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Mathematics in Ancient India

1. An Overview
Amartya Kumar Dutta

Amartya Kumar Dutta is an Associate Professor of Mathematics at the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata. His research interest is in commutative algebra.

In th is se r ie s o f a r tic le s, w e in te n d to h a v e a g lim p se o f s o m e o f th e la n d m a r k s in a n c ie n t In d ia n m a th e m a tic s w ith sp e c ia l e m p h a s is o n n u m b e r th e o r y . T h is issu e fe a tu re s a b r ie f o v e r v ie w o f so m e o f th e h ig h p e a k s o f m a th e m a tic s in a n c ie n t In d ia . In th e n e x t p a r t w e sh a ll d e sc r ib e A r y a b h a ta 's g e n e ra l so lu tio n in in te g e r s o f th e e q u a tio n a x by = c. In su b se q u e n t in sta lm e n ts w e sh a ll d isc u ss in so m e d e ta il tw o o f th e m a jo r c o n tr ib u tio n s b y In d ia n s in n u m b e r th e o r y . T h e c lim a x o f th e In d ia n a c h ie v e m e n ts in a lg e b r a a n d n u m b e r th e o r y w a s th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e in g e n io u s chakravala m e th o d fo r so lv in g , in in te g e r s, th e e q u a tio n x 2 D y 2 = 1 , e r r o n e o u sly k n o w n a s th e P e ll e q u a tio n . W e s h a ll la te r d e sc r ib e th e p a rtia l so lu tio n o f B ra h m a g u p ta a n d th e n th e c o m p le te so lu tio n d u e to J a y a d e v a a n d B h a sk a r a c h a r y a . V e d ic M a th e m a tic s: T h e S u lb a S u tr a s M a th em a tics, in its ea rly sta g es, d ev elo p ed m a in ly a lo n g tw o b ro a d ov erla p p in g tra d itio n s: (i) th e g eo m etric a n d (ii) th e a rith m etica l a n d a lg eb ra ic. A m o n g th e p reG reek a n cien t civ iliza tio n s, it is in In d ia th a t w e see a stro n g em p h a sis o n b o th th ese g rea t strea m s o f m a th em a tics. O th er a n cien t civ iliza tio n s lik e th e E g y p tia n a n d th e B a b y lo n ia n h a d p ro g ressed essen tia lly a lo n g th e co m p u ta tio n a l tra d itio n . A S eid en b erg , a n em in en t a lg eb ra ist a n d h isto ria n o f m a th em a tics, tra ced th e o rig in o f so p h istica ted m a th em a tics to th e o rig in a to rs o f th e R ig V ed ic ritu a ls ([1 , 2 ]).

Keywords. Taittiriya Samhita, Sulba-sutras, Chakravala method, MeruPrastara, Vedic altars, Yuktibhasa, Madhava series.

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T h e o ld est k n ow n m a th em a tics tex ts in ex isten ce a re th e S u lba-su tras o f B a u d h ay a n a , A p a sta m b a a n d K a ty ay a n a w h ich fo rm p a rt o f th e litera tu re o f th e S u tra p erio d o f th e la ter V ed ic a g e. T h e S u lb a su tra s h a d b een estim a ted to h av e b een co m p o sed a ro u n d 8 0 0 B C (so m e recen t resea rch ers a re su g g estin g ea rlier d a tes). B u t th e m a th em a tica l k n ow led g e reco rd ed in th ese su tras (a p h o rism s) a re m u ch m o re a n cien t; fo r th e S u lb a a u th o rs em p h a sise th a t th ey w ere m erely sta tin g fa cts a lrea d y k n ow n to th e co m p o sers o f th e B ra h m a n a s a n d S a m h ita s o f th e ea rly V ed ic a g e ([3 ], [1 ], [2 ]). T h e S u lb a su tra s g iv e a co m p ila tio n o f th e resu lts in m a th em a tics th a t h a d b een u sed fo r th e d esig n in g a n d co n stru ctio n s o f th e va rio u s eleg a n t V ed ic re-a lta rs rig h t fro m th e d aw n o f civ iliza tio n . T h e a lta rs h a d rich sy m b o lic sig n i ca n ce a n d h a d to b e co n stru cted w ith a ccu ra cy. T h e d esig n s o f sev era l o f th ese b rick -a lta rs a re q u ite in v o lv ed { fo r in sta n ce, th ere a re co n stru ctio n s d ep ictin g a fa lco n in ig h t w ith cu rv ed w in g s, a ch a rio tw h eel co m p lete w ith sp o k es o r a to rto ise w ith ex ten d ed h ea d a n d leg s! C o n stru ctio n s o f th e re-a lta rs a re d escrib ed in a n en o rm o u sly d ev elo p ed fo rm in th e S atapatha B rahm an a (c. 2 0 0 0 B C ; v id e [3 ]); so m e o f th em a re m en tio n ed in th e ea rlier T aittiriya S am hita (c. 3 0 0 0 B C ; v id e [3 ]); b u t th e sa cri cia l re-a lta rs a re referred { w ith o u t ex p licit co n stru ctio n { in th e ev en ea rlier R ig V ed ic S a m h ita s, th e o ld est stra ta o f th e ex ta n t V ed ic litera tu re. T h e d escrip tio n s o f th e re-a lta rs fro m th e T a ittiriy a S a m h ita o n w a rd s a re ex a ctly th e sa m e a s th o se fo u n d in th e la ter S u lb a su tra s. P la n e g eo m etry sta n d s o n tw o im p o rta n t p illa rs h av in g a p p lica tio n s th ro u g h o u t h isto ry : (i) th e resu lt p o p u la rly k n ow n a s th e `P y th a g o ra s th eo rem ' a n d (ii) th e p ro p erties o f sim ila r g u res. In th e S u lb a su tra s, w e see a n ex p licit sta tem en t o f th e P y th a g o ra s th eo rem a n d its a p p lica tio n s in va rio u s g eo m etric co n stru ctio n s su ch a s co n stru ctio n o f a sq u a re eq u a l (in a rea ) to th e

A O P Q C

F B

D H

From the KATYAYANA sulba.

