistakes growing out of design tolerance stacks, in the manufacturing process.
A process tolerance stack is a result of improper processing. It occurs when the basic
principle of process planning are not observed. The result is that a faulty part may be produced
even though no tolerance stack condition is apparent from part print. When such process
tolerance stack exists, the reason for its existence has to be found out. This stack can be
eliminated by changing the process sequence.
Two methods of producing a part are shown in fig 4.7. Let up examine both these
methods. The operations, the dimensions with tolerance to be achieved in that operation, the
stock removal amount and the tolerance on the stock removal, in each operation, the locating
surface and surface to be machined are given in a tabular form. Table 4.1.

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25 ±.03
50 ±.06
B

C
FIG 4.7 SKETCH OF PART TO BE MANUFACTURED
Table No.4.1 R.M. dia 51.5+0.1
METHOD-I
Stop Operation Locating Surface to be Dimension to be Stock
surface Machined Achieved Removal
1 Machine ‘A’ A C AC=50.45±10.06 0.75±.36
2 Machine ‘B’ A B AB=25.75±0.03 .25.75± .01
3 Machine ‘A’ C A AC=50.0±0.06 0.75±.12

METHOD-II
1 Machine ‘C’ A C 50.75± .06 0.75± .36
2 Machine ‘A’ C A 50.0±0.06 0.75±.12
3 Machine ‘B’ A B 25.0±0.03 25.0± .03

In method I, the resultant dimension AB is obtained as 25.0 ± 0.15 mm i.e. dimension AB

– S.R. surface A = Resultant dim AB i.e.25.75 ± 0.03 – 0.75 ± 0.12 = 25.0 ± 0.15 mm
Thus, this dimension is not produced to part print tolerance. If step 2 & 3 are
interchanged as shown in Method-II, then the stacking of tolerance is avoided and the dimension
AB is produced to desired size i.e. 25 ± 0.03mm.
The same result could have been achieved by tightening the tolerances in method I which
would have added to excess scrap and hence added cost.
4.6 COST OF ARBITRARY SELECTION OF TOLERANCES:
Usually the tolerances are decided by the product designer for a particular design. He
decides the functional tolerances on the part mainly on (I) knowledge of assembly requirements,
(ii) field reports, and (iii) laboratory testing. But some time it is necessary to select the
tolerances arbitrarily as insufficient information is available with the designer. In such cases the
designer may tend to stay on safe side and select his tolerances much closer than essential for
proper functioning of the product: thus increasing its cost.
Selection of too close tolerances than needed has few drawbacks.

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(i) Too close tolerances may cause difficulty in inspection with available simple gauges.
(ii) Permits freedom of interpretation of tolerances liberally by the manufacturing people
under the pressure to produce large quantities.
(iii) Such apparent lack of co-ordination between inspection and manufacturing people
results in great deal of waste in industry through scrap and rework.
(iv) The producing capability of a machine may exceed the part print tolerance again
resulting in scrap and rework.

Fig.4.8
Fig 4.8 shows distribution curve showing the producing capability of machine.
Thus when the tolerances are required to be selected arbitrarily the product designer
should have full knowledge of the machine capability. This can avoid the excess cost arising due
to scrap and rework caused by selecting part print tolerance closer than the producing accuracy
of the machine. The process engineer can avoid the lack of co-ordination between the
manufacturing, inspection and design people in an industry.
The effect of part print tolerance on the cost of manufacturing when the producing
capability of machine is known can be seen from fig 4.9. It can be seen that if the part print
tolerance is made closer the cost rapidly increases.

Total Unit Manufacturing Cost

Unit Production Cost

Part Print Tolerance

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FIG. 4.9 EFFECT OF PART PRINT TOLERANCE ON COST OF MANUFACTURING

The cost of maintains unnecessarily close tolerances can be very high. Thus if process
engineer is to do his part in keeping the cost of manufacturing under control he must remain alert
for those part print tolerances which may have been established arbitrarily.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q.1 Define the following terms
(a) Dimension (b) limit, (c) Nominal size, (d) basic size, (e) Allowance, (f) Tolerance
Q.2 What are the causes of workpiece variation?
Q.3 What are unilateral and bilateral tolerances?
Q.4 What are the tolerance stacks and limit stacks?
Q.5 What are the different categories of tolerance stacks?
Q.6 Illustrate with an example how process tolerance stacks can be eliminated?
Q.7 What is selective assembly and inter-changeability?
Q.8 Why producing accuracy of the process must be known before the selection of
Arbitrary tolerances?
Q.9 How are the tolerances normally selected? What problems may arise in arbitrary?
Selection of tolerances?
Q.10 Whether the process engineer is responsible for any incomplete information on
Part print?

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CHAPTER - 5
TOLERANCE CHART
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The tolerance chart is a graphical method of representing (i) the manufacturing
dimensions of a workpiece or assembly (ii) the tolerances held on these dimensions, (iii) the
amount of stock to be remove in case of cutting operations, (iv) the intermediate and the final
resultant dimension, (v) the locating surface and the surface to be processed at all stages of
manufacture.
The primary purpose of tolerance chart is to aid in reducing manufacturing cost by
achieving the balance of the tolerances held on the manufacturing dimension. Although most
tolerance charts have been used for studying the dimensional problems on individual parts, they
are equally useful in processing assemblies in many cases.
5.2 PURPOSE OF TOLERANCE CHART
Though the primary purpose of tolerance chart is reduction of manufacturing cost. It
serves many functions as under
(1) Guarantee of part manufacture: The tolerance chart tells the process engineer whether or not
the part can be produced to part print tolerances. It prevents the costly scrap by informing about
part production difficulty if any.
(2) Manufacturing sequence planning: It aids in developing the proper manufacturing sequence.
It can remove process tolerance stack if it exist thereby choosing proper manufacturing sequence.
(3) Means of establishment of proper working tolerances - It helps in establishing the proper
working tolerances for each operation.
(4) Assurance of sufficient stock removals - It provides assurance that sufficient stock removal
will always be available for each operation in the sequence. If sufficient stock removal is not
available, the tolerance chart will disclose the condition.
(5) Product design change - It can offer some alternate method of dimensioning for economy of
manufacture. This is only possible in consultation with the product designer.
(6) Practicability of combined tooling - It helps to find the practicability of combined tooling -
such as form tools - or combination of working and inspection gauges.
(7) Elimination of guesswork in case of complex parts - It provides means of reducing
dimensional errors, which are likely to occur if complex parts are processed without use of
tolerance charts. In short tolerance charts eliminate guesswork.
(8) Aid for determining raw material sizes - It helps in determining proper raw material sizes.
The proper casting and forging allowances can be determined.

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(9) Aid for development of process routings - Together with process picture sheet, the tolerance
chart provides an invaluable aid in development of complete and accurate process routing.
(10) Scrap control - It helps in reducing the percentage of scrap by properly balancing the
tolerances.
FIG.5.1 WORKING DIMENSION

SURFACE TO
BE MACHINED

LOCATING SURFACE

5.3 DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS:

The definition of various terms, their symbols and certain norms used in preparing
tolerance chart are explained below
(1) Working dimension: (w.d.)
It is the distance between a locating surface and a surface being processed. The symbol
for the working dimension is shown in fig 5.1. The circled dot denotes the locating surface or
the centreline. The arrow heat denotes the surface to be processed or machined.
(2) Stock removal (S.R.)
It is the difference between the dimension that existed prior to machining and machining
dimension. Its primary purpose is to assure that stock is available for operation all times. Stock
removal = working dimension of operation-working dimension of current operation.
S.R.cur. = W.D.pre - W.d.cur
In preparation of tolerance chart the stock removal is assigned in reverse order i.e.
starting from last to first. This reverse sequence is recommended so that S.R. is assured even to
the last i.e. finishing operation. (As the finishing operations need least S.R.) When several
operations are performed on a given surface, the practice is to allow no more stock than the
required for the last operation.
20 ± .05

20 ±.08 20 ±.08
A B C A B
20 ±.05
C

50 ±.1 D

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a) Distance between b) Algebraic sums of known Dimensions

Undimensioned Surface

c) Final Part Print Dimension d) Representation of resultant dimension

FIG.5.2
(3) Resultant Dimension / Balance dimension ( r.d.)
It is a dimension, which may or may not be given on the part print. It is the distance
between the undimensioned surfaces on the part print (fig 5.2a). It can also be algebraic sum of
few known dimensions (fig.5.2b). The final part print dimension also can be called the resultant
dimension (fig 5.3(c))

50.02

New Basic
50.0 Size
Base size

Unequal Bilateral Tolerance Equal Bilateral Tolerance

FIG 5.3
The resultant dimension achieved as above in some operation may change due to stock
removal. Such dimension which change in further operations due to stock removal is called
intermediates resultant. The resultant dimension between two surfaces, centerlines or centerlines
and machined surface is represented by symbol as shown in (fig.5.3d)
4. Rule for adding and subtracting dimensions
When adding & subtracting dimensions, the tolerance accumulation must be considered.
The basic rule is that whether the basic dimensions are added or subtracted, their tolerances must

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be added. This can be illustrated from fig 5.2(a) and 5.2(b). In fig.5.2 (a) the dimension AB is
obtained by subtracting BC from AC. Whereas in fig 5.2(b) the dimension AD is obtained by
adding AB, BC & CD but in both cases the tolerance on the obtained resultant dimension are
sum of the tolerances of the dimensions considered for obtaining this dimension.
AC i.e. 50.00 ± 0.10
BC -20.00 ± 0.05
Therefore d; AB will be 30.00 ± 0.15
In fig 5.3 b
AB i.e 20.00 ± 0.05
+BC 20.00 ± 0.05
+CD i.e. 20.00 ± 0.05
Therefore AB will be 60.00 ± 0.15
5. Working dimension tolerance:
This is the tolerance on the working dimensions to be achieved in each operation. These
tolerances are allotted to each operation by the process engineer. He assigns these values from
the machining data books, from his knowledge about the accuracies that can be achieved with the
machines available in his organization. For example roughing tolerance grades IT11 can be
achieved in rough turning whereas for milling fine turning, grinding tolerance grade of IT 10.IT7
& IT5 are achievable respectively. It is the responsibility of the process engineer that the values
of the tolerance assigned to the working dimension are achievable on the machines specified to
reduce scrap rework cost.
6. Stock removal tolerance or total tolerance -
The stock removal tolerance is the total variation from the basic stock removal
dimension. Which can result from the operation performed. Though the S.R. is obtained by
taking difference between the consecutive w.d, the tolerance on S.R. is obtained by adding the
tolerances on these dimensions (as per rule for addition/subtraction of dimensions)
FIG 5.3
7. Tolerance conversion -
For the purpose of tolerance chart tolerances on the dimensions are required to be equal
bilateral. Hence, if at all the part print shows unequal bilateral tolerance or unilateral tolerance,
it is required to be converted into equal bilateral tolerance by changing basic size and value of
equal bilateral tolerance as under
New basic size for equal bilateral tolerance = old basic size ± adjustment amount
upper tol. lower tol.
Equal bilateral tolerance =
2
Adjustment amount = upper tolerance - equal bilateral tolerance

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e.g.(1) 50± 08
04 is unequal bilateral tolerance with basic size 50.00 upper tolerance + 0.08 and

lower tolerance - 0.04

.08 + .04
∴Equal bilateral tolerance = = .0.06
2
∴Adjustment amount = 0.08 - 0.06 = 0.02

∴New basic size = 50,00 + 0.02 = 50.02

∴New dimension with equal bilateral tolerance is 50.02 ± 0.06
e.g. (ii) If 50 ± 00
08 is an unilateral tolerance with basic size 50.00 upper tolerance + 0.0 and

lower tolerance - 0.08

0.0 + - 0.08
∴Equal bilateral tolerance = = 0.04
2

∴Adjustment amount = 0.0 - 0.04 = -0.04

∴New basic size = 50.00 + 0.04 = 49.96
∴New equal bilateral dimension with tolerance will be 49.96 ± 0.04
The tolerance can also be converted by using a standard tolerance conversion chart.
8. Indexing surfaces:
For the purpose of tolerance chart the surfaces considered are always indexed from left to
right as 1, 2, 3 etc. or A, B, C etc. These index numbers in combination help to identify the
dimension in consideration. For example index no 1 - 3 relates to dimension between surface 1
& 3 or 3 & 1. To facilitate the identification of the surfaces involved in any operation such index
numbers are mentioned in index table of tolerance chart to indicate part print dimensions and in
front of each operation corresponding to the various working dimensions.
5.4 PROCEDURE FOR DEVELOPING THE TOLERANCE CHART.
The various steps involved in making tolerance chart are under -
[1] Select the view of the part involving the various dimensions, which are to be considered for
preparing tolerance chart.
[2] Draw this view at the top centre of the page/sheet to be used for developing tolerance chart
and index the surfaces to be processed as 1.2 etc. from left to right and draw vertical lines
starting from each surfaces.
[3] Layout the tolerance chart heading like operation No., operation description and machine
used, index no. Working dimension and tolerance on the left of the vertical line resultant
dimension and tolerance, stock removal dimension and tolerance on the right hand side of
vertical lines or use standardized tolerance chart form for this purpose.

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[4] Convert unilateral and unequal bilateral tolerances on part print dimensions (if any) to the
equal bilateral tolerances and correctly enter the values of these dimensions with tolerances in
the index table in front of the respective index numbers provided at the top of tolerance chart.
[5] Prepare a tentative list of operations required for manufacturing the part and arrange them in
proper sequence. Draw the horizontal lines for each operation keeping sufficient spacing for
writing, the operation description and machine used.
[6] Write the operation description and the machine used; in proper sequence in this chart.
Assign the operation numbers in first column as 10 for first operation, 20 for second and so on.
[7] For each operation write down the index numbers after finding out the surfaces to be
processed and the locating surface.
[8] Draw the horizontal line corresponding to surface in each index number indicating the
locating surface by a dot and the surface to be processed by an arrow.
[9] List out the intermediate resultants or this line corresponds to each working dimension, final
resultant produced in the manufacturing process. Write its index number and draw the lines
connecting the surfaces involved. Also draw two dots at end of these lines to differentiate them
from the working dimensions.
[10] Assign values of the tolerance on working dimensions from standard process data and past
experience.
[11] Assign stock removal dimension for last operation first, the next to last second, and so on
back to the first operation. When several operations are performed on surface no more stock
than is required should be provided for last operation.
[12] Calculate the stock tolerances considering the working dimensions involved. Though actual
working dimension are not yet known, the assigned tolerances on these dimensions are added to
get the S.R. tolerance. The S.R. tolerance is calculated serially for each operation e.g. S.R.
Tolerance for first operation is sum of tolerance of raw material dimension and tolerance on
working dimension of 1st operation similarly the S.R. tolerance on second operation will be sum
of tolerance on previous w.d. and current w.d.
(1) The working tolerance for the rotary surface girder is assumed as 0.01 for facing operation as
0.05, for for milling as 0.05. These values are filled at proper places in tolerance chart.
(2) The rough dimension on facing width 52.00 ± .35 thus ∴The total stock removal = 52.0 -
50.0 = 2.0mm. Hence stock removal per side = 2.0/2 - 1.0mm. Out of this 0.2mm is keep for
grinding and 0.8mm for facing on turret lathe. These values are filled at respective places in the
S.R. dimension column from bottom upwards.
The slot depth is specified as 10.0mm, but as after making this slot 0.2mm stock will be
removed in grinding operation. Hence stock removal for the operation 30 index 2-3 is taken as
10.2mm to account for final grinding.

