Current Electricity [Key words: Induced EMF and Current, Magnetic flux, Motional EMF, Fleming s right hand

rule, Self induction, Mutual induction, Eddy currents, Alternating current period, frequency, instantaneous value, peak value, mean value, RMS value, phase angle, Reactance Inductive, capacitive, Impedance, Resonance sharpness, resonance frequency, quality factor, Power factor, Choke, Hysteresis hysteresis curve, residual magnetism, coercive field, Transformer turns ratio, step-up and step-down, AC meter] Introduction: Everyone knows importance of current electricity. Almost all devices require electricity. Electromagnetic induction is vital for production of alternating current. The discovery of electromagnetic induction establish the symmetry of inter convertibility between electricity and magnetism and also provide another example for observation that nature loves symmetry. This is due to simple experimental observation of Michel Farade. Electromagnetic Induction: This is the phenomenon of inducing a current or electro motive force (emf) by varying the magnetic flux linked with the coil. Experiments to demonstrate Electromagnetic Induction: Coil and magnet experiment

M is large coil of several turns of a conductor connected to a sensitive galvanometer G i) When a magnet NS is moved towards the coil, the galvanometer shows a deflection. ii) iii) The galvanometer shows opposite deflection when the magnet is moved away. The galvanometer shows deflection when the coil is moved and magnet is stationary, what matters is the relative motion between the two.

iv)

No deflection is observed if there is no relative motion between coil and magnet.

v)

If the relative motion is brought about faster, the deflection is large.

Thus the relative motion between the magnet and coil induces emf and current if it is closed circuit. a) Coil and coil experiment:

Two coils, P called the primary and S called the secondary are placed co-axially. A current can be established in P by means of a battery B and a key K. S is connected to a sensitive galvanometer G. Current in P produces a magnetic field in the region of S.
(1)

When the key is closed, a deflection is observed in the galvanometer. (ii) When the key is opened, an opposite deflection is observed. (iii) If the key is closed and a relative motion is caused between P and S there is a deflection, whose direction depends on whether the coils are approaching or receding. (iv) Jerky motion of coils produces large deflection. (v) If the current is steady and P and S are stationary, no deflection is observed in the galvanometer. (vi) Introduction of an iron rod into S increases the above effects appreciably. Thus a change of current in the primary p induces an emf and current in the secondary. Even relative motion (p should contain current) between them causes the same. Explanation In these experiments, we note that there is a change in magnetic flux linked with the coil (S) leading to an induced emf and current. The presence of a ferromagnetic iron core (for e.g., iron) in the coil increases the flux T times, where T is the relative permeability of core material. In the above experiments,

induced emf appears

instantaneously if and only if changes. If changes

rapidly, the emf is larger. It can also be observed that the induced current at any instant in S flows in such a direction that it tends to set up a magnetic flux in S which opposes the changes in which is taking place at that instant. Laws of Electromagnetic induction Faradays Laws: I Law: An induced emf is set up in a circuit when the magnetic flux Linked with the circuit is changing. This induced emf lasts as long as the flux linked with circuit keeps changing. II Law: The magnitude of the induced emf (e) in a conducting loop is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux () linked with the loop i.e e (d/dt) (The negative sign shows that the direction of induced emf tends to oppose the flux change). If the magnetic flux change takes place in a coil of N turns, an induced emf appears in every turn. Total emf induced e = N (d / dt) Lenzs law An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that is inducing the current. In general it states that the direction of induced current will be in such a direction as to oppose the cause for inducing it. Note: If a conductor is moving in a steady magnetic field, the polarity is such that the conductor experiences magnetic forces which oppose the motion of the conductor. Explanation: Experiments show that an induced emf arises only when there is a change of magnetic flux. For example, no emf is induced in a stationary circuit near a powerful magnet. The law of conservation of energy shows that it should be so. Otherwise, emf and electrical energy could have been produced without doing any work.