Vakrapaksa-syenacit. First layer of construction (after Baudhayana)

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How great is the science which revealed itself in the Sulba, and how meagre is my intellect! I have aspired to cross the unconquerable ocean in a mere raft. B Datta alluding to Kalidasa

su m , o r d i eren ce, o f tw o g iv en sq u a res, o r to a recta n g le, o r to th e su m o f n sq u a res. T h ese co n stru ctio n s im p licitly in v o lv e a p p lica tio n o f a lg eb ra ic id en titites su ch a s (a b)2 = a 2 + b 2 2 a b, a 2 b 2 = (a + b)(a b), a b = ((a + b)= 2 )2 ((a b)= 2 )2 a n d n a 2 = ((n + 1 )= 2 )2 a 2 ((n 1 )= 2 )2 a 2 . T h ey re ect a b len d in g o f g eo m etric a n d su b tle a lg eb ra ic th in k in g a n d in sig h t w h ich w e a sso cia te w ith E u clid . In fa ct, th e S u lb a co n stru ctio n o f a sq u a re eq u a l in a rea to a g iv en recta n g le is ex a ctly th e sa m e a s g iv en b y E u clid sev era l cen tu ries la ter ! T h ere a re g eo m etric so lu tio n s to w h a t a re a lg eb ra ic a n d n u m b er-th eo retic p ro b lem s. P y th a g o ra s th eo rem w a s k n ow n in o th er a n cien t civ iliza tio n s lik e th e B a b y lo n ia n , b u t th e em p h a sis th ere w a s o n th e n u m erica l a n d n o t so m u ch o n th e p ro p er g eo m etric a sp ect w h ile in th e S u lb a su tra s o n e sees d ep th in b o th a sp ects { esp ecia lly th e g eo m etric. T h is is a su b tle p o in t a n a ly sed in d eta il b y S eid en b erg . F ro m certa in d ia g ra m s d escrib ed in th e S u lb a su tra s, sev era l h isto ria n s a n d m a th em a ticia n s lik e B u rk , H a n k el, S ch o p en h a u er, S eid en b erg a n d V a n d er W a erd en h av e co n clu d ed th a t th e S u lb a a u th o rs p o ssessed p ro o fs o f g eo m etrica l resu lts in clu d in g th e P y th a g o ra s th eo rem { so m e o f th e d eta ils a re a n a ly sed in th e p io n eerin g w o rk o f D a tta ([2 ]). O n e o f th e p ro o fs o f th e P y th a g o ra s th eo rem , ea sily d ed u cib le fro m th e S u lb a v erses, is la ter d escrib ed m o re ex p licitly b y B h a ska ra II (1 1 5 0 A D ). A p a rt fro m th e k n ow led g e, sk ill a n d in g en u ity in g eo m etry a n d g eo m etric a lg eb ra , th e V ed ic civ iliza tio n w a s stro n g in th e co m p u ta tio n a l a sp ects o f m a th em a tics a s w ell { th ey h a n d led th e a rith m etic o f fra ctio n s a s w ell a s su rd s w ith ea se, fo u n d g o o d ra tio n a l a p p ro x im a tio n s to irra tio n a l n u m b ers lik e th e sq u a re ro o t o f 2 , a n d , o f co u rse, u sed sev era l sig n i ca n t resu lts o n m en su ra tio n . A n a m a zin g fea tu re o f a ll a n cien t In d ia n m a th em a tica l litera tu re, b eg in n in g w ith th e S u lb a su tra s, is th a t th ey

But the Vedic Hindu, in his great quest of the Para-vidya, Satyasya Satyam, made progress in the Apara-Vidya, including the various arts and sciences, to a considerable extent, and with a completeness which is unparallelled in antiquity. B Datta

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th ey a re co m p o sed en tirely in v erses { a n in cred ib le fea t! T h is tra d itio n o f co m p o sin g terse su tras, w h ich co u ld b e ea sily m em o rised , en su red th a t, in sp ite o f th e p a u city a n d p erish a b ility o f w ritin g m a teria ls, so m e o f th e co re k n ow led g e g o t o ra lly tra n sm itted to su ccessiv e g en era tio n s. P o st-V e d ic M a th e m a tic s D u rin g th e p erio d 6 0 0 B C -3 0 0 A D , th e G reek s m a d e p ro fo u n d co n trib u tio n s to m a th em a tics { th ey p io n eered th e a x io m a tic a p p ro a ch th a t is ch a ra cteristic o f m o d ern m a th em a tics, crea ted th e m a g n i cen t ed i ce o f E u clid ea n g eo m etry, fo u n d ed trig o n o m etry, m a d e im p ressiv e b eg in n in g s in n u m b er th eo ry, a n d b ro u g h t o u t th e in trin sic b ea u ty, eleg a n ce a n d g ra n d eu r o f p u re m a th em a tics. B a sed o n th e so lid fo u n d a tio n p rov id ed b y E u clid , G reek g eo m etry so a red fu rth er in to th e h ig h er g eo m etry o f co n ic sectio n s d u e to A rch im ed es a n d A p o llo n iu s. A rch im ed es in tro d u ced in teg ra tio n a n d m a d e sev era l o th er m a jo r co n trib u tio n s in m a th em a tics a n d p h y sics. B u t a fter th is b rillia n t p h a se o f th e G reek s, crea tiv e m a th em a tics v irtu a lly ca m e to a h a lt in th e W est till th e m o d ern rev iva l. O n th e o th er h a n d , th e In d ia n co n trib u tio n , w h ich b eg a n fro m th e ea rliest tim es, co n tin u ed v ig o ro u sly rig h t u p to th e six teen th cen tu ry A D , esp ecia lly in a rith m etic, a lg eb ra a n d trig o n o m etry. In fa ct, fo r sev era l cen tu ries a fter th e d eclin e o f th e G reek s, it w a s o n ly in In d ia , a n d to so m e ex ten t C h in a , th a t o n e co u ld n d a n a b u n d a n ce o f crea tiv e a n d o rig in a l m a th em a tica l a ctiv ity. In d ia n m a th em a tics u sed to b e h eld in h ig h esteem b y co n tem p o ra ry sch o la rs w h o w ere ex p o sed to it. F o r in sta n ce, a m a n u scrip t fo u n d in a S p a n ish m o n a stery (9 7 6 A D ) reco rd s ([4 ],[5 ]): \T he In dian s have an extrem ely su btle an d pen etratin g in tellect, an d w hen it com es to arithm etic, geom etry an d other su ch advan ced disciplin es, other ideas m u st m ake w ay for theirs. T he best proof of

nor did he [Thibaut] formulate the obvious conclusion, namely, that the Greeks were not the inventors of plane geometry, rather it was the Indians. A Seidenberg

Anyway, the damage had been done and the Sulvasutras have never taken the position in the history of mathematics that they deserve. A Seidenberg