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(3) The stock removal tolerances are assigned from top downward for operation 10 the
rough width tolerance is ± .35 and working dimension tolerance is ± .05. The stock removal
tolerance are obtained by adding these tolerances i.e. 0.40 for operation .20 index 1-3 S.R.T. will
be sum of Tolerance on w.d.10 and w.d.20 i.e. 05 ÷ 05 = 0.10. Similarly S.R. Tolerance on
OP40=Tolerance on w.d. 30 + Tolerance on w.d. 40 = .05 +.01=.06
S.R. Tolerance on OP 50 = Tolerance on w.d.40 + tolerance on w.d. 50 = 0.01-0.01=0.02
(4) The working dimensions are assigned from bottom upwards. The
w.d. Op.50 = part print dimension -.i.e. 50.0
w.d. Op.40 = w.d. 50 + S.R. operation 50 = 50.0+0.2 = 50.2
w.d. Op 20 = w.d.40 + S.R. operation 50 = 50.2+0.2 = 50.4
similarly w.d. op 10 = w.d.20 + S.R. 20 = 50.4 --0.8=51.2
To cross check above calculations the raw material dimension must be equal to w.d. op
10+S.R.10 i.e.52, which is same as raw material dimensions mentioned in part print.
(5) Now the resultant dimensions and tolerance are assigned from bottom upwards. The final
resultant i.e. the resultan tin the last operation is naturally same as that of the w.d. and tolerance
of last operation, hence the same value is assigned to Resultant dimension index 1-3 op 50.
Similarly the r.d. op 40 = p.p. dim index 1-2 i.e. 10.0 intermediate r.d. op 30 index 1.2 =
r.d.op 40 + S.R. op. 30
= 10.2 + 0.2 = 10.2 mm
The tolerances are calculated from top downwards by considering the w.d.d involved
Tolerance on S.R. d. op 30 = w.d. w.d.t.20 + w.d.t. op. 30
= 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.10
Tolerance on Rd.op 40 = w.d.t. 30 + w.d.t.400 = 0.05 + 0.01 = 0.06
Tolerance on r.d. 50 = w.d.T.op. 50
(6) The tolerance chart is now balanced for tolerance on r.d. op.50 as it most closely
matches with the part print tolerance.
(1) The r.d.t. 50 most closely matches with p.p. tolerance i.e. the by 0.01 so this value is
added to all w.d.tolerance all from bottom upward.
(2) the S.R.T. are recalculated from top downwards.
(3) The r.d.t. are then changed from top downwards.
(13) Assign values of the working dimensions starting from last operation i.e.in reverse
sequence by using the s.f. dimension for that operation. The value of working dimension for last
operation will naturally be equal to the finished part print dimension. The value of w.d. of last
but one will be calculated by subtracting or adding depending on the S.R. for that operation from
or to the last operation whether the dimension increases or decreases.
Thus w.d.cur = w.d.next + S.R.xt

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(14) Calculate the values of resultant dimensions and tolerances starting from bottom upward.
The resultant dimension and tolerance for final operation will usually be same as that of the
working dimension and tolerances calculation for the other resultant dimension the working
dimensions and the tolerances involved in the corresponding operation on the same index
numbers are considered.
The values of the resultant dimension are first calculated from bottom upwards from p.p.
dimensions and S.R. in the corresponding operations.
The final resultant dimensions are naturally same as that of part print dimensions. The
intermediate resultant is calculated by adding the S.R. of the next operation in which the final
resultant is obtained.
(15) Balance tolerance chart is by following the steps given below.
(a) Select the resultant dimension whose tolerance closely matches with the part print tolerance
change this value equal to the part print tolerance.
(b) Make necessary changes by adding this correction tolerance value to all tolerance on working
dimensions of all
(c) Make necessary changes in S.R. Tolerance worktop downward.
(d) Make changes in r.d.t. Work top downwards.

Fig. 5.4 TOLERANCE CHART FOR COMPONENT

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CHAPTER 6
WORKPIECE CONTROL
6.1 INTRODUCTION:
The workpiece is a partially completed part, or it is a piece of material to be processed to
manufacture the part as per part print specifications. The planned process must be such that the
part is produced as per the specifications and tolerances, provided by the product designer on the
part print. The consistency with which all workpieces are positioned in relation to tool despite
all variables is called workpiece control. To maintain part print tolerances, the workpiece must
be correctly positioned in definite relationship to tool during manufacturing. The tool is
mounted on the machine and hence the workpiece must also be positioned relative to machine.
Exact positioning of the workpiece at the same spot is not nearly impossible but uneconomical.
Too many variable exist and hence we must permit tolerance on the workpiece positioning. The
dimensional variation of workpiece is directly related to variation in workpiece position. The
variables like dirt, wear, workpiece mutilations, human element, environment and chance cause
are other causes of workpiece variations. Thus, despite all the variables how well the process
engineer limits variation in workpiece positioning is referred to as workpiece control. Let us
examine some more facts about workpiece control.
(1)The workpiece control deals on only with dimensions to be obtained by the process in question.
(2) It does not affect the dimensions created by tool contour or size.
(3) It does not affect dimension produced by previous processes such as casting, forging, rolling etc.
(4) Though it is primarily concerned with the workpiece positioning other objectives such as
restricting deflection of workpiece due to tool or holding forces, or holding desired position
despite operator skill and applied forces must also be achieved. In nutshell the workpiece control
can be defined as
(i) consistent positioning of workpiece in relation to tool despite all variable.
(ii) Holding the desired position of workpiece against tool forces.
(iii) Restricting deflection of workpiece due to tool and holding forces or the weakness of
the workpiece.
Workpiece control can be accomplished with careful tool designing despite these
variables. In this chapter we will deal with the workpiece control techniques used by the process
engineer in creating a process plan. Several theories and techniques used by the process engineer
to maintain workpiece control as under
(1) Equilibrium theory, (2) Concept theory, (3) Geometric control, (4) Dimensional
control, (5) Mechanical control, (6) Alternate location theory.

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6.2 EQUILIBRIUM THEORY:

To achieve the objectives of workpiece control, a state of equilibrium must exist i.e. a
balance of forces applied to an object must be obtained. The object is at rest when in
equilibrium. The object can be assumed as a free body and both linear and rotational equilibrium
must exist.
Fig 6.1 (a) & (b) shows how a state of rotational equilibrium can be applied. To move a
free body linearly the applied force was positioned on centre. If the applied force is offset the
free body will have a rotating tendency due to presence of moment equal to force multiplied by
moment arm. This moment can be counteracted by applying the equal and opposite moment i.e.
Applied force x moment arm = Balancing force x moment arm

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From fig 6.1 (b) A x B =CxD

Thus, equal and opposite moment completely counter act each other & a state of
rotational equilibrium exists.

Applied equilibrium theory -

The state of linear and rotational equilibrium obtained by the process engineer by
placement of holding forces and locators' fig.6.1 (c) and 6.2 (a) show how equilibrium is
obtained in equilibrium holder. The applied force is now called holding force provided by some
clamping device designed by tool designer. The equal and opposite force or moment is provided
by stationary locator.
6.3 CONCEPT OF LOCATION:
As the process engineer is responsible for placement of locators in a work piece holder,
he must have through knowledge of location system. The basic location system used for work
piece control is derived from the previously discussed equilibrium theory. The process engineer
achievers equilibrium through placement of holding forces and locators. In this discussion we
will see how a process engineer achieves equilibrium through placement of locators. The use of
holding forces is discussed later on separately.
For simplifying the concept of locator a workpiece is assumed as a cube. The study of
this object can be further simplified by considering the movement of these objects along the
three axes or centerlines. The linear and rotational movements of this object can be describe in
reference to these three axes or centerlines. Fig 6.3 shows a cube in space with three axes.

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This cube can have linear

movements in both directions (either to the
right or left) along each axis, and rotational
movement in both directions ( i.e. clockwise
or anticlockwise) about each axis. Thus,
there can be movement of the cube in twelve
directions. These twelve movements can
also be called the degrees of freedom. It can
be seen from study of equilibrium, that the
locator stops movement in one direction
only. The holding force stops movement in
opposite direction. A location system must
stop movement in six directions of six
movements and the holding force must stop
movements in the opposite six directions of
six movements.

Fig. 6.3 Movements in space For example, if a locator stops linear

movement to the left of on axis x-x, then the holding force must stop the movement to the right.
If a locator stops anticlockwise rotation about axis x-x, then the holding force must stop
clockwise rotation.
Thus, concept can now be applied to 3-2-1 location systems in which 3.2 and 1 locators
are placed in specific pattern on the three mutually perpendicular sizes of the cube.
If the location system is developed one locator at a time the movement stopped by that
locator can be tabulated as under
Locator Linear movement Rotational movement
along axis about axis
1 y-y -
2 - z-z
3 - x-x
4 x-x -
5 - y-y
6 z-z -
from this table and fig 6.4 it can be seen that each locator is stopping only one movement in one
direction. Any additional locator than six on a cube means excess location.

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6.4 Six locator no cube

If seventh locator is placed on the bottom face as in fig.6.5, assuming that surface is flat,
the it can not contact all the four locators at a time as only three points determine a plane.
Further, it is impossible with the present technology to build all four locators with equal heights.
On application of holding force the workpiece will contact any three locators out of 1,3,3 and 7.
As different sets of three locators, are contacted front cube to cube, a rocking condition exists. In
other different sets of three locators are contacted from cube, a rocking condition exists. In other
words slight rotation about any axis x-x or z-z exists from cube to cube. Thus four points of
location on one surface allows a workpiece to be clamped on slightly different plane. This
variation may or may not be enough to throw a dimension out of tolerance. The point is why to
spend money to provide extra locators, which will cause variation in workpiece positions? The
variation in workpiece position means poor workpiece control.

Fig 6.6 Excess location on a surface

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Suppose the locator 7 is placed opposite to locator 6 as shown in fig 6.6. In this case
locator 7 attempts to constrain outward linear movement along axis z-z, which is otherwise a job
of holding force. Further to allow for the size variation of cube sufficient space has to be placed
between the locators 6 & 7. Thus the workpieces may either contact locator 6 or 7 thus changing
workpiece position and hence causing poor workpiece control. Here also workpiece dimension
produced may or may not go beyond tolerance. Such system achieving limited workpiece
control through opposite locator is often used for reducing tooling costs or in components where
use of holding force is not possible. In all instances where excess location is used for any
purpose like reduction of tool cost, to achieve holding of workpiece, the workpiece control is not
at an optimum level.

6.4 GEOMETRIC CONTROL:

The workpiece control is composed of (i) Geometric control relating to stability of
workpiece (ii) Dimensional control relating maintenance of physical dimension as per part print
specifications. (iii) Mechanical control relating to the proper application of forces on workpiece.
Thus, geometric control may be defined as that part of workpiece control relating to
stability of workpiece. If the workpiece is unstable when placed on locators, it tends to lift or
rock away from one or more locators. The holding force may clamp workpiece without full
contact against all locators. An unstable workpiece in location system may be caused by:
(i) Too close placement of locators (ii) A top-heavy workpiece, (iii) Poor placement of
holding force. (iv) Insufficient number of locators.
Thus, good geometrical control can be achieved by widely distributing the locators on
broader base of workpiece. The good geometrical control if achieved has many advantages as
under

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(i) Automatic resting of workpiece: The workpiece will automatically come to rest
against locators despite operator skill and effort.
(2) Reduced workpiece shift tendency: The workpiece will have less tendency to shift
away from locators due to holding forces or tool forces.
(3) Reduced effect on workpiece position. The dirt, chip particles, or surface
irregularities cause less variation in workpiece position if the locators are widespread (fig.6.7)

Fig. 6.7 Wear versus locator spacing

The techniques of obtaining geometric control on standard workpiece shapes by the 3-2-1
locations are now described below.
(A) Rectangular shapes -
Good geometric control can be achieved in rectangular workpieces by placing locators as
shown in fig 6.8 as per the following rules.
(i) Place three locators on one of the largest surfaces to determine the plane
Of workpiece position.
(ii) Place two locators on one of the second largest surfaces, generally an edge.
(iii) Place one locator on the smallest surface, generally an end.
(1) Place four locators on cylindrical surface in a pattern having two locators
Near each end.

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(2) Place one locator on flat end.

(3) Use friction to prevent rotation about the centre when necessary.
Thus rotation about x-x has to be stopped by friction.

Fig. 6.8 Poor geometric control of a rectangular shape

By selecting such arrangement good geometric control and stability has been accomplished. The
centre of gravity is low and close to the three locators. The workpiece is not top heavy in the
location system.

Fig. 6.9 Good geometric control of a short cylinder

If improper location system is followed as shown in fig 6.9. The workpiece shape now
becomes top-heavy due to centre of gravity shifting higher from the three locators. The
workpiece will tend to rock primarily on three locators as sketched. More holding force and
operator skill will be required to insure full locator contact.
(B) Cylindrical shapes -
The cylindrical workpiece shape required different analysis of location. Depending on
whether the cylindrical workpiece is short cylinder (i.e. ratio of diameter to height of cylinder is
greater than ten) or a long cylinder (i.e. the ratio D/H<10) the placement of locators has to be

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decided. Unlike the rectangular workpiece shape here only five locators are sufficient and the
job of sixth locator to stop the rotation about its own axis is done by friction created by holding
forces. The general rule is that the largest out of the flat bases or the cylindrical lateral surfaces
has to be selected for the placement of three or more locators.
For short cylindrical workpieces following rules should be followed (fig.6.9)
(1) Place three locators on one of the flat ends to determine a plane.
(2) Place two locators on circular edge.
(3) Use friction to prevent rotation.

