RCAGLOBAL

Materials, Junctions, and Devices Bipolar Transistors MOS Field-Effect Transistors Thyristors Silicon Rectifiers Other Solid-state Diodes
Receiver Tuner-Circui t Applic t ions a i Low-Frequency Amplification R F Power Amplification and Generation T V Deflection Power Switching a n d Control DC Power Supplies Testing and Mounting RCA SK-Series Solid-State Replacement Devices Symbols Selection Charts Interpretation of Data Technical Data f o r Small-Signal Bipolar Transistors Technical Data f o r MOS Field-Effect Transistors Technical Data f o r LOW-and Medium-Frequency Power Transistors Technical Data f o r RF Power Transistors Technical Data f o r Thyristors Technical Data for Silicon Itectifiers and Other Solitl-State Diodes C h a r t of Discontinued Transistors Outlines Mounting H a r d w a r e Circuits Other RCA Technical Manuals Index to RCA Solitl-State Devices Index
Information furnished by RCA is b e l i e v e dL be accurate a n dr e l i a b l e111,\\~o cvrr, nu responsibility is nsm~mrrl by H C A for it4 u s e ; nor for a n y iufrincem e n & of patents o r oLhcr rirrhtn o i thi~-cl parties which may re3ralt from its u a c No license is ~ r n n t e r l I,y implicalion 01. otherwise under a n y pntcnt air pntent rights of R C h . .
3 22 39 56 77 83 88 112 133 175 189 228 237 270 276 282 284 363 389 538 586
652 659 666 684 691 1 758 759 766
2 5
Materials, Junctions, and Devices
OIJD-STATE devices a r e small but versatile units that can perform an amazing variety of control functions in electronic equipment. Lilte other electron devices, they have the ability to control almost instantly the movement of charges of electricity. They a r e used a s rectifiers, d e t e c t o r s , a m p l i f i e r s , oscillators, electronic s w i t c h e s , m i x e r s , a n d modulators. In addition, solid-state devices have many important advantages over other types of electron devices. They a r e very small and light in weight (some a r e less than an inch long and weigh just a fraction of a n ounce). They have no filaments o r heaters, and therefore require no heating power or warm-up time. They consume very little poweiJThey a r e solid in construction, extremely rugged, free from microphonics, and can be made impervious to many severe environmental conditions. The circuits required f o r their operation are usually simple.
,
current. As the name indicates, a semiconductor material has poorer conductivity than a conductor, but better conductivity than an insulator3 The materials most often used in semiconductor devices a r e germanium and silicon. Germanium has higher electrical conductivity (less resistance to current flow) than silicon, and is used in devices intended for applications t h a t require low voltage drops at high currents and in some small-signal transistors. Silicon is more suitable for high-power devices than germanium One reason is that i t can be used a? much higher temperatures. I n general, silicon is preferred over germanium because processing techniques yield more economical devices. As a result, today, silicon tends to supersede germanium in almost every type of application, including the small-signal area, unless a very low device voltage drop is required.
Resistivity
The ability of a material to conduct current (conductivity) is directly proportional to the number of free (loosely held) electrons in the material. Good conductors, such a s silver, copper, and aluminum, have large numbers of free electrons; their resistivities a r e of the order of a few millionths of a n ohm-centimeter. Insulators such a s glass, rubber, and mica, which have very f e w loosely held electrons, have resistivities of several million ohm-centimeters.
i
'
!