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The cord stretched in the diagonal of a rectangle produces both (areas) which the cords forming the longer and shorter sides of an oblong produce separately. (translation from the Sulbasutras)

this is the n in e sym bols w ith w hich they represen t each n u m ber n o m atter how large." S im ila r trib u te w a s p a id b y th e S y ria n sch o la r S ev eru s S eb o k h t in 6 6 2 A D ([5 ], [6 ]). T h e D e c im a l N o ta tio n a n d A r ith m e tic In d ia g av e to th e w o rld a p riceless g ift { th e d ecim a l sy stem . T h is p ro fo u n d a n o n y m o u s In d ia n in n ova tio n is u n su rp a ssed fo r sh eer b rillia n ce o f a b stra ct th o u g h t a n d u tility a s a p ra ctica l in v en tio n . T h e d ecim a l n o ta tio n d eriv es its p ow er m a in ly fro m tw o k ey stro k es o f g en iu s: th e co n cep t o f p la ce-va lu e a n d th e n o tio n o f zero a s a d ig it. G B H a lsted ([7 ]) h ig h lig h ted th e p ow er o f th e p la ce-va lu e o f zero w ith a b ea u tifu l im a g ery : \T he im portan ce of the creation of the zero m ark can n ever be exaggerated. T his givin g to airy n othin g, n ot m erely a local habitation an d a n am e, a pictu re, a sym bol, bu t helpfu l pow er, is the characteristic of the H in du race w hen ce it spran g. It is like coin in g the N irvan a in to dyn am os. N o sin gle m athem atical creation has been m ore poten t for the gen eral on -go of in telligen ce an d pow er." T h e d ecim a l sy stem h a s a d ecep tiv e sim p licity a s a resu lt o f w h ich ch ild ren a ll ov er th e w o rld lea rn it ev en a t a ten d er a g e. It h a s a n eco n o m y in th e n u m b er o f sy m b o ls u sed a s w ell a s th e sp a ce o ccu p ied b y a w ritten n u m b er, a n a b ility to e o rtlessly ex p ress a rb itra rily la rg e n u m b ers a n d , a b ov e a ll, co m p u ta tio n a l fa cility. T h u s th e tw elv e-d ig it R o m a n n u m b er (D C C C L X X X V III) is sim p ly 8 8 8 in th e d ecim a l sy stem ! M o st o f th e sta n d a rd resu lts in b a sic a rith m etic a re o f In d ia n o rig in . T h is in clu d es n ea t, sy stem a tic a n d stra ig h tfo rw a rd tech n iq u es o f th e fu n d a m en ta l a rith m etic o p era tio n s: a d d itio n , su b tra ctio n , m u ltip lica tio n , d iv isio n , ta k in g sq u a res a n d cu b es, a n d ex tra ctin g sq u a re a n d cu b e ro o ts; th e ru les o f o p era tio n s w ith fra ctio n s a n d su rd s; va rio u s ru les o n ra tio a n d p ro p o rtio n lik e th e ru le

A common source for the Pythagorean and Vedic mathematics is to be sought either in the Vedic mathematics or in an older mathematics very much like it. ... What was this older, common source like? I think its mathematics was very much like what we see in the Sulvasutras. A Seidenberg

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o f th ree; a n d sev era l co m m ercia l a n d rela ted p ro b lem s lik e in co m e a n d ex p en d itu re, p ro t a n d lo ss, sim p le a n d co m p o u n d in terest, d isco u n t, p a rtn ersh ip , co m p u ta tio n s o f th e av era g e im p u rities o f g o ld , sp eed s a n d d ista n ces, a n d th e m ix tu re a n d cistern p ro b lem s sim ila r to th o se fo u n d in m o d ern tex ts. T h e In d ia n m eth o d s o f p erfo rm in g lo n g m u ltip lica tio n s a n d d iv isio n s w ere in tro d u ced in E u ro p e a s la te a s th e 1 4 th cen tu ry A D . W e h av e b eco m e so u sed to th e ru les o f o p eratio n s w ith fra ctio n s th a t w e ten d to ov erlo o k th e fa ct th a t th ey co n ta in id ea s w h ich w ere u n fa m ilia r to th e E g y p tia n s, w h o w ere g en era lly p ro cien t in a rith m etic, a n d th e G reek s, w h o h a d so m e o f th e m o st b rillia n t m in d s in th e h isto ry o f m a th em a tics. T h e ru le o f th ree, b ro u g h t to E u ro p e v ia th e A ra b s, w a s v ery h ig h ly reg a rd ed b y m erch a n ts d u rin g a n d a fter th e ren a issa n ce. It ca m e to b e k n ow n a s th e G o ld en R u le fo r its g rea t p o p u la rity a n d u tility in co m m ercia l co m p u ta tio n s { m u ch sp a ce u sed to b e d ev o ted to th is ru le b y th e ea rly E u ro p ea n w riters o n a rith m etic. T h e ex cellen ce a n d sk ill a tta in ed b y th e In d ia n s in th e fo u n d a tio n s o f a rith m etic w a s p rim a rily d u e to th e a d va n ta g e o f th e ea rly d iscov ery o f th e d ecim a l n o ta tio n { th e k ey to a ll p rin cip a l id ea s in m o d ern a rith m etic. F o r in sta n ce, th e m o d ern m eth o d s fo r ex tra ctin g sq u a re a n d cu b e ro o ts, d escrib ed b y A ry a b h a ta in th e 5 th cen tu ry A D , clev erly u se th e id ea s of p la ce va lu e a n d zero a n d th e a lg eb ra ic ex p a n sio n s o f (a + b)2 a n d (a + b)3 . T h ese m eth o d s w ere in tro d u ced in E u ro p e o n ly in th e 1 6 th cen tu ry A D . A p a rt fro m th e ex a ct m eth o d s, In d ia n s a lso in v en ted sev era l in g en io u s m eth o d s fo r d eterm in a tio n o f a p p rox im a te sq u a re ro o ts o f n o n -sq u a re n u m b ers, so m e o f w h ich w e sh a ll m en tio n in a su b seq u en t issu e. D u e to th e g a p s in o u r k n ow led g e a b o u t th e ea rly p h a se o f p o st-V ed ic In d ia n m a th em a tics, th e p recise d eta ils reg a rd in g th e o rig in o f d ecim a l n o ta tio n is n o t k n ow n . T h e co n cep t o f zero ex isted b y th e tim e o f P in g a la (d a ted 2 0 0 B C ). T h e id ea o f p la ce-va lu e h a d b een im p licit in