Fig 6.10

Fig. 6.11 One locator on a long cylinder

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Thus, by this system good geometric control and stability is achieved. The center of gravity of
workpiece is low i.e. near to the three locators deciding the plane.
For long cylindrical workpiece step by step movements stopped by each locator are
tabulated below
Locator Linear movement Rotational movement
along axis about axis
1 y-y -
2 - Z-Z
3 Z-Z -
4 - y-y
5 x-x -
For long cylindrical workpieces following rules should be followed fig.6.10
(1) Place four locators on cylindrical surface in a pattern having two locators near each end...
(2) Place one locator on flat end.
(3) Use friction to prevent rotation about the centre when necessary. Thus rotation about x-x has
to be stopped by friction.

Fig. 6.12

Fig. 6.13 Locators in holes of

short workpiece

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Fig. 6.11 shows location system for locating from internal cylindrical surfaces Fig.6.12
and fig 6.13 shows some special work pieces having holes. When cylinder height and diameter
are equal either the system for short or long cylinder may be used.
(C) Conical shapes:
The conical shaped work piece would be located similar to a cylinder. The rules for short
and long cylinder apply to cones as shown in fig 6.14. For short cones, two locators must be
placed on short edge of base instead of a surface.

Fig. 6.14 Location of short and long cones

(D) Pyramid shapes:
A workpiece with a pyramid shape would be located similar to rectangular shape. The
short pyramids are located by using following rules [fig.6.15 (a) (I)] place three locators on flat
base.(2) place two locators on longest edge of the base (3) Place one locator on shortest edge of
the base. Similarly the following rules should be followed for long pyramids (fig.6.15b)

Fig. 6.15 Location of short and long pyramids

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(1) Place three locators on the largest angular side of pyramid

(2) Place, two locators on smallest angular side of pyramid
(3) Place one locator on the base.
(E) Locators for long and short square prism with a hole
[fig 6.16a and fig.6.17]
The workpiece shown in fig.6.16 is a long workpiece
With hole. This workpiece can be located with six locators.
The four locators in the hole, one locator on base and one
Locator on the side of the prism fully locates the workpiece.
In fig 6.17(a) the workpiece being short the large flat
base is used to place three locators, two locators on hole
Locate from the central hole locators on side prevent
Rotation about axis of the hole.

Fig. 6.16 Locators in hole

of a long workpiece

Fig. 17 (a & b) Locators in holes of short workpiece

In fig 6.17b, as there are two holes, two locators locate from one hole and the one locator is
placed in second hole so as to touch the work piece on same side as that of the two locators on
first hole. Three locators locate from base.
(F) Locators for some odd components:
While placing the locators on the various parts the basic shapes flat, cylinders cones etc.
from which the part is developed is first visualized and then using the basic knowledge as studied
above for placement of locators for getting good geometric control is applied. Basically in
achieving the good geometric control the locators are placed to achieve widest spread. But as
geometric control is only a portion of the workpiece control, the other two controls mainly
dimensional control and mechanical control are also considered in conjunction with geometric

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control when selecting actual location to be used. Sometimes all the three controls cannot be
obtained. Geometric control usually has least importance when compared with other controls.
(I) Case 1 - Locators for a cylindrical contoured component "cylinder head coolant inlet".
The component is basically a flange with three holes attached to a bend tubular shape the
part is made out of casting.
For good geometric control this casting can be located as follows
(i) Three locators would be placed on flat flange to determine a plane
(ii) Two locators would be placed on edge of the flange.
(iii) One locators would be placed on the side of tubular end. But because of shape of casting
centre of gravity would not be over three locators. The casting would tend to rock off of the
three locators. This problem can be taken care of by operator care and good holding force. An
alternative location pattern can be suggested as under
(1) Two locators would be placed on large flat flange.
(2) One locator would be placed on the tubular end on the same side as the flange.
(3) Two locators would be placed on the edge of the flange.
(4) One locator would be placed on the side of tubular end
The workpiece is now stable and easier to load and clamp. But now plane representing
the flange is not controlled. Other criteria must be known before selecting one of the above
systems for any operation.

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Case II cover housing side

Fig 6.19 is a casting shape composed of a hollow cylinder surrounded at centre by seven-
sided flange. Three locators are placed on flange and widest spread is achieved. The centre line
can be controlled from external diameter or internal diameter using two locators. The rotation is
stopped by sixth locator placed on further rest flange end or by placing in the hole if it is made
earlier. Best geometric control is obtained as centre of gravity of workpiece is near three
locators providing stability.
6.5 DIMENSIONAL CONTROL:
As the name implies dimensional control is concerned with the dimensions shown on the
part print. Thus, the dimensional control can be called as the part of workpiece control relating
to maintenance of physical dimensions as specified on part print. The workpiece must be
produced within the tolerances specified for each dimensions. It should be noted that
dimensional control does not refer to control of specifications or notes concerning surface finish,
heat treatment, and chemical content and testing.
Though it is desirable to locate the part for geometric as well as dimensional control, it is
often impossible to achieve both controls due to the manner in which part is dimensioned. In
such cases however dimensional control has preference over geometric control. The loss of
geometric control in such cases can be taken care of either by the higher operator skill or by
more expensive tooling. When it is impossible to maintain dimensional control or it is costlier to
achieve part print tolerances, the process engineer may request the product engineer to do the
part print changes.
It is the primary responsibility of the process engineer to achieve good dimensional
control. Good dimensional control exists when
(i) Tolerance stacks are not present.
(ii) Part print dimensions within tolerances are obtained despite presence of workpiece
variations and irregularities.
FIG.6.20
Good dimensional control can be achieved by (1) correct selection of surface for
placement of locators. (2) Correct placement of locators on the surface selected.
If dimensional control is not maintained; some dimensions on the workpiece may have to
be held to closer tolerances than specified. Less tool wear can be tolerated. Holding closer
tolerances than specified would result in higher production costs. Hence maintaining
dimensional control is the most economical way to produce dimensions within tolerances.
(1) Surface selection for better dimensional control:
The surface for placement of locators should eliminate the process tolerance stacks. Process
tolerance stacks are caused by process engineer. Fig 6.20 shows a cross section of a casting. If

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surface A is used for location to machine surface 'C' the dimension AC to be maintained as per
part print will be
AC i.e. 10 ± 0.1+ 5 ± 0.1 = 15 ± 0.2. But when the distance AB is made to part print dimension
i.e. 5 ± 0.1 the dimension BC will be BC = 15 ± 0.2 - 5 ± 0.1 = 10 ± 0.3. This is beyond the
specified part print tolerance. This is because of process tolerance stacks.
Two solutions are possible to tackle this problem.
(1) Reduce tolerances on AB and AC to ± 0.05 so that the final dimension BC will be BC
= AC - AB = 15 ± 0.05 - 5 ± 0.05
= 10 ± 0.1
i.e. acceptable tolerance

(2) To move locators from surface A to surface B, so that good dimensional control can now
be obtained along with good geometric control due to wide placement of locators FIG 6.21
This was a typical case where both dimensional as well as geometric controls are
achieved. But in the part discussed in case II of geometric control (fig.6.19), if we try to shift
locators on wider surface dimensional control is lost and if we shift them on the inner collar to
get good dimensional control the geometric control is lost due to closer placement of locators.
A rule for getting optimum dimensional control can now be stated as under

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"Dimensional control is best when locators are placed on one of the two surfaces to
which the dimension is shown on the part print."
(3) Correct positioning of locators on the selected correct surface.
Even though locators are placed on the proper surface, poor dimensional could exist due
to incorrect positioning of the locators. This difficulty arises mainly with round workpieces or
holes where dimensions are shown w.r.t. Centerlines. The centerline is only a theoretical line.
There is not way to place a locator on a centreline to obtained dimensional control. Therefore
locators must be kept on the surface generated about the centreline.
(1) Rule for centreline control - Dimensional control is best when the locators are placed
astride the centreline to which dimension is shown.
FIG 6.23 Effect of locator spacing on round shapes
FIG 6.24 Effect of stock variation on centreline position for 1200 spacing of locators i.e.
600 V - Block
For correct sized bar stock i.e r = 50.0mm
a = r.Sin60 = 50 x 0.866 = 43.3mm
h = r.Cos60 = 50 x 0.5 = 25.0mm
Value of a will be unchanged for oversized or undersized bar stock, but height h will change for r
= 50.1mm(oversize)
h= r2 −h2
= (50.1) 2 − (43.3) 2
= 25.2mm
and for r = 49.9mm (undersize)
h= ( 49.9) 2 − (43.3) 2 = 24.80
Thus for r = 50 ± 0.1, h = 25.0 ± 0.2 or for a introduced error of ± 0.1 in stock radius the
horizontal centreline is shifting by ± 0.2 from normal position.
For 900 V-Block i.e. 900 locator spacing this shift will be ± 0.15mm and for 1200 V -
Block i.e. 600 locator spacing this shift will be ± 0.11
(2) Rule for spacing of locators
Dimensional control of both centerlines is not possible with two fixed locators placed on
circumference of circle.
The centreline (say vertical) straddled by the locators is accurately positioned despite
locators
Spacing. Close placement of locators improves dimensional control of horizontal centreline with
a sacrifice of geometric control.
Fig. 6.21 Shows a component made from cold trolled bar stock, which involves facing of
bar on both sides to the specified length, milling of slot and drilling of 8φ holes at the centre of

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the bar. If the workpiece is located as shown in fig 6.22a, applying the rules for location of long
cylinder, the horizontal centreline will move up of down with stock size variation. So this
arrangement of locator is incorrect for milling operation, as it is not controlling the centerlines
from which the dimension is shown. To control this horizontal centreline the arrangement
should be done as shown in fig 6.22b, applying the above stated rules for control of centreline.
Thus with close
placement of locators
for the centreline not
straddled by them, we
get better dimensional
control and poor
geometric control. The
effect of shift in
horizontal centreline for
different spacing of
Fig. 6.21 Work piece made from bar stock
locators 120 , 90 , 600
0 0

etc can be seen from fig

6.23, 6.24 Maximum
shift is obtained for
wide spaced locators
i.e. 1200 spacing ( or
600 V - Block ). Where
for a introduced error of
± 0.1mm in radius a
vertical shift of about ±
0.2 is obtained in the
position of horizontal
centreline. For 900
spacing (900 V-block)
this is ± 0.11mnt.
Fig.6.22 (a) Improper location for milling

Though the shift is minimum in 600 spacing poor geometric control exists and hence usually 900
V-Block is used which is a good compromise between dimensional control and geometric
control.

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Fig. 6.22(b) Good dimensional

Control for the milling operation

Fig 6.25 Workpiece requiring close parallelism

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(3) Rule of parallelism, square ness and concentricity.

When close tolerances are specified on parallelism, squareness and concentricity more
than one locator must be placed on one of the surfaces to which the tolerance applies.
Fig 6.25 shows a workpiece with a slot to be milled in such a way that the surface
produced has to be parallel to A within ± 0.01. If this workpiece is to be located for best
geometrical control the locators are to be arranged as shown in fig.6.26 but for better
dimensional control the locators are now required to be rearranged as shown in fig.6.27 as per
above rule Fig 6.26 workpiece located for best geometrical control.
Fig. 6.27 workpiece location system for best dimensional control (for parallelism)

Fig. 6.25 Workpiece requiring close parallelism

Fig. 6.26(a) Workpiece located for best

geometric control
(4) Rule for irregularities:
As far as possible areas of irregularities found on surface of workpiece should be avoided
for placement of locators. Different irregularities found in various manufacturing processes are
listed below.
6.6 MECHANICAL CONTROL:
The 3-2-1-location system is applied to obtain both geometric and dimensional controls.
This control deals with positioning of workpiece in relation to the tool. Another control is
necessary to resist the forces of tool, clamps, and due to self-weight and maintain the workpiece
positioning. This control is referred to as mechanical control. Thus, mechanical control is the

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control relating the application of forces. Thus mechanical control is necessary to insure that (i)
the workpiece does not deflect due to tool forces, holding forces and its own weight, (ii) the
workpiece is forced to contact all the locators when holding force is applied (iii) the workpiece
does not shift away from locators due to tool forces, (iv) the workpiece does not get damaged
(become marred or permanently distorted) due to holding forces.
In short, the mechanical control insures that the workpiece does not deflect, is forced to
contact the locators, does not shift away from locators or does not get damaged due to tool
forces, holding forces and its own weight.

Fig. 6.26 Improved location

system to maintain pa

Fig. 6.27 Work piece deflection

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Fig. 6.28 Work piece distortion

Fig. 6.29 Types of supports

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To obtain good mechanical control the process engineer must,

(i) Correctly position holding forces and tool forces,
(ii) Correctly position supports (fig.6.29)
(iii) Correctly position locators.
The locators are first arranged for dimensional and geometric control. Locators can be
arranged for good mechanical control only if the positioning also satisfies other two controls.
Mechanical control can be obtained with other devices, called supports, when necessary.
As mechanical control deals with effect of forces, which can cause misshaping of
workpieces temporary misshaping of workpieces within the elastic range is defined as deflection.
Whereas permanent deformation or reshaping of workpiece in yield range is called distortion, a
more severe condition than deflection. The deflection due to tool force can make certain
machined dimension out of tolerance as shown fig 6.27 where the notch is out of shape due to
spring back. The distortion on other hand as shown in fig 6.28 has not only changed the shape of
notch but also shape of workpiece. This may add extra straightening operation to bring the
workpiece within the tolerance.

Fig. 6.30 Locator placement for best mechanical control

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(A) Mechanical control rules for combating tool forces:

(1) As a first choice, place locators opposite to tool forces to control work piece
deflection provided that with this arrangement both geometric and dimensional controls can be
obtained.
(2) If first choice is not possible use fixed support to limit work piece deflection caused
by tool forces.
(3) When quality outweighs economy, then adjustable support may be used to oppose
tool forces.
(4) Use tool forces to assist in holding the work piece against the locators.
To follow the above rules it is possible in certain processes (lie milling) to change the
direction of cutting force. The conventional milling has force component, which tries to lift the
work piece off locators, and the work piece is not deflected. Whereas in climb cut milling this
component tries to push the work piece against the locators but also causes deflection of work
piece. This deflection however can be taken care of by fixed or moving support provided at the
point of maximum deflection. Thus, climb cut aids the work piece by assisting climbing. Fig
6.30 shows placement of locators for best mechanical control in conventional and climbing
milling. It can be seen that though the three locators are placed alike in both cases with change
of direction of horizontal component of cutting forces the position of single locators changes
from left end to right end. To take care of deflection in climb cut the fixed or adjustable support
may be provided.
Similarly, in case of end milling the downward component of the cutting force, which
causes deflection, can be avoided by doing same operation by face milling. Where in the
component of the tool force acts along the surface without causing deflection. Fig.6.31
illustrates how face milling instead of end milling of outer surface of boss achieves the good
mechanical control. Whereas fig 6.32 illustrates how good mechanical control could be achieved
by using supports to restrict deflection caused by the end mill. Fig.6.33 illustrates how good
mechanical control can be obtained by supports in turning operation fig.6.34 illustrates another
situation during machining of internal surface of the boss wherein the end milling causes poor
dimensional control as the tool force is not assisting holding forces. This situation again can be
solved by using turning (facing) operation instead of end milling.