SEMlCONDUCTOR MATERIALS
'
I
I
I
Unlike other electron devices, which depend for their functioning on t h e How of electric charges through a vacuum o r a gas, solid-state devices make use of the flow of current in a solid. In general, all materials may be classified in three major categories- conductors, semiconductors, and insulators- depending upon their ability to conduct a n electric
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode lvlarlual
it would be necessary to apply h i ~ h tcniperatures o r strong electric fields. Another way t o alter the lattice structure and thereby obtain free electrons, however, is t o add small nnlounts of other elements having a difFerent atomic structure. By the addition of almost infinitesimal amounts of such other elements, called "impurities", the basic electrical properties of pure semiconductor materials INCREASING RESISTIVITY can be modified and controlled. The ratjo of impurity to the scmiconIO-ti I lo3 lo6 ductor material is usually extremely {OHM-CM I small, in the order of one p a r t in ten million. -. COPPER GERMANIUM SILICON GLASS When the impurity clenlents a r e added t o the semiconductor material, INCREASING CONDUCTIVITY impurity atoms take the place of Fi.?. I-Rcsis/i~.ity o f typical corrdrrc:or, semiconductor atoms in the lattice ss~rticortdrrcrors,and ir~sulator. structure.3 If the impurity atoms which r e d w e their resistivity to added have t h e same number of vaabout 2 ohm-centimeters a t room lence electrons a s the atoms oL the temperature (this resistivity de- original semiconductor material, they fit neatly into t h e lattice, forming creases rapidly as temperature rises). the required number of electron-pair bonds with semiconductor atoms. In this case, t h e electrical properties 1- Carefully prepared semiconductor n ~ a t e r i a l shgve a crystal structure. of t h e material a r e essentially unIn this typc of structure, which is changed. When the inlpurity atom Kas onc called a latticc, the outer or valence ~ l e c t r o n s of individual atoms a r e more valence electron than the semitightly 1)ound to tlie electrons of ad- conductor atom, however, this extra jaccnt atoms in electron-pair bonds,) electron cannot form a n clcctronpair bond because no adjacent vtras shown in Fig. 2.- Because such a lcnce electron is available. The exccss electron is then held very loosely by .ECTRON - PAIR BONDS the atom, a s shown in Pig. 3, and
Semiconductor materials lie in the range bctwcen thcse two c s t r e n ~ e s , as shown in Fig. 1. Pure germanlum has a resistivity of 60 ohm-centimeters. Pure silicon has a considerably h i ~ l i e rresistivity, in t h e order of 60,000 ohm-centimeters. As used in semicontluctor devices, l~owever, these nlaterials contain carefully controlled amounts of certain impurities
Fig. 2-Cr)~srol 1arr;te srrrrcrrtre.
structure has no l o sely hcld electrons, semiconductor materials a r e poor conductors ander normal conditions. In order to separate t h e electron-pair bonds and provide f r e e electrons for electrical conduction,
1.' (

rcquires only slight excitation to break away. Consequently, the presence of such excess electrons makes the material a better conductor, i.e., its resistance to- current flow is reduced. " Impurity elements which a r e added to germanium and silicon crystals to provide excess electrons include arsenic and antimony. When tliese elements a r e introduced, the resulting material is called n-type because t h e excess f r e e electrons have a negative charge. ( I t should be noted, however, that the negative charge of t h e electrons is balanced by a n equivalent positive charge in the centcr of the impurity atoms. Therefore, the net electrical charge of t h e semiconductor material is not changed.) A diffcrcrit e r e c t is produced when a n impurity atom having one less valence electron than t h e semiconductor atom is substituted in the lattice structure. Although all the valence electrons of the impurity atom form electron-pair bonds with electrons of neighboring semiconductor atoms, one of the bonds ill the lattice structure cannot be completed because the impurity atom lacks t h e final valence electron. As a result, a vacancy or "hole" exists in t h e lattice, a s shown in Fig. 4. An electron from a n adjacent electron-pair bond may then absorb enough energy to brealc i t s bond and move through the lattice t o fill the hole. A s in t h e
5
case of excess electrons, the presence of "holes" encourages t h e flow of electrons in the semiconductor material; consequently, t h e conductivity is increased and the resistivity is reduced. The vacancy or hole in t h e crystal structure i s considered to have a positive electrical charge because i t represents t h e absence of a n electron. (Again, however, t h e n e t charge of the crystal is unchanged.) Semiconductor material which contains these "holes" or positive charges is called p-type material. P-type materials a r e formed by t h e addition of aluminum, gallium, or indium. Although the difference in t h e chen~icalcomposition of n-type and p-type materials i s slight, t h e differences in the electrical characteristics of the two types a r e substantial, and a r e very important in t h e operation of solid-state devices.