... the basic point is that the dominant aspect of Old Babylonian mathematics is its computational character ... The Sulvasutras know both aspects (geometric and computational) and so does the Satapatha Brahmana. A Seidenberg

The striking thing here is that we have a proof. One will look in vain for such things in OldBabylonia. The OldBabylonians, or their predecessors, must have had proofs of their formulae, but one does not find them in OldBabylonia. A Seidenberg referring to a verse in the Apastamba Sulbasutra on an isoceles trapezoid)

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The diagonal of a rectangle produces both (areas) which its length and breadth produce separately. (original verse from the Sulbasutras along with the translation are given in [2], p.104)

a n cien t S a n sk rit term in o lo g y { a s a resu lt, In d ia n s co u ld e o rtlessly h a n d le la rg e n u m b ers rig h t fro m th e V ed ic A g e. T h ere is term in o lo g y fo r a ll m u ltip les o f ten u p to 1 0 1 8 in ea rly V ed ic litera tu re, th e R a m ay a n a h a s term s a ll th e w ay u p to 1 0 5 5 , a n d th e J a in a -B u d d h ist tex ts sh ow freq u en t u se o f la rg e n u m b ers (u p to 1 0 1 4 0 !) fo r th eir m ea su rem en ts o f sp a ce a n d tim e. E x p ressio n s o f su ch la rg e n u m b ers a re n o t fo u n d in th e co n tem p o ra ry w o rk s o f o th er n a tio n s. E v en th e b rillia n t G reek s h a d n o term in o lo g y fo r d en o m in a tio n s a b ov e th e m y ria d (1 0 4 ) w h ile th e R o m a n term in o lo g y sto p p ed w ith th e m ille (1 0 3 ). T h e stru ctu re o f th e S a n sk rit n u m era l sy stem a n d th e In d ia n lov e fo r la rg e n u m b ers m u st h av e trig g ered th e crea tio n o f th e d ecim a l sy stem . A s w e sh a ll see la ter, ev en th e sm a llest p o sitiv e in teg ra l so lu tio n o f th e eq u a tio n x 2 D y 2 = 1 co u ld b e v ery la rg e; in fa ct, fo r D = 6 1 , it is (1 7 6 6 3 1 9 0 4 9 ; 2 2 6 1 5 3 9 8 0 ). T h e ea rly In d ia n so lu tio n to th is fa irly d eep p ro b lem co u ld b e p a rtly a ttrib u ted to th e In d ia n s' tra d itio n a l fa scin a tio n fo r la rg e n u m b ers a n d a b ility to p lay w ith th em . D u e to th e a b sen ce o f g o o d n o ta tio n s, th e G reek s w ere n o t stro n g in th e co m p u ta tio n a l a sp ects o f m a th em a tics { o n e o f th e fa cto rs resp o n sib le fo r th e ev en tu a l d eclin e o f G reek m a th em a tics. A rch im ed es (2 8 7 -2 1 2 B C ) d id rea lise th e im p o rta n ce o f g o o d n o ta tio n , a n d m a d e n o ta b le p ro g ress to ev o lv e o n e, b u t fa iled to a n ticip a te th e In d ia n d ecim a l sy stem . A s th e g rea t F ren ch m a th em a ticia n L a p la ce (1 7 4 9 -1 8 2 7 ) rem a rk ed : \ T he im portan ce of this in ven tion is m ore readily appreciated w hen on e con siders that it w as beyon d the tw o greatest m en of an tiqu ity: A rchim edes an d A pollon iu s." T h e d ecim a l sy stem w a s tra n sm itted to E u ro p e th ro u g h th e A ra b s. T h e S a n sk rit w o rd \ su n ya" w a s tra n sla ted in to A ra b ic a s \ sifr" w h ich w a s in tro d u ced in to G erm a n y in th e 1 3 th cen tu ry a s \ cifra" fro m w h ich w e h av e th e w o rd \ cipher" . T h e w o rd \ zero" p ro b a b ly co m es

The Indians have an extremely subtle and penetrating intellect, and when it comes to arithmetic, geometry and other such advanced disciplines, other ideas must make way for theirs.

10

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fro m th e L a tin ised fo rm \ zephiru m " o f th e A ra b ic sifr. L eo n a rd o F ib o n a cci o f P isa (1 1 8 0 -1 2 4 0 ), th e rst m a jo r E u ro p ea n m a th em a ticia n o f th e seco n d m illen n iu m , p lay ed a m a jo r ro le in th e sp rea d o f th e In d ia n n u m era l sy stem in E u ro p e. T h e In d ia n n o ta tio n a n d a rith m etic ev en tu a lly g o t sta n d a rd ised in E u ro p e d u rin g th e 1 6 th 1 7 th cen tu ry. T h e d ecim a l sy stem stim u la ted a n d a ccelera ted tra d e a n d co m m erce a s w ell a s a stro n o m y a n d m a th em a tics. It is n o co in cid en ce th a t th e m a th em a tica l a n d scien ti c ren a issa n ce b eg a n in E u ro p e o n ly a fter th e In d ia n n o ta tio n w a s a d o p ted . In d eed th e d ecim a l n o ta tio n is th e v ery p illa r o f a ll m o d ern civ iliza tio n . A lg e b ra W h ile so p h istica ted g eo m etry w a s in v en ted d u rin g th e o rig in o f th e V ed ic ritu a ls, its a x io m a tisa tio n a n d fu rth er d ev elo p m en t w a s d o n e b y th e G reek s. T h e h eig h t rea ch ed b y th e G reek s in g eo m etry b y th e tim e o f A p o llo n iu s (2 6 0 -1 7 0 B C ) w a s n o t m a tch ed b y a n y su b seq u en t a n cien t o r m ed ieva l civ ilisa tio n . B u t p ro g ress in g eo m etry p ro p er so o n rea ch ed a p o in t o f sta g n a tio n . B etw een th e tim es o f P a p p u s (3 0 0 A D ) { th e la st b ig n a m e in G reek g eo m etry { a n d m o d ern E u ro p e, B ra h m a g u p ta 's b rillia n t th eo rem s (6 2 8 A D ) o n cy clic q u a d rila tera ls co n stitu te th e so lita ry g em s in th e h isto ry o f g eo m etry. F u rth er p ro g ress n eed ed n ew tech n iq u es, in fa ct a co m p letely n ew a p p ro a ch in m a th em a tics. T h is w a s p ro v id ed b y th e em erg en ce a n d d ev elo p m en t o f a n ew d iscip lin e { a lg eb ra . It is o n ly a fter th e esta b lish m en t o f a n a lg eb ra cu ltu re in E u ro p ea n m a th em a tics d u rin g th e 1 6 th cen tu ry A D th a t a resu rg en ce b eg a n in g eo m etry th ro u g h its a lg eb ra isa tio n b y D esca rtes a n d F erm a t in ea rly 1 7 th cen tu ry. In fa ct, th e a ssim ila tio n a n d re n em en t o f a lg eb ra h a d a lso set th e sta g e fo r th e rem a rka b le strid es in n u m b er th eo ry a n d ca lcu lu s in E u ro p e fro m th e 1 7 th cen tu ry.