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Fig.6.31 Good mechanical control of a casting

Fig 6.32 Alternate solution for mechanical control

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Fig.6.33 Mechanical control for a turning operation

In above examples milling and turning operations are illustrated as the tool forces direction can
be changed from process to process but these rules also apply to material forming and assembly
operations.
(B) Mechanical control rules for combating holding forces.
A second phase of mechanical control is the use of holding forces. The quantity and
position of holding forces needed are determined by the process engineer. The magnitude of

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holding forces is usually a responsibility of tool engineer, who must also design the mechanical
device or clamp to provide the holding force, if special.
Several purposes for which holding forces are used include
(i) Forcing the workpiece to make contact with locators not against the support
whenever possible despite operator skills and workpiece variation.
(ii) Holding workpiece against the locators despite tool forces (and whenever possible
holding force not be placed opposite to tool forces)
(iii) Not causing deflection or distortion of workpiece.
The general rules for good mechanical control for holding forces can be listed as under -
(1) Holding forces should be placed directly opposite to locators.
(2) If the holding force cannot be placed opposite to the locators, then the resultant should act
against the locators and the deflection caused if any in such case can be controlled by providing
support.
(3) Holding forces applied by one resultant force in rigid workpiece are desirable to reduce
effect of human element.
(4) Non rigid workpieces require several holding forces rather than one large force.
(5) Holding force should make up for the loss of sixth locator using friction.
(6) The holding forces should be placed on non-critical surfaces to avoid marring. For the
magnesium casting shown in fig 6.31 the holding forces are directly placed opposite to locators
as per rule 1 above. But in fig 6.33 rule 2 is followed, as the surface directly opposite to the
locators is the surface to be machined. fig 6.35 and fig.6.36 shows how rule 3 can be applied.
Whereas for non-rigid workpiece as on fig 6.37 several holding forces are provided as per rule 4.
Fig 6.38 shows application of rule 5 in the three-jaw chuck.
(C) Rules for combating the deflection due to self-weight.
In the third phase the deflection of less rigid workpiece is required to be tackled.
(1) For the non-rigid workpieces like sheet metal more than six locators are often used to restrict
deflection.
(2) To avoid or restrict sagging of workpiece fixed supports are provided, as the adjustable
support may not set to correct position.
(3) Whenever possible the support or backups should be made of soft metals or other materials
so that they do not produce mark on workpiece.
(4) If supports become part of the welding circuit they may be made of copper.

6.7 ALTERNATE LOCATION THEORY:

As per the 3-2-1-location theory six locators are sufficient to get good workpiece control
and any additional locator can cause loss of workpiece control. There are several cases when

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excess locators are desirable. These excess locators used for achieving some purpose are called
alternate locators. Thus, seven locators on rectangular workpiece mean one alternate locators
where seven locators on round workpiece means two alternate locators. These locators are
indicated by shaded triangles. The alternate locators may be used for achieving following results
(1) Improvement of centreline control.
(2) Achieving mechanical control when holding forces cannot be used.
(3) Reduction in operators skill for location of workpiece.
(4) Simplifying tool design there by reducing cost of the workpiece holder.

Fig.6.35 Position of holding force

Fig. 6.36

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Fig.6.40

Fig. 6.39 Centerline control with one locator

Fig.6.38 Friction created by holding forces

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Fig. 6.37 Holding forces for no rigid work piece

assembly

Fig. 6.43

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Fig 6.41 Breakdown of three moving location

Fig. 6.42

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Fig. 6.44

Fig.6.45

Fig. 6.47 Three moving locators in a hole

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Fig. 6.46 One alternate locator in a hole

1. Centreline control
External cylindrical surface

No. of Locators External control Equivalent Locating Fig No.

system
One Fixed No. C.L. Control Post locator 6.39
Two Fixed Controls one C.L. astride by V-Block 6.40
them
Three Fixed No advantage above the two Three pins on cylinder 6.40
locators only one C.L. controlled
equivalent to two locators and
one alternate locator
Three Moving Maximum C.L.control one of the Three jaw 6.41
three moving locators is alternate self centering check 6.42
and acts a hold forces

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1. C.L. Control for internal cylindrical surface hole

No. of C.L. Control Equivalent to Fig No.

Locators
1 Fixed No.C.L. Control one locator and two Post locator 6.43
alternate locator
2 Fixed Controls one centerline straddled by them Two pins in a 6.44
hole
3 Fixed Controls roughly the centerlines equivalent Three pins in a 6.45
to two locators and one alternate locator hole
3 Moving Maximum C.L. control Three jaw check 6.47
One of the two locator and one alternate
locator which also severs as holding force

In summary the rules for centerline can be itemized as under

(i) One locators on a round surface do not control position of any centerlines.
(ii) Two locators on round surface control the centreline which they straddle.
(iii) Three stationary locators offer no advantages over the locators.
(iv) Three movable locators control both centerlines of round workpiece.
One locator is an alternate.

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(2) Used as holding force, for reduction operator effort and cost of tool design:
In fig 6.48 the three alternate locators are used in place of holding force. The alternate
locators are used to create nest for placement of workpiece to move the workpiece against two
and one locator on sides while the self-weight keeps the workpiece touched against the three
basal locators. Thus there by reduction in operator effort.
In fig 6.49, for blanking operation clamping of workpiece is difficult task which is
achieved by two alternate locators on front side. (Which are actually equivalent to the front guide
in blanking die) similarly in drawing die for drawing a cup fig 6.50 the one alternate locators
serves purpose of reducing operator skill and efforts. Holding force is not desirable for press
working because they reduce production rates and required too much space in die.
From above study it can be seen that the cost of production of tools is reduced due to
simplified design, no requirement of special holding device, improved production rates etc. It
can also reduce or improved the workpiece control. When moving locators are used (where one
of which is alternate) the control is improved. But control is less when alternate locators are
used to supplement holding forces or operators skill. Quality, cost and production rate are all
factors determining how alternate locators can be successfully used. The degree of control
needed is directly determined by the tolerances achieved by the tolerances allowed on workpiece
dimension. More control than necessary is economically unsound. Less control than necessary
simply results in high scarp rate.
6.8 GAUGING
In our previous discussion we have applied the concept of workpiece control to position
the workpiece in relation to tool. This concept of location and various controls can be applied
equally well to gauges as they were used for production tolling jigs and fixture dies etc. The
process engineer is responsible for determining the locators, support and holding forces
necessary for an inspection operation. One important rule can be stated as follows -
"For any given part print dimension, the location system used in the workpieces holder
(productions tooling) to produce the dimension must be identical to the location system used in
gauge to inspect the dimension."
By following this rule, the process tolerance stacking between the workpiece holder and
gauge is eliminated. Workpiece variation, operator skill, and other variables have less chance of
creating errors of course, location system selected must provide geometric, dimensional and
mechanical control for bother manufacturing and inspection operations. This helps in achieving
the ultimate quality in product. Coordinating the workpiece holder and gauges is best
accomplished by process engineer who first determine their need. Often the tool designer who
designs the workpiece holder is far removed from the gauge designer. So this coordination of
production tooling and gauges is thus another prime objective of workpiece control.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Q.1. What is workpiece control? Which dimensions are affected and unaffected by workpiece
control?
Q.2. What are the various variable affecting workpiece control?
Q.3. Enlist the various theories and techniques used by the process engineer to maintain
workpieces control and explain the equilibrium theory.
Q.4. Sketch the forces required to obtain both linear and rotational equilibrium.
Q.5. What is applied equilibrium theory?
Q.6. Why are the locators arranged in 3-2-1 patterns? Or what is the location theory?
Q.7. What is excess location? Show with neat sketch excess locators for a cube.
Q.8. What is the effect of locator spacing on the introduced error due to dirt or wear?
Q.9. What is geometric control? Why is it necessary? What are its advantages?
Q.10. Draw arrangement of locators for achieving good geometric control in (i) Cylinder (short
and long) (ii) cones (short and long) (iii) Pyramids (short and long) (iv) for internal location of
tubes (long and short)
Q.11. Give some examples of locators system not providing stability.
Q.12. Describe some cases where friction is used in place of locator.
Q.13. What is dimensional control? How is it obtained?
Q.14. How is centreline controlled by placement of locators?
Q.15. What is the effect of stock variation on the position of centreline not straddled by the
locators for 1200 locator spacing i.e. 600 V-Block? Explain with suitable example.
Q.16. What is the effect of stock variation on the position of centreline not straddled by the
locators for 900 locator spacing i.e. 1200 V-Block? Why 900 spacing usually preferred?
Q.17. What is the effect of stock variation on the position of centreline not straddled by the
locators for 900 locator spacing i.e. 1200V-Block? Why 900 spacing usually preferred?
Q.18. What is mechanical control? Why is it necessary? How can it be achieved?
Q.19. What are mechanical control rules for combating tool forces? Explain with suitable
examples.
Q.20. What are mechanical control rules for combating holding forces? Explain with suitable
example.
Q.21. What is deflection and distortion? Sketch use of supports to control deflection
Q.22. What are alternate locators? Why are they used ?
Q.23. What are the general rules for centreline control ?
Q.24. Give some specific application of alternate locators.
Q.25. How the concept of workpiece control is applied to gauging ?

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CHAPTER VII
CLASSIFYING OPERATIONS.
7.1 INTRODUCTION :
Part print analysis is carried out keeping in view of final requirements of product and
nature of operations to be performed on the workpiece. For this it is necessary to classify the
operations into various classes as under :
1. Basic Process operations.
2. Principal process operations.
3. Major Operations.
4. Auxiliary process operations.
5. Supporting operations.

7.2 BASIC PROCESS OPERATIONS :

These are operations which gives the material its initial shape or form prior to process
being planned. The decision to perform the specialized basic processes operations like forging,
casting, rolling etc. in the industry, or to buy it from the industries specialized in the respective
fields is a question of economy. The basic process operations are actually confused because the
forging will be called basic process operation if the process engineer is concerned only in
machining of workpiece into an acceptable part. However rolling will be the basic process
operation if mechanics of forging is to be considered by the process engineer.
The basic process operation has considerable influence upon the function, appearance and
economy. The poor quality of material received from basic process operation can increase cost
of manufacture . If casting has some hard elements present in microstructure, it can reduce tool
life or increase breakdown due to quick tool failures, thus adding to cost of product.
Similarly selection of incorrect basic process can often be cause of expensive extra
operations. Cold rolled still has better surface finish but higher surface stresses than hot rolled
steels. So any unbalanced cutting action can cause warpage of the parts. To correct this either
annealing before machining or straitening after machining is required. Hence for workpieces to
be machined on all sides, good clean hot rolled steel would be less expensive to process and
cheaper than cold rolled steel.
The material as received from the basic process operation is likely to posses some
problems to cause locational error in the initial manufacturing operation. The variation could be
caused by irregular parting lines, on casting, heavy flash lines on forgings caused by washout of
dies, difference caused by duplicate tooling. To avoid such problems the specifications of the
basic process operation should be explicit and these areas of irregularities should be avoided as
locating areas as for as possible.

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7.3 PRINCIPAL PROCESS OPERATION :

These included all the operations forming the backbone or nucleus of the type of
manufacturing the process engineer is responsible for planning. This type of operations are
classified according to the position the process engineer maintains in planning the manufacturing
process. For example if the mechanics of forging is being planned from bar stock. Then the
basic process operation is rolling, whereas the principal process operation is forging. But if the
planning of machining of forging is to be done then forging will be basic process operation and
cutting would be principal process operation.
The Principal process operation are classified as follows
1. Cutting
2. Forming
3. Casting & Moulding
4. Assembly
All these operations are already given in first chapter of this book along with the list of
various operations included in each class & hence not discussed here.

7.4 MAJOR OPERATIONS :

Major operations are those operations within the principal process that may be classified
by the manner in which they must be performed, or their importance in the operation sequence.
When cutting is the principal process, turning, milling, broaching, drilling & many other are
major operations. The manner in which the operations are performed is covered in chapter 9,
here manner of their importance in the operation sequence is discussed.
The major operation classification principally applied to cutting and forming is given
below.
1. Critical Operations.
2. Secondary Operations.
3. Qualifying Operations.
4. Requalifying Operations.
(1) Critical operations accomplish some unique characteristic on or from some surface of the
workpiece. These surfaces or areas are called critical areas & so far as their processing is
concerned fall into two categories.
a. Product critical areas.
b. Process critical areas.
The critical areas are generally identified from the
i. Close tolerances.
ii. Surface conditions.

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iii. baseline dimensioning.

The product critical areas are functionally important for the product and may or may not
have direct influence on the dimensional control of other surfaces on the work piece. Such areas
generally described by specification of surface quality, geometry of form and close tolerances.
But they are not necessarily used as baseline for locating other areas of workpiece.
The process critical areas or surfaces have critical relationship to other areas on
workpiece, and as such serve as registering surface for the location system.
As shown in fig.7.1 surface F is identified as a product critical area due to good quality of
surface finish. Where as the other surfaces A,B,D, and E are process critical areas used for
locating the holes and the slot.
(2) Secondary Operations : Operations are necessary in normal sequence of processing but have
less than critical or secondary importance. Though they have function on workpiece but are
generally performed to standard part print tolerances. No special effort is made to accomplish
them et. For Drilling or tapping a hole the standards values of tolerances produced with standard
tools is acceptable. These operations are added before or after critical operations in operations
sequence. In the fig.7.1 the A & B are critical from baseline dimensioning and F is critical from
surface finish (Product critical area). Assuming all the surfaces are to be machined, the parallel
opposite surfaces will be machined F-E, A-C,B-D though in rough form. All these surfaces are
performed by secondary operations. To arrange the correct sequencing of manufacturing of
various areas in the operation sequence some rules given below are to be followed.
1) Areas identified by their exacting nature of surface finish are, whenever possible, created
late in the operation sequence to protect them from damage or accident in other operations.
These are for the most part product critical areas.
2) Areas, identified by baseline dimensioning are created as early in the operation sequence
as possible (and are for the most part process critical areas)
3) Areas identified as critical by close tolerances rather than by surface characteristics are
generally accomplished as early in the operation sequence as possible. Mainly for two reasons
for allowing them to be used as control surfaces for machining & gauging operations and (2) for
economic reasons as these are the operations of maximum possible rejections or scrap the cost of
scrap is low as cost of other operation is not yet added.