I
I
P-N JUNCTIONS
When n-type and p-type materials a r e joined together, a s shown in Fig. 5, a n unusual but very important phenomenon occurs a t the interface
p- n JUNCTIOH
---SPACE-CHARGE REGION
Fig. 5-Z~rteracrion o f Iroles and electrons at p-n jurrcliot~.
IMPURITY/
ATOM
VA C A N C Y
(HOLE)
Fig. 4- lattice strrrcrttre o f p-type nraterial.
where t h e two materials meet (called the p-n junction). An interaction takes place between t h e two types .'of material a t t h e junction a s a result of the holes in one material and the excess electrons i n t h e other. When a p-n junction i s formed, some of the f r e e electrons from t h e n-type material diffuse across t h e junction and recombine with holes in
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

of charge carriers, referred to a s drift current, in the opposite direction to the diffusion current. Under equilibrium conditions, the diffusion current is exactly balanced by the drift current s o t h a t the net current across the p-n junction is zero. In other words, when no external current or v o l t a ~ e applied to the p-n is gradient fornis junction, the pote~ltinl an enerRy barrier t h a t prevents further dilfusion of charge carriers across the junction. I n effect, elcctrons from the n-type material t h a t tend to diffuse across the junction a r e repelled by the slight negative charge induced in t h e p-type material by the potential gradient, and holes from the p-type material a r e repelled by the slight positive charge induced in the n-type material. The potential gradient (or energy barrier, as i t is sometimes called), therefoce, prevents total interaction between the two types of matetials, and thus preserves the differences in their characteristics.
the lattice structure of the p-type
7,
I
niaterial; similarly, some of the holes in the p-type material diffuse across the junction and recombine with f r e e electrons in the lattice structure of the n-type material. This interaction or diffusion is brought into equilibrium by a small space-charge region (sonletimes called the transition region o r drplction layer). The p-type material thus acquires a slight negative charge and the n-type material >acquires a slight positive charge. Tliernlal energy causes charge car: riers (electrons ant1 holes) to diffuse side of t h e p-n junction to side; t h i s flow of charge carriers is called dimusion current. AS a result of the diffusion process, however, a potential gradient builds u p across the space-charge region. This potential gradient can be represented, a s shown in Fig. 6, by a n imaginary battery connected across the p-n junction. (The battery ,symbol
JUNCTION
CURRENT FLOW
When a n external battery is connected across a p-n junction, the amount of current flow is determined by t h e polarity of t h e applied voltage and its effect on the space-charge region. In Fig. 7 ( a ) , the positive terminal of the battery is connected t o the n-type niaterial and the negative terminal t o t h e p-type material. I n this arrangement, t h e f r e e electrons in t h e n-type material a r e attracted toward the positive terminal of t h e battery and away from t h e junction. At the same time, holes from the
ELECTRON FLOW
IMAGINARY - +j SPACE-CHARGE EQUIVALENT BATTERY
Fis. 6-Pofrtttial grnllieltt across spaceclrarge region.
-his used
merely to illustrate internal effects; the potential i t represents is not directly measurable.) T h e potential gradient causes a flow
ELECTRON .FLOW
_3
f-
(a) REVERSE BlAS
(b) FORWARD BlAS
Fig. 7-Elecrrotr
current flow CI biased p-rc jrrncfions.