I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians, a people not the same as the Syrians; of their subtle discoveries in astronomy, discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians; and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. (Severus Sebokht in 662 AD)

Indeed, if one understands by algebra the application of arithmetical operations to complex magnitudes of all sorts, whether rational or irrational numbers or spacemagnitudes, then the learned Brahmins of Hindostan are the real inventors of algebra. H Hankel

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The intellectual potentialities of the Indian nation are unlimited and not many years would perhaps be needed before India can take a worthy place in world Mathematics. (Andre Weil in 1936)

The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture, a symbol, but helpful power, is the characteristic of the Hindu race whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelligence and power.

A lg eb ra w a s o n ly im p licit in th e m a th em a tics o f sev era l a n cien t civ ilisa tio n s till it ca m e o u t in th e o p en w ith th e in tro d u ctio n o f litera l o r sy m b o lic a lg eb ra in In d ia . B y th e tim e o f A ry a b h a ta (4 9 9 A D ) a n d B ra h m a g u p ta (6 2 8 A D ), sy m b o lic a lg eb ra h a d ev o lv ed in In d ia in to a d istin ct b ra n ch o f m a th em a tics a n d b eca m e o n e o f its cen tra l p illa rs. A fter ev o lu tio n th ro u g h sev era l sta g es, a lg eb ra h a s n ow co m e to p lay a k ey ro le in m o d ern m a th em a tics b o th a s a n in d ep en d en t a rea in its ow n rig h t a s w ell a s a n in d isp en sa b le to o l in o th er eld s. In fa ct, th e 2 0 th cen tu ry w itn essed a v ig o ro u s p h a se o f `a lg eb ra isa tio n o f m a th em a tics'. A lg eb ra p rov id es eleg a n ce, sim p licity, p recisio n , cla rity a n d tech n ica l p ow er in th e h a n d s o f th e m a th em a ticia n s. It is rem a rka b le h ow ea rly th e In d ia n s h a d rea lised th e sig n i a n ce o f a lg eb ra a n d h ow stro n g ly th e lea d in g In d ia n m a th em a ticia n s lik e B ra h m a g u p ta (6 2 8 A D ) a n d B h a ska ra II (1 1 5 0 A D ) a sserted a n d esta b lish ed th e im p o rta n ce o f th eir n ew ly -fo u n d ed d iscip lin e a s w e sh a ll see in su b seq u en t issu es. In d ia n s b eg a n a sy stem a tic u se o f sy m b o ls to d en o te u n k n ow n q u a n tities a n d a rith m etic o p era tio n s. T h e fo u r a rith m etic o p era tio n s w ere d en o ted b y \ y u " , \ k sh " , \ g u " a n d \ b h a " w h ich a re th e rst letters (o r a little m o d i ca tio n ) o f th e co rresp o n d in g S a n sk rit w o rd s yu ta (a d d itio n ), ksaya (su b tra ctio n ), gu n a (m u ltip lica tio n ) a n d bhaga (d iv isio n ); sim ila rly \ ka " w a s u sed fo r karan i (ro o t), w h ile th e rst letters o f th e n a m es o f d i eren t co lo u rs w ere u sed to d en o te d i eren t u n k n ow n va ria b les. T h is in tro d u ctio n o f sy m b o lic rep resen ta tio n w a s a n im p o rta n t step in th e ra p id a d va n cem en t o f m a th em a tics. W h ile a ru d im en ta ry u se o f sy m b o ls ca n a lso b e seen in th e G reek tex ts o f D io p h a n tu s, it is in In d ia th a t a lg eb ra ic fo rm a lism a ch iev ed fu ll d ev elo p m en t. T h e In d ia n s cla ssi ed a n d m a d e a d eta iled stu d y o f eq u a tio n s (w h ich w ere ca lled sam i-karan a), in tro d u ced n eg a tiv e n u m b ers to g eth er w ith th e ru les fo r a rith m etic

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o p era tio n s in v o lv in g zero an d n eg a tiv e n u m b ers, d iscov ered resu lts o n su rd s, d escrib ed so lu tio n s o f lin ea r a n d q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n s, g av e fo rm u la e fo r a rith m etic a n d g eo m etric p ro g ressio n as w ell a s id en titites in v o lv in g su m m a tio n o f n ite series, a n d a p p lied sev era l u sefu l resu lts o n p erm u ta tio n a n d co m b in a tio n s in clu d in g th e fo rm u la e fo r n P r a n d n C r . T h e en la rg em en t o f th e n u m b er sy stem to in clu d e n eg a tiv e n u m b ers w a s a m o m en to u s step in th e d ev elo p m en t o f m a th em a tics. T h a n k s to th e ea rly reco g n itio n o f th e ex isten ce o f n eg a tiv e n u m b ers, th e In d ia n s co u ld g iv e a u n i ed trea tm en t o f th e va rio u s fo rm s o f q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n s (w ith p o sitiv e co e cien ts), i.e., a x 2 + bx = c; a x 2 + c = bx ; bx + c = a x 2 . T h e In d ia n s w ere th e rst to reco g n ise th a t a q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n h a s tw o ro o ts. S rid h a ra ch a ry a (7 5 0 A D ) g av e th e w ell-k n ow n m eth o d o f so lv in g a q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n b y co m p letin g th e sq u a re { a n id ea w ith fa r-rea ch in g co n seq u en ces in m a th em a tics. T h e P a sca l's tria n g le fo r q u ick co m p u ta tio n o f n C r is d escrib ed b y H a lay u d h a in th e 1 0 th cen tu ry A D a s M eru -P rastara 7 0 0 y ea rs b efo re it w a s sta ted b y P a sca l; a n d H a lay u d h a 's M eru -P ra sta ra w a s o n ly a cla ri ca tio n o f a ru le in v en ted b y P in g a la m o re th a n 1 2 0 0 y ea rs ea rlier (a ro u n d 2 0 0 B C )! T h u s, a s in a rith m etic, m a n y to p ics in h ig h -sch o o l a lg eb ra h a d b een sy stem a tica lly d ev elo p ed in In d ia . T h is k n ow led g e w en t to E u ro p e th ro u g h th e A ra b s. T h e w o rd yava in A ryabhatiyabhasya of B h a ska ra I (6 th cen tu ry A D ) m ea n in g \ to m ix " o r \ to sep a ra te" h a s a n ity w ith th a t o f al-jabr o f a l-K h w a rizm i (8 2 5 A D ) fro m w h ich th e w o rd a lg eb ra is d eriv ed . In h is w id ely a ccla im ed tex t o n h isto ry o f m a th em a tics, C a jori ([8 ]) co n clu d es th e ch a p ter o n In d ia w ith th e fo llow in g rem a rk s: \ ...it is rem arkable to w hat exten t In dian m athem atics en ters in to the scien ce of ou r tim e. B oth the form an d the spirit of the arithm etic an d algebra of m odern tim es are essen tially In dian . T hin k of ou r n otation of n u m bers, brou ght to perfection by the H in du s, thin k of the In dian arithm eti-