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Fig.7.1

(3) Qualifying Operation is the prime concern of the process engineer to bring the workpiece
"out or rough" as early as possible. Operations performed on the workpiece to establish qualified
locating surfaces to accomplish process critical areas are called qualifying operations. For
example for the ribbed casting to be used for band saw table shown in fig.7.2 surface A is critical
surface and pads are provided on the ribbed side of the casting. Because in as cast condition,
enough uniformity of surface on the pads is not observed, the pads are machined and qualified as
locating surface for machining of surface A.

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Such pads are not

functionally important and hence
should be also added only when
necessary. Similar pads are provided
on the side of engine block.
Qualifying operation can many times
be done as a part of basic process
operation. Similar example can be
observed in the machining of rear
axle of trucks, where pads are
provided and machined as process
critical area only and has no other
functioned use.
(4) Requalifying Operations : Certain
operations during processing can
cause change in shape to the extent
that original surfaces may have to be
re-established before continuing the
sequence. A requalifying operations
is performed to regain original
machined geometry. In fig.7.2,
during machining the warpage
caused due to relieving of stresses
can be removed by requalifying.
Many times heat treatment
operations like hardening are one of
the causes of requalifying operations. When cylindrical parts are hardened they are distorted.
This can either he corrected by requalifying operation of straightening after hardening
and prior to grinding or grinding directly after hardening with sufficient allowance left for
warpage apart from regular allowance. These operations as far as possible should be eliminated
as they do not add value to the product only cost.

7.5 AUXILIARY PROCESS OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING OPERATIONS

Some operations are performed, within a principal process to insure continuity and
completion of principal process operations. They generally change the physical characteristics

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or appearance of the workpiece. For example welding, heat treatment, straightening, cleaning,
finishing shot peening etc are few auxiliary process operations.
Some operations on the other hand outside the normal concept of principal process
operations added in the operation sequence for successful completion of the product are called
supporting operation. Such operations commonly accompany all principal process operations,
e.g. Shipping and receiving, inspection & quality control handling, packing etc. These
operations cannot exist in industry by themselves. For example no manufacturing business can
exclusively exist for inspection. These operations do not add value to the product (eg. packaging
can prevent costly damage). In short these operation can be distinguished from auxiliary process
operations in following ways.
1. Auxiliary operations can frequently stand by themselves as principal process operations,
but supporting operations cannot.
2. Auxiliary operations add value to the workpiece where as the supporting operations only
add cost & in some cases protect the added value.
3. Auxiliary operations affect the physical characteristic of the workpiece whereas
supporting operations do not.
REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1. What is basic process operations why are they normally not performed in
fabricating plant ?
2. At what stage in the manufacturing the greatest degree of variations is
encountered in a workpiece ?
3. What are the various classes of operations ?
4. What are principal process operations.
5. What are major process operations ? How do major process operations differ
from principal process operations ?
6. How are the critical areas on the workpiece generally identified ?
Distinguish between product critical areas and process critical areas.
When each is likely to occur in operation sequence ?
7. How do qualifying operations differ from requalifying operations ?
8. What is the most desirable solution to the problem of requalifying operations ?
9. Differentiate between Auxiliary operations and supporting operations.

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CHAPTER VIII
MANUFACTURING PROCESS – SELECTION AND PLANNING
8.1 INTRODUCTION :

During part print analysis one may find a situation where the same product can be
prepared with different manufacturing processes. As a process engineer he must select a process
which is economic balance of material, manpower, product design, tooling and equipment, plant
space and many other factors influencing cost and practicality.
Though he has to resolve many problems before planning a process, the end result of the
process must always be kept in mind. The end result in our discussion is to produce a product
that will be acceptable to the customer functionally, economically, and appearance wise. Thus
process must produce a product for Function, Economy and Asthetics. These aspects are
explained below.

8.2 FUNCTION, ECONOMY AND ASTHETICS.

a) Function : The process to be planned or selected for manufacture must produce a component
which will satisfy functional requirements. The process should produce components with good
workmanship and tolerances, to reduce high scrap during manufacturing and high warranty costs
at customer level. Though, many times all the functional requirements may not be revealed
during preliminary part print analysis, it is necessary to relate the part print with other drawings
of assembly and even contact the product engineer for any clarification. During planning the
process quality, function and reliability should be given prime importance.
b) Economy : The process planned should be economical i.e. to say the cost of manufacturing
should be kept as low as possible, in tune with the prime objective i.e. quality, function and
reliability. This aspect has to be considered even in absence of any competition because any
extra cost in manufacturing is at the sacrifice of potential profit.
c) Asthetics : The process should be such that the product produced should satisfy the asthetic
sense of customer. This aspect is important for the probable sales competition, so the process
should have such locating system which will preserve the natural centerlines of the part as well
as other natural configurations. This aspect is of less importance for hidden parts where
economy & strength may be important. For example a sheet metal channel whose basic purpose
is to provide strength to the hood or roof of an automobile need only to be functional and
inexpensive.

8.3 FUNDAMENTAL RULES FOR PROCESS SELECTION :

Few rules stated below must to be satisfied before planning & selection of

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manufacturing process is completed.

1) Assurance : The process must assure production of a product with quality, function and
reliability.
2) Production rate : The planned process must meet daily production requirements
3) Capacity utilization : Full capacity of machine and tooling must be utilized
4) Minimum idel operator time and minimum idle machine time should be present.
5) Material utilization : Maximum utilization of minimum amount of (direct & indirect) material
must be achieved.
6) Flexibility for design change : The process must accomodate reasonable changes in the design
of the product and changes in process for improvements.
7) Elimination & Combinations : The process should be designed to eliminate unnecessary
operations and combine as many operations as are physically and economically practical.
8) Low capital investment : Which must be amortized over short period of time
9) Safety : Process must provides protection to operator and the workpiece.
10) Economy of production : The process should produce final parts at a minimum cost.

8.4 THE ENGINEERING APPROACH :

Strict adherence to above rules is not guarantee that further improvements cannot be
made in the process. Rather large number of cases can be quoted from industry where process is
planned without proper direction. To avoid such situation the following approach for selection
& planning of manufacturing process is recommended.
1) Establish the process objectives :
The process must be selected to produce product for customer satisfaction point of view
(i.e. function, economy and appearance). If all these aspects are not completely achieved, to
what degree, these objectives are achieved should be checked. This can be studied by finding
out nature of work to be done. The tentative overall pictures of problems can be obtained from
the blue print of part and assembly.
2) Collect all the facts about the problem :
After listing the various general information some more detail information about the part
can be obtained so that exactly what is wanted by the product designer can be known. It should
be checked as to whether the product is designed from manufacturing point of view, and if not,
the necessary changes may be requested. The other information not given on the part print like
quantity and the rate of production, availability of necessary production facilities should be
collected. Here step 1 and 2 should be repeated. This step may make it necessary to redefine the
process objectives. This should be done till the complete problem is identified.

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3) Plan alternative process :

The various alternatives for the manufacturing of the components should be recorded.
This, visualizing, planning and questioning of the alternatives, planning a process in the light of
past practices can lead to immediate obsolescence, in light of strong competition. To take
advantage of new process even to procure the component from outside firms is many times
feasible than to manufacture if in own industry to take the advantage of some manufacturing
specilization.
4) Evaluate alternative processes :
The various proposed alternatives must be carefully examined for economy and
practicability. Thus earlier three steps play important role in evaluation. The effects of the
selected proposal on the other departments must be checked. The concerned people should be
contacted before finalizing any one of the alternatives and the solution should be brought into
orderly form with all essential details.
5) Develop a course of action :
When all major details of the process have been worked out and approved by all
concerned, a course of action including planning operation sequence, developing operation
sequence, initiating the design or procurement of tools and equipments, providing information
like space & facility planning to the plant engineering can be carried out.
6) Follow up to assure action and check results :
Evaluation is essential for any course of action and definite follow up plan should be set
up and administered until each action is initiated in the previous steps. A final check on the part
and manufacturing cost will indicate how well the objectives setforth have been met.

8.4 INFLUENCE OF PRODUCT DESIGN ON PROCESSING :

The product designer is basically interested in function and appearance whereas
Process engineer is primarily interested in case of manufacture and appearance. Each has
influence on other. This does not mean that the product design should be rechecked by the
process engineer or the processing should also be planned by the product designer. On the
contrary, experience, in field and knowledge of manufacturing techniques and costs can
definitely help him to solve some problems in product design. In fig.8.1, the hole is to be drilled
on a tapered surface and it may or may not be a functional necessity to the product engineer. But
this can be extremely difficult and costly in manufacturing due to drifting tendency of drill. This
can be avoided by a product change as shown in the adjoining figure.
The effect of depth of hole on drilling cost is important in product design. Upto depth of
three times the diameter the drilling cost is proportional to its depth and it increases
exponentially beyond this depth. This is because for maintaining hole straightness special

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expensive gun drilling operation may be required. Hence whenever possible deep holes should
be avoided.
Thus, many design factors can influence the processing of the components. Hence, the
design though released may be changed if the process engineer recommends some good changes.

Fig.8.1

Fig8.2

Fig.8.3

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8.6 EFFECT OF MATERIALS ON PROCESS COST :

8.6.1 Material Selection :

Initially at design stage, materials are selected primarily to assure a proper functioning of
the products. Only when the proper functioning is assured with the selected materials the
economy of materials going into the product, manufacturing problems & their effect on
processing etc. are considered. The various processes their material costs, tool & die costs,
design features etc. can be had from the standard tables for ease of material selection.
8.6.2. Economic use of materials :
In any industry it is expected that all the material that goes in should be utilized. The
sizes of the sheet metal components can be designed considering raw materials sizes. The scrap
sheets of one product can be used in the manufacturing of other product. For example the
circular scrap of front panel of cooler can be used for making measures used in construction
(ghamelas).
Many times such facts can be found out which may be helpful for taking decision on
change of material. If due to increased cost of copper it is decided to shift from brass, castings to
cast iron castings, the decision may be incorrect if the necessary information is not collected.
Here, the situation may be that the large portion of scrap required for brass casting is made
available from screw cutting shop and press shop. In view of this correct comparison has to be
worked out while going for a change.
8.6.3. Material control for better stock utilization : Materials should not only be utilized
effectively but also the proper control on material purchase and supply should be kept. For
example for producing a component from bar stock if extra diameter bar stock is selected not
only material cost per piece but also cost of removing extra material will increase. Though this
is not function of the process engineer he can assist this process by providing available stock
sizes and instruction on stock layouts.
8.6.4. Scrap Sale :
Though this sale of scrap is not directly concerned with process engineer he can use his
outside contacts to fetch higher value. If particular process is producing large sized scrap, this
size may be required by other manufacture. So necessary adjustment can be made with that
manufacturer to buy this scrap at higher price, because otherwise he has to buy fresh raw
material.
8.6.5. Salvageable or reasonable material (offal) :
Certain products may produce large amount of material which can be reused in the
organization itself for production of other components. This material is called offal. But during

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use of offal cost of handling, sorting, and storing should be taken into consideration, In addition,
such material may required toolings setups and extra equipment.
8.7. EFFECT OF PROCESS ON MATERIAL COST
The improper planning of process may inadvertently bring in extra material cost. The
various common faults in process selection leading to the extra material consumption are
1. Lack of proper workpiece control
2. Selection of wrong manufacturing process
3. Improper stock selection
4. Improper handling
5. Incomplete inspection
6. Incorrect operation sequence
Lack of workpiece control may lead to more scrap in manufacturing and hence added
material cost. Similarly, if two processes say broaching and milling can be adopted for
production. But when faster broaching is employed due to high cutting forces extra
reinforcement in the material are required to be provided in the component design. Thus leading
to the extra material cost. The standard sizes available should be recommended by the process
engineer and the layouts should be planned accordingly to avoid excess material cost due to
wrong material selection. The proper handling system can reduce the scrap during the
processing. If the defective units are detected earlier and proper planning of inspection points in
the middle are recommended. The operation sequence should not involve tolerance stacks.
Proper allowances should be provided for clean up. Normally the sequence in which many
operations are combined require least material.

8.8. ELIMINATING OPERATIONS

It is best to eliminate the operations if possible at the planning stage. This can be
achieved by the following
1. Changing the product design.
2. Changing the operation sequence.
3. Changing the basic process.
4. Combining operations.
The product design change can result in substantial reduction in the number of
operations. For example the redesign of casting Fig. 8.2a, as per Fig. 8.2b can reduce expensive
side core, extra operations for resetting & machining of the second lug. An extra operation, such
as annealing in order to relieve surface stresses may reduce the extra qualifying & clean up
operations. When parts are manufactured from die casting instead of forging or sand casting, the

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extra drilling operation may not be required. Many times the combination of two operation can
reduced the number of operations.

8.9 COMBINED OPERATIONS :

After criminating unnecessary operations process engineer should try to combine as
many operations as possible. The combined operations can be accomplished by :
1) Simulation, and 2) By integration
Simulation means performance of two or more operations at the same time. For
example for drilling a series of holes a multispindle drill head can be used. By providing
duplicate toolings the loading and unloading on one set can be combined with machining on the
other set. The simulation can be designed in the cutting tool viz. step drill or form milling cutter,
combination broach circular form tool, gang straddle mills etc.
Where simultaneous combination is not possible then successive combination or
integration is employed. For example in some cases like drilling and tapping cannot be
simultaneously done although desirable. However these operations can be combined to follow a
sequences sometimes without requiring additional loading and unloading. The tumble or
rollover jig is a good example of integration. The same thing can be achieved in a multistation
automat or a machining centre, where all the stations are working simultaneously (though one
after other), on different workpieces. Though simulation & integration cannot be distinguished
clearly, those operations which occur progressively are grouped in the category of integration.
Advantages and disadvantages of combined operations:
The advantages of the combined operations are
1) Improved accuracy 2) Reduced Labour cost 3) Reduced plant fixed cost 4) Less tooling
required 5) Less handling required 6) Fewer setups 7) Smaller in process inventory 8) Less
Scrap 9) Fewer inspection points required.
Accuracy is improved as shifting from (1) location system to another is not required eg
form tool to combine several cuts into one incorporates bulk of accuracy in itself. No of
operators will be reduced, reducing labour cost similarly less investment is required due to
combined operations. As less no. of machines are required. The tooling required will be less eg.
If blanking and punching is combined in a progressive die, only one die is required. As no. of
operations are reduced less handling & storage cost is required. Due to less number of setups
small inprocess inventory, less scrap & less inspection, points can be justified.
There are some probable disadvantages of combined operation, which may outweight the
advantages as under

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1) Maintaining accuracy of tool 2) Possible higher tool cost 3) Maintaining dimensions from
several baselines. 4) Combination tooling subject to downline 5) More costly setups 6) More
costly scrap 7) Compromises on operating speed 8) Chip disposal.
It becomes difficult to maintain accuracy for complex form tools during resharpening.
The quantity of production should be sufficiently high to justify higher cost of combined tool.
Many times the dimensions are specified w.r.t. many baselines. In such cases the combined
operations may create problems. eg.(fig.8.3). Thus unless the dimensions of the part are held to
very close tolerances combination is not possible. The frequency & duration of downline may be
more in combination tooling due to complexity. This problem is enhanced by difference in tool
life that may occur within the combined operation. For example, in case of same form tool
machining different diameters, their will the high cutting speed for larger diameter & get worm
out earlier than others. Each time during resharpening all the diameters are required to be
sharpened. The set-ups are likely to be costly and the workpieces if rejected are to be sharpened.
The set-ups are likely to be costly and the workpieces if rejected are to be removed at the end,
even when the defect is present in earlier operation. As the tools are combined the optimum
cutting speed for all the operations cannot be selected due to combination tooling. This may
create problems like higher wear rate for high cutting speed than optimum & poor surface finish
for speed less than optimum value. The chip accumulation is very fast in combined operations
and sufficient room is required to be provided for this purpose.