p-type material a r e attracted toward the negative terminal of the battery and away from the junction. A s a result, the space-charge region a t the junction bccolnes effectively wider, and the potential gradient increases until it approaches the potential of the external battery. Current flow is then extremely small because no voltage difference (electric field) exists across either the p-type o r the n-type region. Under these conditions, the p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased. In Fig. 7(b), the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the p-type material and the negative terminal to the n-type material. In this arrangement, electrons in the p-type material near t h e positive terminal of the battery break their electron-pair bonds and enter the battery, creating new holes. A t the same time, electrons from the negative terminal of the battery enter the n-type material and diffuse toward the junction. As a result, the spacecharge region becomes effectively narrower, and the energy barrier decreases to an insignificant value. Excess electrons from the n-tvne material can then penetrate tkk spacecharge region, flow across the junction, and move by way o the holes in the p-type material toward the positive terminal of the battery. This electron flow continues a s long a s the external voltage is applied. Under these conditions, the junction is said to be forward-biased. The generalized voltage-current characteristic for a p-n junction in Fig. 8 shows both the reverse-bias and forward-bias regions. I n the forward-bias region, current rises rapidly a s the voltage is increased and is quite high. Current in the reverse-bias region is usually much lower. Excessive voltage (bias) in either direction should be avoided in normal applications because excessive currents and the resulting high temperatures may per~nanentlydamage the solid-state device.
tMILLIAMPERES,
-REVERSE
BIAS
FORWARD BIAS--+
REVERSE CURRENT (MICROAMPERESI
Fig. 8-Voltage-crrrretrt characteris~ic for a p-tr jrtncliorr.
TYPES OF DEVICES
The simplest type of solid-state device is the diode,' which is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 9. Structurally, the diode is basically a p-n junction'similar to those shown in Fig. 7.;The'n-type material which serves as'. the negative electrode is referred to a s the cathode, and the p-type material which serves a s the positive electrode is referred to a s the nnode.",The arrow symbol used for the anode represents the direction of "conventional current flow";
Fig.
9-Schettrafic sytnbol for a solidsfale diode.
electron current flows in a direction opposite to the arrow. %ecause the junction diode conducts current more easily in one direction than in the other, it is an effective rectifying device. If an ac signal is applied, a s shown in Fig. 10, electron current flows freely during the positive half cycle, but little o r no current flows during the negative half cycle. One of the most widoly used types of solid-state diode is the silicon rectifier. These devices a r e available in a wide range of current
INPUT SIGNAL 'L'
mLoAD
R C A Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual
diode recrilyirrg circliil.
Fi,q. 10-Sirrrple
capabilities, ranging from tenths of a n ampere to several hundred amperes or more, and a r e capal)le of operation a t voltages a s high a s 1000 volts or more. Parallel and series arrangements of silicon rectifiers permit even f u r t h e r extension of curl a 1 FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM rent and voltage limits: CharacterisEMITTER COLLECTOR tics and applications of these devices a r e discussed in detail in the section on Silicorl llectifiers. Several variations of the basic junction diode structure have been (. b\ n - p - n TRANSISTOR dcvcloped f o r use in special applications. One of the most important of these developments is the tunnel diode, which is used f o r amplification, switching, and pulse generation, This diode and other special types t c l p -n - p TRANSISTOR c vnractor, volt:tjie-reference, Fig. 11-F~rrictiorral rlingrarrl arid rclieand compensating diodes) a r e tle~riatrc syrrrbols f o r hipolar trori~istots. scribetl in the section on Other a n n-p-n transistor the emitter is Solid-State 1)iodes. When another Inyer is addcd to a made negative with respect to b o K f l i e c o l t o r and the base, and t h e semicorldnctor diode to form three l:lyers (two junctions), n device is collector is made positive with reproduced xvhich provides power or spect t o both- the emitter and the voltage amplification. The resulting base. In a p-n-p transistor, the emitdevice is called a bipolar tr;u~sistor. ter is made positive with respect t o The three regions of the device a r e both the collector and the base, and called the cmitter, the b:ise, and the the collector is made negative with c o l l e c t o j a s shown in Fig. I l ( a ) . In respect to