The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculations and placed arithmetic foremost among useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius.

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India has given to antiquity the earliest scientific physicians, and, according to Sir William Hunter, she has even contributed to modern medical science by the discovery of various chemicals and by teaching you how to reform misshapen ears and noses. Even more it has done in mathematics, for algebra, geometry, astronomy, and the triumph of modern science mixed mathematics were all invented in India, just so much as the ten numerals, the very cornerstone of all present civilization, were discovered in India, and, are in reality, sanskrit words. Swami Vivekananda

cal operation s n early as perfect as ou r ow n , thin k of their elegan t algebraical m ethods, an d then ju dge w hether the B rahm in s on the ban ks of the G an ges are n ot en titled to som e credit." B u t a n cien t In d ia n a lg eb ra w en t fa r b ey o n d th e h ig h sch o o l lev el. T h e p in n a cle o f In d ia n a ch iev em en t w a s a tta in ed in th eir so lu tio n s o f th e h a rd a n d su b tle n u m b erth eo retic p ro b lem s o f n d in g in teg er so lu tio n s to eq u a tio n s o f rst a n d seco n d d eg ree. S u ch eq u a tio n s a re ca lled in d eterm in a te o r D io p h a n tin e eq u a tio n s. B u t a la s, th e In d ia n w o rk s in th is a rea w ere to o fa r a h ea d o f th e tim es to b e n o ticed b y co n tem p o ra ry a n d su b seq u en t civ ilisa tio n s! A s C a jo ri la m en ts, \ U n fortu n ately, som e of the m ost brillian t resu lts in in determ in ate an alysis, fou n d in the H in du w orks, reached E u rope too late to exert the in u en ce they w ou ld have exerted, had they com e tw o or three cen tu ries earlier." W ith o u t so m e aw a ren ess o f th e In d ia n co n trib u tio n s in th is eld , it is n o t p o ssib le to g et a tru e p ictu re o f th e d ep th a n d sk ill a tta in ed in p o st-V ed ic In d ia n m a th em a tics th e ch a ra cter o f w h ich w a s p rim a rily a lg eb ra ic. W e sh a ll d iscu ss so m e o f th ese n u m b er-th eo retic co n trib u tio n s fro m th e n ex t in sta lm en t. T r ig o n o m e tr y a n d C a lc u lu s A p a rt fro m d ev elo p in g th e su b ject o f a lg eb ra p ro p er, In d ia n s a lso b eg a n a p ro cess o f a lg eb risa tio n a n d co n seq u en t sim p li ca tio n o f o th er a rea s o f m a th em a tics. F o r in sta n ce, th ey d ev elo p ed trig o n o m etry in a sy stem a tic m a n n er, resem b lin g its m o d ern fo rm , a n d im p a rted to it its m o d ern a lg eb ra ic ch a ra cter. T h e a lg eb ra isa tio n o f th e stu d y o f in n itesim a l ch a n g es led to th e d iscov ery o f k ey p rin cip les o f ca lcu lu s b y th e tim e o f B h a ska ra ch a ry a (1 1 5 0 A D ) so m e o f w h ich w e sh a ll m en tio n in a su b seq u en t issu e. C a lcu lu s in In d ia lea p ed to a n a m a zin g h eig h t in th e a n a ly tic trig o n o m etry o f th e K era la sch o o l in th e 1 4 th cen tu ry.

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A lth o u g h th e G reek s fo u n d ed trig o n o m etry, th eir p ro g ress w a s h a lted d u e to th e a b sen ce o f a d eq u a te a lg eb ra ic m a ch in ery a n d n o ta tio n s. In d ia n s in v en ted th e sin e a n d co sin e fu n ctio n s, d iscov ered m o st o f th e sta n d a rd fo rm u la e a n d id en titites, in clu d in g th e b a sic fo rm u la fo r sin (A B ), a n d co n stru cted fa irly a ccu ra te sin e ta b les. B ra h m a g u p ta (62 8 A D ) a n d G o v in d a sw a m i (8 8 0 A D ) g av e in terp o la tio n fo rm u la e fo r ca lcu la tin g th e sin es o f in term ed ia te a n g les fro m sin e ta b les { th ese a re sp ecia l ca ses o f th e N ew to n { S tirlin g a n d N ew to n { G a u ss fo rm u la e fo r seco n d -o rd er d i eren ce. R em a rka b le a p p rox im a tio n s fo r a re g iv en in In d ia n tex ts in clu d in g 3 :1 4 1 6 o f A ry a b h a ta (4 9 9 A D ), 3 :1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 9 o f M a d h ava (1 4 th cen tu ry A D ) a n d 3 5 5 = 1 1 3 o f N ila ka n ta (1 5 0 0 A D ). A n a n o n y m o u s w o rk K aran apaddhati (b eliev ed to h av e b een w ritten b y P u tu m a n a S o m ay a jin in th e 1 5 th cen tu ry A D ) g iv es th e va lu e 3 :1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 8 9 7 9 3 2 4 w h ich is co rrect u p to sev en teen d ecim a l p la ces. T h e G reek s h a d in v estig a ted th e rela tio n sh ip b etw een a ch o rd o f a circle a n d th e a n g le it su b ten d s a t th e cen tre { b u t th eir sy stem is q u ite cu m b erso m e in p ra ctice. T h e In d ia n s rea lised th e sign i ca n ce o f th e co n n ectio n b etw een a h a lf-ch o rd a n d h a lf o f th e a n g le su b ten d ed b y th e fu ll ch o rd . In th e ca se o f a u n it circle, th is is p recisely th e sin e fu n ctio n . T h e In d ia n h a lf-ch o rd w a s in tro d u ced in th e A ra b w orld d u rin g th e 8 th cen tu ry A D . E u ro p e w a s in tro d u ced to th is fu n d a m en ta l n o tio n th ro u g h th e w o rk o f th e A ra b sch o la r a l-B a tta n i (8 5 8 9 2 9 A D ). T h e A ra b s p referred th e In d ia n h a lf-ch o rd to P to lem y 's sy stem o f ch o rd s a n d th e a lg eb ra ic a p p ro a ch o f th e In d ia n s to th e g eo m etric a p p ro a ch o f th e G reek s. T h e S a n sk rit w o rd fo r h a lf-ch o rd \ ardha-jya" , la ter a b b rev ia ted a s \ jya" , w a s w ritten b y th e A ra b s a s \ jyb" . C u rio u sly, th ere is a sim ila r-so u n d in g A ra b w o rd \ jaib" w h ich m ea n s \ h ea rt, b o so m , fo ld , b ay o r cu rv e" . W h en th e A ra b w o rk s w ere b ein g tra n sla ted in to L a tin , th e a p p a ren tly m ea n in g less w o rd \ jyb" w a s m ista k en fo r th e