8.10 SELECTION OF TOOLINGS :

There are three considerations for selection of dies, jigs and fixtures for a given process.
They are
1) Quality of product 2) Volume of production 3) Rate of production.
The quality requirements of product will govern the type of tooling to be employed. For low
quality requirements the cheap tools can be used. For example, the jig may not be required to
drill a hole in a round flat forging if conical depression is provided in the centre. Similarly if
volume of production is high, even with the high initial investment the unit production cost can
be kept low. The rate of production has to be known to calculate number of dies, jigs and
fixtures required.

8.11 TERMINATING PROCESS :

During process planning many times the last operation is not clearly specified. Such
situation can create huge loss to the organization. Hence, terminal operation should be spelled
out completely, for much of the cost of product may be determined by what happens to it at the
end of the process. Frequently operation routing sheets show only a vague phrase, “Prepare for

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shipment” as the final operation. This actually includes many additional operations like
application of protective coating or wrapping, packing in boxes & crates etc. If the volume of
production is high (like say production of spark plug) even the automatic packing can be
planned. The terminal operation should see that the product will reach to customer as it is
received from the industry.

REVIEW QUESTIONS :
1. What it is desirable to maintain natural centerlines of the workpiece during
manufacturing ?
2. What are the three product acceptability criteria which must be considered during
process planning ?
3. Explain the engineering approach for selection & planning of process.
4. Explain why the basic objectives of product design and process engineering be co-ordinated ?
5. Explain in what ways the process may influence material cost ?
6. What are the effects of material selection, economic use and proper control on the
process cost.
7. Explain (a) Simultation (b) Integration. How do progressive types of operation fit into
these categories ?
8. In what ways may unnecessary process operations be eliminated during process planning ?
9. What is generally gained by combining operations ? What are the disadvantages of
combining ?
10. How are the tooling selected ?
11. What is the importance of terminating process ?

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CHAPTER IX
DETERMING THE MANUFACTURING SEQUENCE

The process planning starts with interpretation of the part print to find out what is wanted
by the product. At the termination of manufacturing sequence again the part print is referred for
checking whether all design specifications are produced as per part print in the manufacturing
process.

9.1 OPERATION CLASSIFICATION AND MANUFACTURING SEQUENCE

The operation classification is studied earlier complete picture of operations can be
clarified when we study how various classes of operations fit together. As shown fig.9.1. Here
it is assumed that the basic process is forging or casting. So the principal process is cutting. The
termination of major process operations may be two supporting operations as shown viz packing
& shipping or it can be assembly as a continuation of manufacturing process, then assembly
would become a principal process operations and the diagram would be cycled through a series
of assembly operation as indicated by dotted line.

9.2 DETERMINING THE MAJOR PROCESS SEQUENCE :

The conditions of the material as received (stated in material specification) plays
important role in deciding the operation sequence. The major process operations are to be
primarily planned. As stated in earlier chapter there can be the critical operations qualifying
operations, requalifying operations and secondary operations in the major process operations.
1. The critical operations involves production of the product critical areas & process critical
areas. The process critical areas should be placed as early as possible in the operation sequence
to assure the important dimensional relationships. The product critical areas in which are
identified by close surface finish, close tolerances have to be placed by applying following rules
a) Areas identified by exacting nature of surface characteristics are whenever possible
created late in the operation sequence to avoid any damage to the surface.
b) The succession of machining operations which must take place
normally before the operations in questions can be performed must be considered eq.
Drilling of hole before reaming.
c) The degree of accuracy required between the related surfaces may add some refined
operations prior to final operations.
d) The introduction of auxiliary process operations into major operation sequence may
dictate when the product critical surface can be accomplished. For example for carburize
hardening, grinding may be required to obtain specified finish.

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Fig. 9.1

2. Though the process critical areas are expected to be accomplished earlier, certain
Operations are many times required to be performed initially on some non functioning surfaces.
Hence in the operations sequence the qualifying operations is shown prior to critical operation.

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3) Requalifying operation must take place when the surface is returned to a previous conditions
or state before the dimensional control of workpiece can be obtained. Whether or not these
operations are to be included in the operation sequence is governed by many factors which are :
a) Strength and rigidity of workpiece : Poor strength may need to requalify the surface.
b) State of material as it is received may be stressed and may cause distortion during machining,
requiring straitening operations or remachining.
c) Auxiliary operations like welding or hardening may cause distortion depending upon
uniformity of cross section, uneven heating & cooling etc.
4) The place of secondary operations is dictated more by logic than by any rule eg. Reaming
after drilling spotfacing after drilling etc. However certain operations are independent eg.
Drilling of oil hole, machining of surface for stamped part number etc.

9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATION SEQUENCE :

1) For determining a best manufacturing sequence both degree of workpiece control and
logical process order are essential. These parameters inturn depend upon the following
1. Part geometry
2. Part physical specifications based upon part design.
3. Process limitations
4. Alternate processes available based upon process

Part Study of geometry of paercan identify certain surfaces, best suitable geometrically,
dimensionally & mechanically for location. These surfaces can keep good workpiece control
during manufacturing and identify logical sequence. Better control can be obtained from larger
surface than smaller one or from plane surface rather than from curved or irregular surfaces.
2) Physical specifications include tolerances on dimensions, material condition etc. As far
as possible dimensions with close tolerances should be accomplished earlier in operations
sequence but many times material conditions ( like hardened case ) may prevent. Because it is
difficult to machine hardened surface by means other than grinding, other dimensional relations
must be accomplished before hardening if possible.
3) Manufacturing sequence is many times affected by process limitations resulting from
following factors.
a) Condition of raw material : The manufacturing sequence will differ if the raw material is
received as a forging or a bar struck
b) Machine flexibility : Generally for GPM different sequence of operations are possible, but for
SPM or for transfer machine fixed sequence of operation is possible. Even some qualifying
operations are performed on workpiece to permit use of same seat of registry.

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c) Machine availability : The most desirable machine may not be available for an operations.
This can result in change in operation sequence, when possible, or even additional operations.
d) Cutting tool : Whenever possible for simplicity of tool replacement and change of spindle
speeds on operations such as turning, the cuts on larger diameters are grouped together in
sequence rather than being grouped with cuts on smaller diameters which can be turned at faster
cutting speeds.
e) Process Capability : Few machine may vary in capacity to produce accurately when heavy
cuts are taken, thus more operations have to occur on the surface.
f) Volume of production : Production of higher volume may permit use of sophisticated and
efficient tooling permitting combined operations reducing the operation sequence and hence
increasing rate of production.
4) Whenever alternate processes are available that process sequence is determined by first
selecting those methods which will produce good pieces. After developing appropriate sequence
for each process economy will govern the selection of a particular process.
The purpose of major process sequence should never be lost. The purpose of major process
sequence is to guarantee the dimensional integrity of the workpiece through every operations
performed upon it. This requires planning which includes.
1. Selecting best surfaces for location and
2. Developing best location system.
The ultimate purpose when selection surface for location is to get the best part out of the
process by controlling variations. The purpose of location system of course, is to match which is
generated by the process with that which is desired on the workpiece. Major compining
operations can be considered later but only after the locational requirements of each individual
operations are known (otherwise incompatible system may defeat the basic objectives of
planning)
9.5 AN EXAMPLE OF MACHINING SEQUENCE :
The part considered for understanding how manufacturing sequence is designed is
“cylinder head coolant Inlet” shown in fig.9.2.
1) Preliminary part print analysis :
a. The part print shows the basic manufacturing process to be aluminium sand
casting. This information is not directly given but the note on the part print referring to
“removing burrs, fins, metal irregularities & sand”. The passage is formed in the casting
itself as a note regarding cores to be painted is given.
b. Part print indicates four areas where machining is required.
1. Flat mounting face
2. Inside of passage opening into mounting face

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3. Three mounting bolt holes

4. Three spot faces on the bases surrounding the holes.
c. Part print do not indicate position of parting line which has to be confirmed from product
designer as this place has to be avoided for location.
d. Further when assembly drawing has been studied it was observed that the unmachined
neck joins with fitting with a short length of hose. Thus making the angle of indination of neck
with machined base as critical.

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Fig. 9.3 Operation 10-Machine

mounting surface
Fig. 9.4 Operation 20 Machine
passage opening

Fig 9.5

2. Manufacturing sequence :
The first surface that is to be machined has to be the mounting face because :
i. assembly drawing reveals the angle between this face & neck to be critical.

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ii. All other surfaces are machined w.r.t. this surface.

Out of the remaining three operations, logically one can say that spotfacing has to follow
the drilling of three holes. Now either drilling has to be done next or machining passage
opening. But as the holes are drilled w.r.t. centerlines of passage. And the next operations in the
sequence has to be machining of the inlet passage. The next operations now has to be drilling
followed by spotfacing. Thus, the major operation sequence can be written as
Operation 10 – Machining mounting face
Operation 20 – Machine passage opening
Operation 30 - Drill three mounting holes
Operation 40 - Spot face bosses.
3) Selecting locating surfaces and developing best location system.
a) Operation 10 : Here if locating surface is selected as the opposite surface for three locators, the
decision will be a wrong decision as the centerline of neck is not taken care of. So the best
system will be to put two locators on bosses, and a support on third to take care of mechanical
stability during machining, a type locator on side of neck to control position of horizontal
centerline, a V-loator on outside wall is provided not for dimensional control but for positioning
of workpiece each time relatively at same place.(fig 9.3). “Thus in this system two things are
achieved.
i) The relationship between the centerline of neck and the machined mounting surface
was assured.
ii) Stock allowance for machining the spotfaces was assured on at least two of the three
bosses.
b) Operation 20 : In deciding the location system for this operation important considerations are
maintaining the natural centerlines, avoiding wall thinning & blending of machined surface with
cored surface. For achieving this three locators are placed on machined mounting surface so that
perpendicularity of this surface with the machined opening can be obtained as per part print. The
two locators are provided on the outside of the casting wall. Because of the ever present casting
variations it was decided not to place the locators at the points shown by dotted symbols as
shown in fig.9.4. The tool is provided with 6.5 mm radius to blend the machined opening. One
locator was placed near the end of the neck (as no critical operation is performed here) to stop
rotation.
c) Operation 30 : The plane is established by the three locators placed on the mounting face, two
locators are placed in the machined passage as the dimensions of three mounting holes are shown
w.r.t. this, and third locator is provided near the neck to prevent rotation about axis as shown in
fig.9.5. Normally drilling forces are opposed by the locators rather than holding forces. But here
the reverse was considered because the shape of casting would not allow sufficient space. For

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properly positioning the drill bushes. Fortunately with this compromise the burr occurs on
unifinished boss which will be removed in the subsequent spot facing operation.
a) Operation 40 : Same location system as shown for earlier operation is used except the cutting
forces were exerted in opposite directions for this operation a special reverse spotfacing tool can
be used. This completes the major operation sequence except for stamping the identification on
the flange and deburring.
4) combining operations :
In the earlier example the drilling of the three holes or spot facing of the three holes are
assumed to be combined. Even a thought can be given for combining the operation 20, 30 & 40,
using a location system devised for operation 20. Thus the basic considerations done for
combining the operations should also be employed here.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain why the flow line through the major process area leads out of this areas to
auxiliary operations but remains unbroken for supporting operations ?
2. Explain why process critical area should be performed & earlier than the product critical
area ?
3. What distinguishes qualifying operation from critical operation ?
4. How will you come to know that a requalifying operation is required ?
5. Where do secondary operations normally occur in the operators sequence ?
6. What dictates operation sequence ? Discuss briefly.
7. Explain a with a diagram the relationship between operation classification &
manufacturing sequence selecting cutting as principal process.
8. Explain with typical example how operation sequence is developed ?
9. For a forged valve rocker lever list the various operations and arrange them in proper
sequence & support your operation sequence with logical reasoning.

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CHAPTER X
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
10.1INTRODUCTION :
The term equipment refers to machines, accessories such as handling devices, special
attachments, etc. The process engineer specifies some equipment it can either be present in the
organization or it may be required to be newly purchased. Many times the available machine
with some modification can be reused. One would not simply buy a new car because it is
required to be painted. Neither one would replace machine because it has been used before or
needs some maintenance.
10.2PROCESS SELECTION & MACHINE SELECTION :
The process engineer basically finds out what is wanted by the product engineer in order to
plan a process. He then considers various factors one of the factors is correct selection of
equipment. Thus, process selection and equipment selection are associated terms. However
there is a major fundamental difference in selection of equipment and selection of process. The
process is a comparatively short term commitment where as a machine is a long term capital
commitment. For example, the pressed metal operation for trimming a front panel of automobile
involves purchase of a new press. With changes of model of the automobile the design of
trimming die will change but it is still carried on the same equipment i.e. press. But if the
process change completely from press working to die casting the press will not be used for this
job & has to be used for another job. Thus, during the selection of equipment the process
engineer should acquire the knowledge of machine and equipment through long association in
the industry. His experiences from day to day and his observations of the results being obtained
with the equipment on hand, add to his knowledge.
10.3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR THE PROCESS ENGINEER.
The knowledge and information required by the process engineer necessary to enable for
proper selection of equipment can be collected from the following six sources.
i) Contacts within the organization : Within the organization discussions can be held for
production problems, through setting up of some committees, quality circles, etc. The
information from these group can be of vital importance to process engineer in selection of
equipment.
ii) The machine manufacturers representatives : As a process engineer you are eager to gain
knowledge about the various machines & equipments. Similarly the organization manufacturing
these items are also increased in giving you this information through their representatives. They
can assist you in selection of equipment by providing categories, folders and various other
information.