both emitter and base. normal operation, the emitter-toThe transistor, which i s a threebase junction is biased in the for- element device, can be used f o r a ward direction, and the collector-to- wide variety of control functions, inbase junction in the reverse direction. cluding amplification, oscillation, and Uiffcrellt symbols a r e usetl f o r frequency conversion. A conlplete n-p-n ant1 p-n-p transistors t o show description of the fabrication, electhe tlifFercnce in the direction of cur- trical characteristics, and basic cirrent flow in the two types of devices. cuits of 1)ipolar transistors is given In the n-p-n transistor shown in Fig. in the section on Bipolar Transistors. l l ( b ) , electrons flow from t h e emit- ; The field-effect transistor (I'ET) t e r to the collector. In the p-n-p tran- 1 is another type of solid-state desistor shown in Fig. l l ( c ) , electrons 1 vice t h a t is becoming increasingly flow from the collector to t h e emit- popular in electronic circuits. Functer. In other wonls, the direction of I tionally, this type of transistor dif/\A -
dc electron current is always ol)l)osite to t h a t of the arrow on the emitter lead. ( A s in the case of scmicontluctor tliodes, the arrow intlicntes the direction of "conventional curr e n t flow" in the circuit.) The first two letters of the n-p-n and p-n-p designations intlicate t h e respective polarities of the voltages applied to the emitter and the collector in normal operation. I n
,G,
'
fcrs fro111 the bipolar transistor in the drain a t a positive potential that current flow through the de- with respect to the source terminal. vice is controlled by variation of In the schematic symbol, this type the electric field cstahlished by a is indicated by an arrow in the control voltage rather than by vari- gate lead t h a t points into the deation of the current injected into vice. The drain potential f o r the pthe base terminal. Field-effect tran- channel type, which i s analogous t o sistors exhibit many of the electrical a p-n-p bipolar transistor, is negacharacteristics of electron tubes, but tive with respect t o t h e source termistill retain the inherent advantages nal. I n t h e schematic symbol f o r of solid-state devices (e.g., small this type, the arrow in the g a t e lead size, low power consumption, and points away from the device. Fig. 13 shows the schematic symmechanical ruggedness). On the basis of structural and functional dif- bols f o r both n-channel and p-chanferences, these devices a r e classified nel versions of the basic classes of a s either junction-gate field-effect MOS field-effect transistors, i.e., transistors ( J F E T ) o r metal-oxide- enhancement types and depletion semiconduclor field-effect transis- types. The arrow used in the schetors (MOS/FET). Although in both matic symbol to indicate whether a types the conduction current is con- device is a n n-channel type (points trolled by a n electric field, the elec- inward) o r a p-channel type (points trical characteristics of these devices outward) is shown in the lead from differ significantly. the substrate terminal. The subFig. 12 shows the schematic sym- strate terminal is connected to the bols for both n-channel and p- semiconductor substrate (also rechannel ction-gate field-effect ferred to us the active "bulk") on tmnsistors!?The gate, source, and which the transistor is fabricated. The technology f o r MOS fieldeffect transistors is more versatile than t h a t f o r junction-gate types. DRAIEI DRAIN Specific categories of MOS field0 0 effect transistors have been designed with unique characteristics t h a t make them ideal f o r linear (analog) and digital applications. F o r example, tho depletion type is frequently used in linear applications, and the enhancement type is ideal SOURCE f o r digital applications. A n enhancen- CHANNEL p -CHANNEL ment type of MOS field-effect transistor is equivalent to a "normally Fix. 12-.Ycl1cr11ntic SJ.III~OIE for jr111cti011- open" switch, a s indicated in the nore field-eflect trtrfuistors (JFET). schematic symbol by the gaps in the source-to-drain path. The depletion type, however, is normally conducdrain electrodes of these devices a r e tive and its source-to-drain path is c!quivalent to the base, emitter, and shown continuous in the schematic collector electrodes, respectively, of symbol. The enhancement-MOSI bipolar transistors. A signal volttige FET technology is being used inapplied to the gate electrode controls creasingly in the fabrication of the conductivity of the semiconduc- integrated circuits f o r digital applitor layer iminedialely below the cation, particularly for large-scalegate, between the source and drain integration (LSI) circuits. A comterminals. The n-channel type, prehensive description of MOSJFET which is analogous to an n-p-n bl- devices is given in the section on polar transistor, is operated with MOS Field-Effect Transistors.