The Hindus solved problems in interest, discount, partnership, alligation, summation of arithmetical and geometric series, and devised rules for determining the numbers of combinations and permutations. It may here be added that chess, the profoundest of all games, had its origin in India. F Cajori

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... it is remarkable to what extent Indian mathematics enters into the science of our time. Both the form and the spirit of the arithmetic and algebra of modern times are essentially Indian. Think of our notation of numbers, brought to perfection by the Hindus, think of the Indian arithmetical operations nearly as perfect as our own, think of their elegant algebraical methods, and then judge whether the Brahmins on the banks of the Ganges are not entitled to some credit. F Cajori

w o rd \ jaib" a n d tra n sla ted a s \ sin u s" w h ich h a s sev era l m ea n in g s in L a tin in clu d in g \ h ea rt, b o so m , fo ld , b ay o r cu rv e" ! T h is w o rd b eca m e \ sin e" in th e E n g lish v ersio n . A ry a b h a ta 's \ kotijya" b eca m e cosin e. T h e tra d itio n o f ex cellen ce a n d o rig in a lity in In d ia n trig o n o m etry rea ch ed a h ig h p ea k in th e o u tsta n d in g resu lts o f M a d h ava ch a ry a (1 3 4 0 -1 4 2 5 ) o n th e p ow er series ex p a n sio n s o f trig o n o m etric fu n ctio n s. T h ree cen tu ries b efo re G reg o ry (1 6 6 7 ), M a d h ava h a d d escrib ed th e series = ta n (1 = 3 )(ta n )3 + (1 = 5 )(ta n )5 (1 = 7 )(ta n )7 + (jta n j 1 ): H is p ro o f, a s p resen ted in Y u ktibhasa, in v o lv es th e id ea o f in teg ra tio n a s th e lim it o f a su m m a tio n a n d co rresp o n d s to th e m o d ern m eth o d o f ex p a n sio n a n d term b y -term in teg ra tio n . A cru cia l step is th e u se o f th e resu lt
n

lim

(1 p + 2 p + + (n 1 )p )= n p + 1 = 1 = (p + 1 ):

T h e ex p licit sta tem en t th a t (jta n j 1 ) rev ea ls th e lev el o f so p h istica tio n in th e u n d ersta n d in g o f in n ite series in clu d in g a n aw a ren ess o f co n v erg en ce. M a d h ava a lso d iscov ered th e b ea u tifu l fo rm u la = 4 = 1 1 = 3 + 1 = 5 1 = 7 + ; o b ta in ed b y p u ttin g = = 4 in th e M a d h ava { G reg o ry series. T h is series w a s red iscov ered th ree cen tu ries la ter b y L eib n iz (1 6 7 4 ). A s o n e o f th e rst a p p lica tio n s o f h is n ew ly in v en ted ca lcu lu s, L eib n iz w a s th rilled a t th e d iscov ery o f th is series w h ich w a s th e rst o f th e resu lts g iv in g a co n n ectio n b etw een a n d u n it fra ctio n s. M a d h ava a lso d escrib ed th e series p = 1 2 = 1 1 = 3 :3 + 1 = 5 :3 2 1 = 7 :3 3 +

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rst g iv en in E u ro p e b y A S h a rp (1 7 1 7 ). A g a in , th ree h u n d ered y ea rs b efo re N ew to n (1 6 7 6 A D ), M a d h ava h a d d escrib ed th e w ell-k n ow n p o w er series ex p a n sio n s sin x = x x 3 = 3 ! + x 5 = 5 ! a n d co s x = 1 x = 2 ! + x = 4 ! : T h ese series w ere u sed to co n stru ct a ccu ra te sin e a n d co sin e ta b les fo r ca lcu la tio n s in a stro n o m y. M a d h ava 's va lu es a re co rrect, in a lm o st a ll ca ses, to th e eig h th o r n in th d ecim a l p la ce { su ch a n a ccu ra cy w a s n o t to b e a ch iev ed in E u ro p e w ith in th ree cen tu ries. M a d h ava 's resu lts sh ow th a t ca lcu lu s a n d a n a ly sis h a d rea ch ed rem a rka b le d ep th a n d m a tu rity in In d ia cen tu ries b efo re N ew to n (1 6 4 2 -1 7 2 7 ) a n d L eib n iz (1 6 4 6 -1 7 1 6 ). M a d h ava ch a ry a m ig h t b e reg a rd ed a s th e rst m a th em a ticia n w h o w o rk ed in a n a ly sis! U n fo rtu n a tely, th e o rig in a l tex ts o f sev era l o u tsta n d in g m a th em a ticia n s lik e S rid h a ra , P a d m a n a b h a , J ay a d eva a n d M a d h ava h av e n o t b een fo u n d y et { it is o n ly th ro u g h th e o cca sio n a l referen ce to so m e o f th eir resu lts in su b seq u en t co m m en ta ries th a t w e g et a g lim p se o f th eir w o rk . M a d h ava 's co n trib u tio n s a re m en tio n ed in sev era l la ter tex ts in clu d in g th e T an tra S am graha (1 5 0 0 ) o f th e g rea t a stro n o m er N ila ka n ta S o m ay a ji (1 4 4 5 -1 5 4 5 ) w h o g av e th e h elio cen tric m o d el b efo re C o p ern icu s, th e Y u ktibhasa (1 5 4 0 ) o f J y esth a d eva (1 5 0 0 -1 6 1 0 ) a n d th e a n o n y m o u s K aran apaddhati. A ll th ese tex ts th em selv es w ere d iscov ered b y C h a rles W h ish a n d p u b lish ed o n ly in 1 8 3 5 . A m o n g a n cien t m a th em a ticia n s w h o se tex ts h av e b een fo u n d , sp ecia l m en tio n m ay b e m a d e o f A ry a b h a ta , B ra h m a g u p ta a n d B h a ska ra ch a ry a . A ll o f th em w ere em in en t a stro n o m ers a s w ell. W e sh a ll m a k e a b rief m en tio n o f so m e o f th eir m a th em a tica l w o rk s in su b seq u en t issu es.
2 4