Lenzs Law shows how the energy conservation principle limits the induced emf. In the figure current flows in the coil such that the end M facing the magnet behaves like a north pole when the north pole of the magnet approaches the coil, and tries to push the magnet back. If the North Pole is withdrawn from end M, the direction of induced current reverses resulting in Coil-magnet experiment a south pole which attracts the North Pole towards M. Thus, induced emf opposes the change in magnetic flux. Thus, e (d/dt). The negative sign is in accordance with Lenzs law. It can be shown that the constant of proportionality is 1 and hence e = d/dt where is in weber, t is in second, induced emf is in volt. In general, if the magnetic field the the coil, then the magnetic flux linked with the coil is = nAB cos. Magnitude of makes an angle with the normal to the plane of

the induced emf is If the magnetic field is uniform over the area A of the coil and if B is

normal to A, flux linked with a single turn of the coil is AB. The flux linked with n turns is, = nAB.

Methods of changing magnetic flux linked with the coil By Changing the magnitude of the magnetic field within the coil By changing the area of the coil or the portion of that area which lies within the magnetic field. Example: By expanding the coil or sliding it in or out of the field

By changing the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the area of the coil. Example: By rotating the coil so that the direction of the magnetic field is first perpendicular to the plane of the coil and then is along the plane of the coil. Induced Electric Field A changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This induced electric field is just as real as an electrostatic field produced by static charges. on a particle of charge q0. However

Either field will exert a force q0

Induced electric field due to a changing magnetic field exists even in free space, in the absence of a conductor or charges. Induced electric field is a non-conservative field (work done in moving a charge around a closed path is not zero). Electrostatic field due to charges is a conservative field. Electric potential can be associated with the electrostatic field, but not with the induced electric field. Induced electric field lines form closed loops and are independent of the presence of charges. Flemings Right Hand Rule (Dynamo rule or Generator rule)

When a straight conductor moves parallel to itself and nonnal to a magnetic field, an emf is induced, the direction of the induced emf is given by Flemings right hand rule. Stretch the fingers of the right hand such that the fore finger, the middle finger

and the thumb are mutually at right angles. Then, if the forefinger shows the direction

of the magnetic field and the thumb shows the motion of the conductor, the middle finger shows the direction of the induced current and emf. EMF induced in a rod moving in a uniform magnetic field motional emf

Consider a rod PQ of length l placed in a uniform magnetic field B. Suppose B acts perpendicular to the length of rod and into the plane of the paper. Let the rod move with a constant speed v. Let the rod move from the position PQ to the position PQ through a distance dx in a time dt. In this time the area swept by the rod is PPQQ =1 dx. The change in the magnetic flux in this time is Bl dx.

Accord ing to laws of electromagnetic induction magnitude of induced emf is

From Faradays law, this is equal to the emf induced in the rod. Therefore, e = Blv. This is called motional emf. (P will be +ve, while Q will be ve) If this moving conductor is a part of a closed circuit an induced current flows in it. If the conductor is in a circuit of resistance R, i = e/R = Blv/R. The direction of this induced current can be found by applying Flemings right hand rule. In the given case (figure above) electrons experience a force and hence move towarth the end Q, leaving a net positive charge at P. As a result of this charge separation, an electric field is produced inside the conductor. The charges accumulate until the magnetic force evB which is along downward direction is balanced by the upward electric force eE. At equilibrium eE = evB

E = vB The electric field produced in the conductor (once the electrons stop moving, E is constant) is related to the p.d. across the ends of the conductor by V= El = (vB)l , where V is induced emf The induced emf, e = Blv The upper end P is at a higher electric potential than the lower end Q. If the conductor moves at an angle (0 < <90) to the magnetic field, then Induced emf, e = Blv sin Self Induction When a current flows in a coil, a magnetic field is set up. If the current were to change, the magnetic field would also change, thereby causing a change in the flux linked with the coil. This change induces an emf in the coil, which in accordance with Lenzs law will oppose the change i.e., it opposes the change in current. The phenomenon is called self induction. Thus, the phenomenon of an emf being induced in a coil due to a varying current in the same coil is called self induction. The emf induced during the growth is called back emf and during the decay is called forward emf. It is observed that the time of growth is greater than the time of decay. Hence the forward emf is greater than the back emf. The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current I flowing through it. i.e., I =LI ---------- (1)

where L is called the Co-efficient of self induction or self inductance of the coil. In equation (1) when I = 1 A, = L. Thus, self inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the flux linked with it when a current of 1 ampere flows through it. Differentiating the equation with respect time gives d/dt = LdI/dt or e = LdI/dt If dI/dt is 1 ampere per sec and then e = L Thus, the self-inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of current is unity.