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode ManuaI

@RAIN
GATE
SUBSTRATE
@A I N
SUBSTRATE
GATE SOURCE n- CHANNEL O E P L E T I O N TYPES p- CHANNEL SOURCE
Q DRAIN
SUBSTRATE GATE GATE
0DRAIN
SUBSTRATE
6 SOURCE
n- CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT TYPES
Fig. 13-Sclrc~rtrotic sytrrhols for r~ce~nl-oxiiie-sertricot~cl~ictor field-elfec! tvctrrsjsrors (MOSIFET).
,-'
I
t
!
, ' When alternate layers of 11-type and n-type semiconductor materials a r e arranged in a series array, various types of thyristors can be produced. The tern1 thyristor is the generic name f o r solitl-state devices t h a t have electrical characteristics similar to tllosc of thyratron tubes. The three l ~ a s i ctypes of thyristors a r e the bidirectional trigger diode called the tliac, t h e reverse blocking triode called t h e silicon controlled rectificr o r SCR, and t h e bidirectional triode thyristor, called the triac. The diac, shown in Fig. 14, i s a two-electrode, three-layer device having the satne doping level a t both junctions and a "floating" base. The device conducts current in
either direction a f t e r t h e applied voltage exceeds a certain value called the "breakover voltage." The SCR is a three-electrode, four-layer device, a s shown in Fig. 15. The SCR
ccR
ANODE (CASE)
Fig. 15-J~irrctiorr diagrar~r ( a ) arrd sclrerrratic syrrrbol ( b ) for a silicor~ coritrolled rectifier or SCR.
& I
Fi,?. I4-Jrotcriorr dingrarir ( a ) nrrcl sche~rtarics)~rrrbo[ 6 ) for a iliac. (
behaves as a conventional rectifier to bloclr current flow in the reverse direction and a s a transistor switch in the forward direction to first block current and then conduct through the device when a current

pulse of suflicient magnitude is applied to the gate electrode. The triac i s a three-electrode, five-layer device, a s shown in Fig. lG, which exhibits the forward-blockingforward-conducting voltage-current characteristic of the SCR structure
11
for either direction of voltage applied to the main terminals. The schematic symbols for these thyristor devices a r e also shown in Figs. 14, 15, and 16. A complete description of these devices is given in t h e section on Thyristors.
MAIN
(a)
PMAIN TERMINAL I
F i a 6 - J u t r c f i o n diagram ( a ) and schenratic symbol ( b ) for a triac.
Bipolar Transistors
*A
p-11 j u r ~ c t i o n I)insctl in t h e reverse direction is cquivalent t o a high-resistance e l e l n r n t (low c u r r e n t f o r a given apl)lied volta ~ o ) while a junction biased in t h e , fortvard direction i s equivalent t o a lot\,-resistance c l e m e n t ( h i ~ h u r c r e n t f o r a given a111)lied voltage). Because the polver devcl01)ed by a given c u r r e n t is g r e a t e r in a highresistnnce element t h a n i n a lowresistance element ( P = I"), ),OXVer g a i n can be obtained in a s t r u c t u r e containing t w o such resistance elem e n t s if t h e c u r r e n t flow is not rnntcrially reduccd. A tlcvice cont a i n i n r two p-n j u n c l i o l ~ sbiased ill opposite directions is called a junction o r bipolar t r a n s i s t o r . Such a two-junction tlcvice i s s h o w n in F i g . 17. T h e thiclc entl l a y e r s a r e m a d e of t h e s a m e t y p e of m a t e r i a l ( n - t y p e ill this c a s e ) , a n d a r e separatctl by a very t.11i1il a y e r of t h e opposite lnaterial (p-'ype in t h e (levice s l ~ o w n ) .BY m e a n s of t h e