Incomparably greater progress than in the solution of determinate equations was made by the Hindus in the treatment of indeterminate equations. Indeterminate analysis was a subject to which the Hindu mind showed a happy adaptation. F Cajori

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Unfortunately, some of the most brilliant results in indeterminate analysis, found in the Hindu works, reached Europe too late to exert the influence they would have exerted, had they come two or three centuries earlier. F Cajori

L a te r D e v e lo p m e n ts T h e In d ia n co n trib u tio n s in a rith m etic, a lg eb ra a n d trig o n o m etry w ere tra n sm itted b y th e A ra b s a n d P ersia n s to E u ro p e. T h e A ra b s a lso p reserv ed a n d tra n sm itted th e G reek h erita g e. A fter m o re th a n a th o u sa n d y ea rs o f slu m b er, E u ro p e red iscov ered its rich G reek h erita g e a n d a cq u ired so m e o f th e fru its o f th e p h en o m en a l In d ia n p ro g ress. It is o n th e fo u n d a tio n fo rm ed b y th e b len d in g o f th e tw o g rea t m a th em a tica l cu ltu res { th e g eo m etric a n d a x io m a tic tra d itio n o f th e G reek s a n d th e a lg eb ra ic a n d co m p u ta tio n a l tra d itio n o f th e In d ia n s { th a t th e m a th em a tica l ren a issa n ce to o k p la ce in E u ro p e. In d ia n s m a d e sig n i ca n t co n trib u tio n s in sev era l fro n tlin e a rea s o f m a th em a tics d u rin g th e 2 0 th cen tu ry, esp ecia lly d u rin g th e seco n d h a lf, a lth o u g h th is fa ct is n o t so w ell-k n ow n a m o n g stu d en ts p a rtly b eca u se th e fro n tiers o f m a th em a tics h av e ex p a n d ed fa r b ey o n d th e sco p e o f th e u n iv ersity cu rricu la . H ow ev er, In d ia n s v irtu a lly to o k n o p a rt in th e ra p id d ev elo p m en t o f m a th em a tics th a t to o k p la ce d u rin g th e 1 7 th -1 9 th cen tu ry { th is p erio d co in cid ed w ith th e g en era l sta g n a tio n in th e n a tio n a l life. T h u s, w h ile h ig h -sch o o l m a th em a tics, esp ecia lly in a rith m etic a n d a lg eb ra , is m o stly o f In d ia n o rig in , o n e ra rely co m es a cro ss In d ia n n a m es in co lleg e a n d u n iv ersity co u rses a s m o st o f th a t m a th em a tics w a s crea ted d u rin g th e p erio d ra n g in g fro m la te 1 7 th to ea rly 2 0 th cen tu ry. B u t sh o u ld w e fo rg et th e cu ltu re a n d g rea tn ess o f In d ia 's m illen n iu m s b eca u se o f th e ig n o ra n ce a n d w ea k n ess o f a few cen tu ries?
Suggested Reading
[1] A Seidenberg, The Origin of Mathematics in Archive for History of Exact Sciences , 1978. [2] A Seidenberg, The Geometry of Vedic Rituals in Agni, The Vedic Ritual of the Fire Altar , Vol II, ed F Staal, Asian Humanities Press, Berkeley, 1983, reprinted Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi.

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SERIES ARTICLE [3] Bibhutibhusan Datta: Ancient Hindu Geometry: The Science of the Sulbas, Calcutta Univ. Press, 1932, reprinted Cosmo Pub., New Delhi, 1993. [4] Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers, John Wiley and Sons, 2000. [5] G G Joseph, The Crest of The Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Penguin, 1990. [6] S N Sen, Mathematics Chap 3 of A Concise History of Science in India, ed. D M Bose, S N Sen and B V Subbarayappa, INSA, New Delhi , 1971. [7] G B Halsted, On the foundations and techniques of Arithmetic, Chicago, 1912. [8] F Cajori, History of Mathematics, Mac Millan, 1931. [9] Bibhutibhusan Datta, Vedic Mathematics, Chap.3 of The Cultural Heritage of India Vol VI (Science and Technology) ed. P Ray and S N Sen, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta. [10] B Datta and A N Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1962. [11] John F Price, Applied Geometry of the Sulba Sutras in Geometry at Work, ed. C. Gorini, MAA, Washington DC, 2000. [12] T A Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi , 1999. [13] S N Sen and A K Bag, Post-Vedic Mathematics, Chap. 4 of The Cultural Heritage of India Vol. VI ed.PRay and S N Sen, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta. [14] S N Sen and A K Bag, The Sulbasutras, INSA, New Delhi , 1983. [15] C N Srinivasiengar, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, The World Press, Calcutta, 1967.

Address for Correspondence Amartya Kumar Dutta Indian Statistical Institute 203, BT Road Kolkata 700 032, India.

As I look back upon the history of my country, I do not find in the whole world another country which has done quite so much for the improvement of the human mind. Therefore I have no words of condemnation for my nation. I tell them, You have done well; only try to do better. Great things have been done in the past in this land, and there is both time and room for greater things to be done yet ... Our ancestors did great things in the past, but we have to grow into a fuller life and march beyond even their great achievement. Swami Vivekananda (Complete Works Vol III p.195)

RESONANCE April 2002

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