The unit of self-inductance is henry (H). From equation (2), when I=1A/s and e= I V. we find that L=IH Hence, self-inductance of a coil is one henry if one volt of emf is induced in the coil when the current in it changes at the rate of one ampere per second. Mutual Induction The phenomenon of an emf being induced in a coil (secondary) because of a varying current in another coil (primary) is called mutual induction. The magnetic flux linked with the secondary is proportional to the current flowing in the primary. i.e., s Ip or s =MIp ----------------------- (2) where M is called the mutual inductance between the two coils. In equation (2) when Ip =1A, M = s. Thus, mutual inductance between a pair of coils is numerically equal to the flux linked with one coil due to unit current in the other coil. Differentiating the equation (2) gives es = ds/dt = M dIp/dt and if dIp/dt = 1 ampere per second, then es = M ------------(3) Thus, the mutual inductance between two coils is numerically equal to the emf induced in one of the coils when the rate of change of current in the other coil is unity. The unit of mutual inductance is also Henry. From equation (3), when dI/dt=1A/s and es=1V we find M = l H. Hence, the mutual inductance between two coils is one Henry, if one volt of emf is induced in one of the coils when the current in the other changes at the rate of one ampere per second. Note: A change in flux of one weber per second will induce an electromotive force of one volt. A particle carrying a charge of 1 coulomb and passing through a magnetic field of 1 tesla at a speed of 1 meter per second experiences a force of 1 newton, according to the Lorentz force law. As an SI derived unit, the tesla can also be expressed as

Units used: A = ampere C = coulomb kg = kilogram m = meter N = newton s = second T = tesla V = volt Wb = weber

Alternating current A current whose direction reverses at regular intervals of time and whose magnitude may also change is called an alternating current (AC). It can be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field. A device which generates ac is called ac generator or dynamo. Figure shows some ac waveforms.

(a) Sinusoidal waveform (b) Rectangular waveform (c) Sawtooth waveform Expression for sinusoidal alternating current (AC)

Consider a coil of n turns and area A placed in a uniform magnetic field. Let the time t = 0, when = 0. Let the coil rotate with a uniform constant angular velocity . At any instant, let OR, the normal to the coil, make an angle . The magnetic flux linked with coil at an instant t is =nABcos But =t =nABcost From the laws of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf is e=-(d/dt)=-d/dt(nABcost) e=nABsint When sint =1, the induced emf is maximum and is equal to nAB and it is denoted by e0. e=e0sint e0 is called the peak value of the emf. When e is plotted against time, it is seen, that it varies sinusoidally.

Some important definitions.

1. Period (T) of alternating current is the time required for one complete cycle of AC. 2. Frequency (F) of alternating current is the number of cycles completed in one second. 3. Instantaneous value is the value of alternating current or voltage at a given instant. 4. Peak value is the maximum value attained by alternating current (or emf) during a cycle (io, eo). 5. Mean or average value is the average of the instantaneous values of alternating current (or emf) measured over half cycle (Iavg, eavg ). It can be shown that Iavg= I0 and eavg= e0 6. The effective value or virtual value of AC is defined as that steady unidirectional current (DC) which when flowing through a resistor for a given time produces the same amount of heat as that produced by alternating current when passed through the same resistor for the same interval of time. Root Mean Square Value: In the case of sinusoidal AC, the effective value is given by the square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values taken over a complete cycle. It is called root mean square value or rms value. It can be shown that Irms= and erms=

Thus,

= 1.11

Phase of an AC is the fraction of its time period that has elapsed from the instant when it last passed through the reference value in the positive direction. During a time interval equal to the period (T), the phase changes by 2 radian. Alternating current circuit An alternating current circuit consists of combination of circuit elements like resistor, inductor and capacitor fed by an AC source. Phasor diagram is a graphical construction in which alternating quantities such as current and voltage represented by rotating vectors called Phasors. The length of the phasors represents the maximum value of the quantity. The projection of the phasor onto the vertical axis represents the instantaneous value of that quantity. By using a phasor diagram the method of combining sinusoidally varying currents or voltages with different phases is simplified.

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