tlirection to provitlc a l o w - r c s i s t a ~ ~ c e i n p u t circuit, a n d t h e rigllt-11alld ( p - n ) junction is biased ill t h e r c v e r s e clirection t o provide a highresistance o u t p u t cii.cuit. &? Electrons flow easily f r o m t h e lefthantl n- type region t o tlle celitcr pt y p e region a s a r e s u l t of t h e forwartl biasing. Most of t h c s i r . c l c c t ~ ~ o ntlifs f u s e t h r o u g h t h e t h i n p-type region, ho\~rever, a n d a r e a t t r a c t c t [ I,y t h e positive potential of t h e l)attery across tllc riRllt-llantl junction. 1, ,,ractical devices, appl.oxilllately $15 t o 99.5 c e n t o f tllc c ~ ~ c c ~ r curren t reacllcs tllc right-llallct 11type region. ~ l high i ~ ~ of c u r r e n t penetration provitlcs power g a i n in t h e high-resistance o u t p u t circuit a n d is t h e basis f o r t r a n s i s t o r amplification capability. #?- The operation of p-n-p tlcvices is similar to that shown f o r the n-p-n device, except t h a t t h e bias-voltage a r e ~*e\rersc([,n d electrona current flOIVis in opposite dircction. (Rlany tliscussions of semiconOUTPUT tluctor t h e o r y a s s u m e t h a t t h e "holes" in semicontluctor m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t e t h c c h a r g e c a r r i e r s in p-n-p tlevices, a n d tliscuss "hole currents" f o r these ELECTRON devices ant1 " electron currents" f o r n-p-n devices. O t h e r t e x t s discuss neither hole c u r r e n t n o r electron c u r r e n t , b u t r a t h e r "conventional c u r r e n t flow", which i s a s s u m e d t o travel Fi:. 17-AII 11-p-11 .rtrlrcllrrc biased for t h r o u g h a circuit in a tlirection frorn poivcr gairi. t h e posiLive t e r m i n a l of t h e external b a t t e r y back t o i t s n e g a t i v e terminal. e s t e r ~ l n hntterics, t h e lcft-hand ( n - p ) l junction is biased i n t h e f o r w a r d F o r t h e s a k e of sinlplicity, this tlis-
Bipolar Transistors
cussion will be restricted to the concept of electron current flow, which travels from a negative to a positive terminal.)
BASE CONTACT
13
SOLDER COLLECTOR
EMITTER SE O L O .CONTACT
(a)
REGION
CONTACT
DESIGN AND FABRICATION

T h e ultimate aim of all t r a n sistor fabrication techniques is t h e construction of two parallel p-n junctions with co~ltrolled spacing hetween the junctions and co~ltrolled impurity levels on both sides of each junction. A variety of structures h a s been dcvcloped in t h e course of transisto evolution. T h e earliest transistors made were of t h e point-contact type. I n this type of structure, two pointed wires r were placed next to each other on a n n-type block of semiconductor material. The p-n junctions were formed by electrical pulsing of the wires. This type has been superseded by junction transistors, which a r e fabricated by various+loy, diffusion, and crystal-growth techniques. I11 grown-junction transistors, t h e impurity content of the semiconductor material is changed during t h e growth of the original crystal ingot to provide the p-n-p or n-p-n regions. Thc grown crystal is then sliced into a large number of small-area devices, and contacts a r e made t o each region of the devices. Fig. 1 8 ( a ) shows a cross-section of a grownjunction transistor. I n alloy-junction transistors, two small "dots" of a p-type o r n-type impurity element a r e placed on opposite sides of a thin wafer of 11-type or p-type sen~iconductor n ~ n t e r i a l , ~.espectively, s sho\vn in Fig. 1 8 ( b ) . a A f t e r proper heating, the impurity "tlots" alloy with the scmiconductor material to form t h e regions f o r t h e emitter and collector junctions. The base connection in this structure is made to the original semiconductor wafer. ,.; The drift-field transistor is a modified a l l o y - j u n c t i o ~device in which ~ the i n ~ p u r i t y concentration in t h e base wafer is diffused o r graded, a s
GROWN-JUNCTION TYPE ORIGINAL SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL- BASE EMITTER DOT
(b) ALLOY.JUNCTION
TYPE
DIFFUSED
CONTACT
b
UNDIFFUSED BASE SOLDER REGION- ORIGINAL COLL&TOR SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
-.