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iii) Machine tool manufactures shows : Every year in India various organization are arranging
exhibition of the products developed by them. For example IMTEX (Industrial machine tool
exhibition is one such exhibition arranged in India. The process engineer can have direct
dialogue with the person attending the display.
iv) Technical societies : Various technical societies manufacturing these items publish
information through their publications.
v) Magazines, catalogues and periodicals : These publications published by various organization
and institution are mostly subscribed by big organizations. Process engineer should regularly
refer this to abrest his knowledge.
vi) Surveys : Some competent firms can investigate analyze and report on the actual performance
and use of methods, machinery and materials, thus providing definite, reliable unbased
performance data for their customers.
10.3NATURE OF SELECTION PROBLEM :
In various situations the process engineer is required to select machines. These situations
are given below.
(1) Selection of machine for a new job : Many times the selection problem is to be solved for a
job not previously encountered. During development of new products most up-to-date
manufacturing methods to be used. Choosing the proper machines for this job is of paramount
importance.
(2) Selection of machine for a job previously done by hand : With increase in required
production rate few hand operation are required to be shifted to machines. This of course has to
be done considering the feasibility. For example some packing operation previously done by
hand may be required to be automated. During such cases the increased production volume
should justify the use of specialized equipment.
(3) Selection of machine replace the present worm out one : The worn out machine may be
required to changed because it is no more economical to use. So planned replacement should be
done as far as possible to replace old & obsolete equipment.
(4) Selection of machine to lower the cost of production: In few cases to reduce the cost of
production some faster improved machines can be bought. For example shifting from a slow
press to faster stroke press to reduce manufacturing time. Sometimes by machine replacement
few operations can be combined to save time & labour.
(5) Selection of machines for expanded production : When production volume increases
normally other alternatives like increasing number of shifts can be tried. If it still do not prove to
be feasible, then the choice of additional equipment is necessary.

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(6) Selection of machine to take advantage of technical change : For example if you want to take
advantage of high cutting speeds permitted by carbides or ceramets you need to replace the
present machines with faster and rigid machines.
Regardless of how the problem of machine selection may arise it can be attributed to any one of
the following conditions.
i) Non availability of machine to do the job within the organization.
ii) Inability of the existing machine to perform to the required physical standards.
iii) Lack of economy of working with present equipment.
10.5 GENERAL PURPOSE MACHINES :
Use of general purpose machines (GPM) or standard machines such as engine lathes,
Shaper, planner, grinder have some specific advantages over special purpose machines (SPM)
the various major advantages of the GPM over SPM are given below.
1) Usually less initial investment is required in the equipment for producing the same
product when GPM are used. But sometimes the SPM can be beneficial where the advantages of
combining operations are used.
2) Greater machine flexibility is possible in GPM, these machines can be easily be adopted
for other work. For example on the drilling machine other operations.
3) As large number of components can be produced on same machines less number of
machines are required.
4) Maintenance cost is less due to less the skill requirement and less inventory of cost of
spares.
5) Less setup & debugging time is required because GPM can be set quickly & less number
of unpredictable setting problems occur.
6) There is less danger of obsolence as in case of job change the same machine can be
adopted to new job.
10.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINE (SPM)
Though in many cases SPM is advantageous over GPM some conditions must prevail before
selecting SPM.
i) The equipment must satisfy the need for which it was intended.
ii) The market to product must be large enough to support the investment in the SPM by
absorbing its output.
iii) In contrast to previous conditions, SPM must be capable of producing sufficient volume of
production to satisfy mark demand.
iv) The product should not be subject to radical and/or sudden change in design.
v) The pattern of demand should be constant or should not be subject to wide variations or
should not be seasonal.

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vi) There should be sufficient capital to invest in SPM.

After the above conditions are satisfied then only one should think of going for SPM.
When SPM is justified it offers following advantages.
i) Uniform product flow.
ii) Reduced in process inventory due to reduced number of machines.
iii) Reduced manpower requirements due to fewer number of machines.
iv) Reduced factory floor space due to fewer number of machines.
10.7 ADOPTING GPM TO SPECIAL PURPOSE WORK.
Thus the job requirements determine whether SPM or GPM is justified. When the demand
is unpredictable the advantages SPM cannot be had on GPM. In such cases the standard
machine components can be converted for special purpose use. Standard units when used for
constructing the SPM not only reduce time of construction but also become economical. This
type of compromise is usually accomplished by adopting standard units to a specially built
machine base. As a result, several operations can be combined in the same machine design.
In another way some standard machine can be fitted with special fixtures and handling
devices. Special feeders & hoppee make it possible to increase production beyond that attainable
by hand fading device on standard machine.
Sometimes grouping of standard machines into a product type layout frequently
accomplishes the same result, when stock transferring mechanisms are employed to tie the
various machines together into one integrated producing unit. In this case it is necessary to tie in
all energizing circuits so that each machines cycle is consistent with others in the line. Should
any one of the machines fail, the whole line will shut down until the problem is corrected.
10.8 BASIC FACTORS IN MACHINE SELECTION :
There are two fundamental problems in machine selection.
A. Cost factors – concerned will elements of machine cost.
B. Design factors – concerned with elements of machine design.
A. Cost Factors :
These factors can be classified into three main categories. 1) Investment cost, 2)
operating costs, 3) Intangible cost.
1) Investment cost which includes non recurring cost as a result of investment like.
i. Initial cost of machine & accessories
ii. Cost of installation
iii. Cost of transportation
iv. Cost of tooling (dies, jigs & fixtures ) and recurring cost which includes some annual costs.
i. Depreciation & obsolescence
ii. Interest

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iii. Taxes
iv. Insurances
v. Floor space costs.
2) Operating costs resulting from normal use of machine and usually include following items.
i. Direct labour
ii. Indirect labour
iii. Fring benefits
iv. Direct materials
v. Indirect materials
vi. Normal maintenance
vii. Repairs
viii. Scrap & rework
ix. Power
x. Perishable tools.
3) Intangible cost usually is not easily anticipated or estimated, such as down time cost. The
down time may be caused by many reasons, like lack of material, failure of machines, or its
auxiliary equipment, accidents etc. The resulting loss in production though costly can’t be
correctly estimated.
B) Design Factors : The various elements of machine design, play important role in its selection.
The process engineer should make of his experience and knowledge while doing machine
selection. The important design factors are
i) Accuracy : The accuracy includes the prime accuracy i.e. the accuracy built into the machines
basic geometry, such as minimum spindle runout, degree of parallelism between the various
surfaces etc. and producing accuracy i.e.the accuracy with which parts can be processed with the
machines with certain producing accuracy, tooling operator skill, workpiece control, etc. The
accuracy can be controlled to a large extent by many of the factor that follow.
ii) Productivity : i.e. The capacity of machine to do work is frequently measured in pieces per
hour.
iii) Materials of construction : It should be rigid & strong to take advantage of higher cutting
speeds & feeds.
iv) Controls : Built in automatic sequencing controls aids in improving productivity by reducing
responsibility of the operator.
v) Power : Sufficient power should be available as per requirement the motor should be placed at
such place from where easy servicing is possible yet it is protected from other foreign materials
like cutting fluids chips etc.

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vi) Lubrication : Automatic pressurized lubrication system with inbuilt safety device to prevent
damage from lack of lubrication.
vii) Speeds & feeds : Number of speed changes & feed ranges are also required to be checked.
viii) Bearing and spindle : Rigid spindles with antifriction bearings are preferred.
ix) Safety : Safety of operation & machine is required.
x) Repair : The repair work should be easy & less time consuming.
xi) Checking : This mainly depends upon operation planning but the machine should be capable
of handling all types of checking devices, such as ordinary hand operated, magnetic or air
operated chocks.
xii) Loading & unloading : Frame should accommodate the automatic handling devices
whenever required.
xiii) General operating considerations : Machine should be selected such that it can be easily
adopted to any work.
10.8 APPROACHES TO SELECTION AMONG ALTERNATIVES :
The selection procedure is based on three fundamental things (1) Experience (2)
Experimentation, and (3) Study & analysis of proposals.
Experience alone does not form good base for decision as it is only related with
knowledge of past and one should be conversant with new techniques of manufacturing.
Experimentation can be helpful if time & facilities permit. But is can also be costly if
done needlessly. The study and analysis of the various proposals is then mainly useful in most of
the cases of machine selection.
Many times the machines are available within the organization. But it they are not
suitable the process engineer should request quotations from competent machine manufacturers.
The number of alternatives can be reduced by simple process a elimination. For example a
machine with a frame design not suitable for loading & unloading may be rejected without other
considerations.
10.10 COST ANALYSIS OF PROPOSALS :
After giving due weightage to all the factors influencing the decision of machine selection,
the process engineer then make cost comparison of these selected proposals to make sound
economic decision. The various components of the cost factor mentioned earlier are calculated
for all the selected proposals. The method of calculations is given below :
I) Investment costs :
1) This includes the non recurring costs which are to be incurred at once. This cost is the
first cost or original cost. (V). This cost is to be amortized over period of time. This investment
is going to have some loss in value resulting from physical deterioration called as depreciation.

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The loss in value can be due to combination of both. Normally straight line depreciation method
is used for calculating the depreciation cost.
Thus, Depreciation cost = ( V-Vs)/n
Where, V = Original or first, cost Rs.
Vs = Salvage value after n years, Rs.
n = Service life considering depreciation &
possible obsolescence.
V, may be treated as zero as that cost may be required for removing that machine. Interest is
calculated on compounding basis. The calculation of interest can be combined with the
depreciation and expressed on annual basis as
Annual capital recovery cost = ( V-Vs+(C.R.F.)+Vs i
Where i is Annual interest rate and the expression.
[i ( 1 + i )n / ( 1 + i)n – 1 ) ] is called capital recovery factor denoted by C.R.F. The values
of this factors are given in table 10.1
If salvage value is neglected.
Annual capital recovery cost = V ( C.R.F.)
Taxes & insurance decreases with decrease in valuation of the capital investment. But this
reduction in value may be offset by rising tax and insurance rates.
Annual cost of insurance & taxes = (V.t/2) (n+1)/n
Where is the annual combined percentage of allowance for taxes of insurance. If declining value
is not considered the equation is V.t
The floor space cost is applied as Rs. per square meter per year as per the floor space utilized for
the machine.
II) Operating cost : This includes various costs as under
a) Direct Labour cost : It covers the regular hourly rate of worker plus any incentive premiums
and bonuses
Labour cos t per hour (Rs. / hr )
Direct labour cost (Rs/Piece) =
No. of pieces produced per hr.

If the number of pieces required to be produced in one year are known, then the total direct
labour annual cost per year can be calculated by simple multiplication.
b) Indirect Labour Cost : includes costs such as clerical, shop administrative, supervisory,
inspection stock handling etc. As general rule this is expressed as a percentage of direct labour
cost. As the inspection people have to perform variety of job the cost is treated as indirect cost.
But if they are engaged in repetitive inspection function, they clearly can be classified as direct
labour.

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c) Fringe benefits : It includes items like pension, group life insurance, medical services,
vacation pay etc. This is also calculated as percentage of direct labour cost.
d) Direct materials : It includes those materials that become part of product. Mild steel bar from
which the bolt is produced is direct material. Unless the two machines produce different amount
of scrap the direct material cost for them is not likely to differ.
e) Indirect material : It do not become part of product and include items like cutting fluids, ceical
suppliers, etc. This is also calculated as percentage of direct labour cost.
f) Normal Maintenance means periodic attention given to machine like lubrication, adjustments,
cleaning & minor repairs. It is estimated on yearly basis.
g) Repairs : This falls between normal maintenance and capital additions and includes cost of
repairs & spares. It is estimated at annual basis.
h) Scrap & rework : This includes cost of spoilage in a manufacture and cost of reworking
salvageable parts.
i) Power : These costs are generally brought into machine comparison studies only when
differing amount of energies are consumed by the several alternatives. The horse power
comparison can reveal whether one requires more energy than other or not. The power cost can
be calculated as
Power cost = (hp) (0.746) (cost/kwhr)/motor efficiency.
i) Perishable tools : This includes cost of expendable items like drills, reamers, cutters etc. The
items like jigs & fixtures are not considered perishable tools.
SOLVED PROBLEM : 1
From the following data about two machines the selection of machine A or B for
production of 125000 pieces annually. The information is gathered from the respectives
manufacturer’s quotations and from estimates of plant cost.
Machine A Machine B
First cost Rs.20,000/- Rs.35,000/-
Estimated Service life 10 years 10 years
Estimated salvage value Rs.2000/- Rs.3,500/-
Floor space 10 sqm 10 sqm
Power required 20 hp 25hp
Production capacity 100 pc/hr 125 pc/hr.
The rate of interest is 10% on invested capital. Taxes & insurance are 4%.
Floorspace cost is Rs.50.00 per sq. meter. Direct labour & fringe benefit combined amount to
Rs.10/- per hour. The cost of direct material is Rs.10 per piece. It is assumed that negligible
amount of scrap is present. Power costs Rs.1.50 per kwhr. The motors on each machine operate

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at 90 percent efficiency. Other variable costs in the department in which the machine selected is
to be used 200 percent of direct labour. The plant normally operates 2,000 hours per year.
Solution :
For machine A
Investment costs :
a) Annual capital recovery cost at 10% = (20,000 – 2000) x C.R.F.
= 18000 x (0.16275) + 200 = Rs. 3130
b) Taxes and insurance = [20000 x (.40)]/2 (11/10)
= Rs.440
c) Floor space cost = 10 x 50 = Rs 500.
Operating costs.
d) Time required to produce 1,25,000 = 1,25,000/100 unit/hr.
= 1250 hr.
e) Direct & fringe benefits cost = (1250 hr x 10 )
= Rs.12500
f) Direct material = (125000 unit ) x 0.10 = Rs.1250/-
g) Power cost = (20hp) (0.746) (1250) (1.5 Rs/kwhr )
= Rs 31083
h) other variable cost = (200%) x 12500 = Rs. 25000/-
Total annual cost = a+ b+ c+ d+ e+ f+ h = Rs. 85153/-
Similarly for machine B, the total annual cost comes out to be Rs. 93180.
Comparison of the two annual costs shows machine A is better choice than machine B. The
correct picture of comparison is obtained if a plot of total annual cost for machine A & machine
B for various volume of production in calculated & plotted i.e. on breakeven graph.
10.11 ACQUIRING NEW EQUIPMENT BY LEASING :
A lease is a contractual agreement whereby one party agrees to provide service of his
equipment without transfer of title to another party in exchange of fee paid at intervals over a
period of time, as specified in the contract. Use of such provision is not new. Such facilities are
provided by the various financial institutions like State financial Corporation to the new
entrepreneurs in India.
There are many pros & cons of leasing.
i) The initial capital investment is reduced of the saved funds can now be utilized for
working capital requirement.
ii) The leasing will usually cost more than buying.

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iii) The rent paid under the terms of bonafide lease is deductible for tax purpose. But the
depreciation is also deductible for tax purpose. So it is essential to balance the gain
from deducting the depreciation against the gain from deducting lease payment.

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iv) The option of repurchase if available and availed after few years can be done to get
facility of normal depreciation but then lease payment cannot be deducted.
Fig.10.1 shows various lease plans. It should be noted that none of the plans illustrated
extend beyond seven years, thus limiting, the risk of obsolescence to lessor. The rental payment
are highest initially and are reduced during the end of lease period. High starting rents may be
charged against profits, thus reducing taxes. Later however, as the rent becomes less, the net
profit appears larger and taxes will be greater.
When company may find to increase capacity only for short period of time the lease can
avoid risk of having capital permanently tied up. In contrast when it is necessary to reduce the
capacity, it is difficult when own equipment is involved. The leased only needs to be kept for
unexpired term of contract. The organizations with credit problems cannot assume that they can
lease out equipment because the lessor in that case will be cautious and may not accept the credit
risk. Ownership of equipment has been many times looked upon as mark of prestige. This
statement can have arguments both for & against it.

REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1. What is relationship between process selection & machine selection ?

2. What are the various sources of information available to the process engineer to assist
him in making a machine selection ?
3. To what conditions need for making a decision for a new machine be attributed ?
4. What is the difference between GPM & SPM ?
5. What conditions should prevail before SPM can be justified ?
6. How can the process engineer utilize the advantages of SPM in face of unpredictable
changes in product ?
7. What are the three broad categories into which the cost of operating machine can be
divided ?
8. What is the difference between prime accuracy and producing accuracy ?
9. What are the approaches for machine selection ?
10. What is leasing ? Explain its advantages & disadvantages as compared to ownership.

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CHAPTER XI
PROCESS PICTURE
The process engineer determines list of operations, operation sequence, tooling &
equipment required to manufacture the product. He then transmits this information is three
ways.
1) By process pictures illustrating product picture at each operations.
2) Tool routings which includes overall plan for product manufacturing.
3) Orders to initiate design, building and purchase of tools.

11.1 PROCESS SYMBOLS :

In preparing the process pictures several symbols are used to reduce time. These symbols
are given in fig. 11.1. The locators are shown by pyramids, whereas, supports by cubes. The
crossed hatched area on surface indicates addition or removal of large amount of material. ( eg.
Milling, Drilling, Blanking, Broaching Flame cutting etc.) The feathered edge on the surface
indicates addition or removal of small amount of material ( eg. Grinding, Reaming, Sizing,
Burnishing and also for surface treatments without material addition or removal. (eg. Heat
treatment (where surface is only treated)
When preparing assemblies, standard welding symbols should be used in process
pictures. The feathered edge here indicates addition of rivets, bolts, screws, clips & other
fastening devices for assembly processing.
The use of process symbol clearly distinguishes the responsibilities of process engineer &
tool engineer. The process engineer decides the quantity and position of locators, clamps and
supports. Thus, giving freedom of deciding the style, physical shape and size of all the specified
locators, clamps and supports to the tool engineer. eg. If process engineer specifies clamp the
tool engineer may select a toggle clamp or hydraulic clamp to meet his design requirements.

11.2 PROCESS PICTURE SHEET :

The process, picture many times may be given with some additional information so as to
use it as a tool routing. For each operation one process picture sheet is prepared and is often
called operation sketch. Normally, typical process picture sheet should cover following
information fig.11.2
1) One, two, or three views of workpiece as it appears after the operation given in process picture
sheet.
2) Processing surface where metal is added, or removed. (or some treatment is carried out)
3) Dimensional specifications produced in the operation shown on the sketch.
4) Position of locators supports and clamps with proper symbols.

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5) Operation number and description

6) Part name and number
7) Machine name and number
8) Production department number and location
9) Scale (which is intentionally distorted sometimes)
10) Date and process engineer’s signature.
11) Plant, name and address.

Fig. 11.1

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Fig. 11.3(a&b) Process picture requiring four views

Process picture thus describes workpiece just as it appears after a given operation. The
process picture will be exactly like part print only at final operation. Process pictures would be
prepared only for operations involving material addition, removal or surface treatments and
normally not useful for inspection, cleaning & other such operations.

11.3 ADVANTAGES OR USES OF PROCESS PICTURE SHEET.

Though process pictures are prepared to transmit information it is often found to be very
useful during (a) Processing of part (b) tool designing (c) manufacturing. Few of the advantages
of the process pictures are listed below
a) Advantages or uses during processing :
1) A visual aid for processing rather than relying on memory
2) Reduce chances of missing operations needed to manufacture the part.
3) Insurance of achievement of all dimensions as per part print.
4) Aid in deciding locating surfaces, position of locators, clamps and supports to get good
workpiece control.
5) Prevent placement of locators at non created or developed surface especially for complex
parts.
6) Aid in deciding changes to be made in tooling & equipment during part print changes.

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7) Aid in keeping control in combining, or automating operations.

b) Advantages or uses to tool engineer during designing :
1) Aid in deciding path or direction of machine operation.
2) Gets a idea of complete location system used in all operations.
3) Provide processing dimensions not shown on part print.
4) Aid in visualizing the workpiece at each stage, especially on sheet metal working or assembly
operations.
5) Aid in estimating cost of tools.
c) Advantages or uses of process picture in manufacturing part
1) Aid to production supervisor to check whether all the operations of the workpiece are
performed properly or not.
2) Aid foremen to check whether any alterations in positioning of locators, supports or clamps is
done during tool maintenance by unauthorized personnel.
3) Aid in plant layout in visualizing partially completed workpiece so that machine positioning &
spacing can be improved.
4) Aid in material handling system design at each stage
5) Aid to method and work standards department to estimate machining time at each operation.

11.4 PROCESSING DIMENSION :

It is necessary that the part print dimensions should be obtained within specified
tolerances in the planned manufacturing. To achieve this the surface are required to developed in
stages. eg. for a particular machined dimension two cuts (viz. roughing and finishing) are
required, to get close tolerances & good surface finish as per specifications. The finish cut is
made to part print dimension while the roughing cut is made to some intermediate dimension, not
specified on part print called as processing dimension. Similarly in drawing deep cup shaped
components two or three draws are required before the final component is drawn to the desired
dimensions. These intermediate cup dimensions (diameter & height) are not appearing on part
print and are called processing dimensions.(Fig.11.3)
Thus, processing dimensions, are those dimensions which do not appear on part print and
are decided by the process engineer. Certain conditions responsible for the need of processing
dimensions are
i) A machined dimensions with allowance for grinding after her treatment.
ii) A hole size with allowance for reaming or broaching.
iii) A rough cut to be followed by finish cut.
iv) Draw & redraw cup diameters, radii & heights.
v) Blank diameter for making a cup.

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11.4 SELECTION OF VIEWS :

The number of views to be shown on the process picture sheet are selected so as to
clearly show all dimensions, locators, clamps and supports. It can be seen from fig.11.2 that
only two views are sufficient, however for fig.11.3 (b) for sheet metal drawing operations four
views are required, as the blank size and cupsize both are required to be shown for clear
understanding of operations. Thus, the number of views to be shown are mainly dependent on
the type of manufacturing process used. Even in few cases of assembly operations isometric
view may be required. Many process picture sheets may be required for understanding of
difficult assembly operation.
In certain cases, dimensions on the process picture may not be found on the part print nor
considered processing dimensions. Such is case when standards are used in reference to thread,
gear teeth & splines. On the process picture only the source for reference of standards is given.
Say M 10 x 1.5 indicates metric threads with standard dimensions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS :
1. What information is provided in the process picture ?
2. What is processing dimensions ? Are there some dimensions neither found
on part print nor found on the process picture sheet ?
3. List some possible uses of process picture sheet.
4. Why should symbols be used on the process picture instead of actual
sketches of clamps or locators ?
5. Sketch the symbols used for locators, clamps, supports & combination
of these items.
6. How are the type & No. of views for process picture selected ?
7. Draw a process picture sheet for any operation performed
on a particular workpiece of your choice.
8. What are the operations indicated by reathered edge and hatched lines ?
9. Why are symbols used in process picture ?

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CHAPTER XII
OPERATION ROUTING

12.1 INTRODUCTION :
It is the most important form issued by the process engineer. It is many times combined
with process picture and contains following information like operations required, operation
sequence, tooling required, machines and equipment required. The design of the form used for
operation routing varies from organization to organizations. It is treated as a "recipe" or
instructions for making workpiece and gives step by step procedure for making a workpiece,
specifying the various ingradients like toolings, equipment and other supplies. The operations
routing is used by almost all departments and many times referred to by other names such as tool
routing, operation lineup, tool and equipment routing, equipment and tooling lineup or process
plan. A typical operations routing sheet is shown in fig.12.1.
12.2 ROUTING DESCRIPTION :
As shown in above example various information appears on an operations routing sheet.
Some of the information given below is obtained from the engineering releases or part print.
i. Name of company.
ii. Factory or plant number.
iii. Production department number
iv. Assembly number, model number.
v. Part name and number
vi. Sheet number and number of sheets
vii. Production required per hour.
The other information given below is to be provided by the process engineer.
viii. Operation number
ix. Operation Description
x. Machine name and model.
xi. Machine number
xii. Tool number
xiii. Number of tools required
xiv. Tool description
xv. Status of toolings (a) New (b) Changed (c) Cancelled (d) Reinstated the items to
be provided by process engineer as above are described below.
a) Operation numbers :
1) The operation number are initially assigned to each operation with increments of ten eg.
10, 20, 30, so that additional operations can be included when required (eg. between operation 10

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& 20, operation 23 & 27 can be included) without disturbing the other operation sequence. If
new operation is added in place of some operation, the old operation number should not be
reused to avoid confusion & errors. However if old operations is reinstated the old operation
number can be used.
2) The operation number are even assigned to inspection operations where no workpiece
change takes place. The rules for deciding when one operation ends and another begins, (or how
to assign operation numbers) is given below.
i) When workpiece leaves one machine and is transferred to another, new operations
number is assigned.
ii) Same operation number is assigned when same operations are performed on two
machines for higher production rate.
iii) When an operator finishers work on the workpiece and another operator starts work, a
new operation number is assigned.
3) The operation number helps in controlling operation sequence. Even if the routing sheets
are separated, still the proper operation sequence can be identified from the operation numbers.
The operation numbers are usually marked on the tooling for that operation.
b) Operation description :
The operation description fully describes the operations performed on the work. It should
tell manufacturing process to be used, part print dimensions and tolerances to produced,
processing dimensions & tolerances, area on the workpiece where operation is to be performed.
This description should be checked against the part print to insure that all dimensions have been
accounted for when work standard routings are made, the operation description can be shortened.
eg. Drill and ream central hole, to 20 ± 0.5 diameter in the valve rocker lever.
c) Tool Numbers :
These numbers are assigned only to the tooling which are designed. Whereas the
commercial tooling does not require tool numbers. Normally the number of the specially
designed tooling is recorded first and then for commercial tooling.
d) Tool Description :
The tool description given on the routing is also given in the tool order and tells the
general style of the tooling. In case of gauges dimensions are also given eg. 1) Adjustable snap
gauge 2.25 GO 1.75 NOGO ii) Progressive Punch. Notch and cut off die.
e) Status of tooling :
The status need not be mentioned when a new operations routing is written as all tooling
is considered new. But during revisions of the operation routing the status may be written as
new, changed cancelled, or reinstated. The unrevised tooling has no status indicated and is
originally shown on the routing.

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12.2 USES OF OPERATIONS ROUTING :

The operations routing prepared by he process engineer is used it many ways.
i) It serves as reference for writing orders to obtain tooling & equipment.
ii) It serves as reference for developing new operation routing when engineering changes are
made in workpiece or when operation sequence is changed.
iii) In case of any difficulty in achieving the desired production rate or workpiece quality, the
original routing can be altered.
iv) It serves as reference for making new operation routing for similar workpieces.
v) When the estimate of requirement of tooling and equipment for a similar workpiece is to
be made, it can server as a ready reference.
vi) It acts as master for any reference to the tooling & equipment and is used by almost all
the department like standards (time study). Quality control, Plant Layout, stores, Production,
Method, Production control, Material handling and Tool room.
Time study department uses it for preparing work standards routing which includes,
standard time for each operation and is again used my various departments.
Quality control department uses operation routing mainly for deciding the inspection
procedures, finds gauges required and dimensions to be checked.
Plant layout department uses it for arrangement and spacing of the machine in relation to
building structure.
Stores uses it for planning the requirement of perishable items like drills, reamers, cutters,
gloves, cutting oil, lubricants etc.
Production department uses it for setting tooling equipment as per the operation routing,
and also as guide for instructing workers.
Method department may use it for possible process improvements.
Production & material control department uses it for determining the overall production
schedule.
Tool room uses it for coordinating the workpiece with tooling, other tooling, operation
sequence etc.

12.3 WORK STANDARD ROUTING :

It is prepared by the standards department after receiving the operation routing as a
reference. The standard times for each operation are indicated on this new routing. Moreover
the description of the operation can also be shortened. It is also called labour routing. The work
standard routing are referred by various departments like Production, Process engineering,
Production & material control, Inspection, Accounting & Time keeping, Sales & Service,
Product engineering, Purchasing, Production department mainly uses it for estimating a fair days

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work. Process engineering uses it for capacity planning, production material control uses if for
deciding production schedules.
Inspection use it for their manpower planning, accounting & time keeping use it of finding
labour cost, labour efficiency etc, sales & service use it for planning delivery dates, product
engineering uses it for comparing the cost with the alternate designs, and purchasing department
uses it for raw material planning, for vendor planning etc. The typical work standard routing is
shown in fig.12.2.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is an operation routing?
2. Why would routing be considered as master plan for production?
3. Which department make use of operation routing?
4. How are the operation numbers specifics on the routing?
5. Why is it undesirable to refuse the operation numbers on the same routing?
6. What information is provided in the operation description?
7. What information is provided in the tool description?
8. What information may the work standard department add to the routing?
9. Who has the authority to change of revised the original routing?
10. What is meant by status of tooling?
11. How is it decided, of what stage one operation stops and new begins?
12. Prepare a operation routing for any types of component of your choice?
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