.-.
DOT
DRIFT-FIELD TYPE F i g . 18-Cross-sectioru of jrcrrclion Iransistors.

(c)
shown in Fig. 18(c). Two advantages a r e derived from this structure: ( a ) the resultant built-in voltage or "drift field" speeds current flow, and (,b) the ability to use a heavy impurity concentration in t h e vicinity of the emitter and a light concentration in t h e vicinity of t h e collector makes i t possible to minimize capacitive charging times. Both these advantages lead t o a substantial extension of the frequency performance over the alloy-junction device. The diffused-junction t r a n s i s t o r represents a major advance in tran,sister technology because increased control over junction spacings and impurity levels makes possible significant inlprovements in transistor performance capabilities. A crosssection of a single-diffused "hometaxial" structure i s shown in Fig. 19( a ) . Hometaxial transistors a r e fabricated by sinlultaneous diffusion of impurity from each side of a homogeneously doped base wafer. A mesa o r flat-topped peak is etched on one side of t h e wafer in a n intricate design to define t h e transistor emitter

and expose t h e base region f o r connection of metal contacts. L a r g e amounts of h e a t can be dissipated from a hometaxial structure through the highly conductive solder joint between the semiconductor material and the device package. This structure provides a very low collector resistance. Double-diffused transistors have a n additional degree of freedom f o r selection of the impurity levels and junction spacings of t h e base, emitter, and collector. This structure provides high voltage capability through a lightly doped collector region without compromise of t h e junction spacings which determine device frequency response and other important characteristics. Fig. 19(b) shows a typical double-diffused transistor; the emitter a n d base junctions a r e diffused into t h e same side of t h e original sen~iconductorwafer, which serves a s t h e collector. A mesa is usually etched through the base region to reduce t h e collector a r c a a t the base-to-collector junction and t o provide a stable sen~iconductorsurface. Double-diffused planar transistors provide the added advantage of protection o r passivation of the emitterto-base and collector-to-base junction surfaces. Fig. 19(c) shonrs a typical double-diffused planar transistor. The base and emitter regions terminate
EMITTER METAL
BASE CO?TACT
DIFFUSED BASE'
a t the top surface of t h e semiconductor wafer under t h e protection of a n insulating layer. Photolithographic and masking techniques a r e used t o provide f o r diffusion of both base and emitter impurities in selective a r e a s of t h e semiconductor wafer. I n triple-diffused transistors, a heavily doped region diffused f r o m t h e bottom of t h e semiconductor wafer effectively reduces the thickness of t h e lightly doped collector region t o a value dictated only by electric-field considerations. Thus, t h e thickness of the lightly doped o r high-resistivity portion of the collector is minimized t o obtain a low collector resistance. A section of a triple-diffused planar structure is shown in Fig. 19(d). Epitaxial transistors d i n e r from diffused structures in t h e mafiner in which t h e various regions a r e fabricated. Epitaxial structures a r e grown on top of a semiconductor wafer in a high-temperature reaction chamber. The growth proceeds atom by atom, and is a perfect extension of the crystal lattice of t h e wafer on which i t is grown. In t h e epitaxial-base transistor shown in Fit. 2 0 ( a ) a lightly doped base region is deposited by epitaxial techniques on a heavily doped collector wafer of opposite-type dopant. Photolithographic and masking techniques and
METAL FILM
,EMITTER CONTACT
SILICON DIOXIDE
DIFFUSED BASE
.DIFFUSED EMITTER
.-8----C
UNDIFFUSED
r P ACKAGE SOLDER DIFFU&D CT OR C O LLE UNDiFFUSED BASE (LOW RESISTANCE) (HOMOGENOUS)

(a1 SINGLE-DIFFUSED " HOMETAXIAL" TYPE
(c) DOUBLE-DIFFUSED PLANAR TYPE
SILICON DIOXIDE
coNTAcT
ME T A L
'ONTACT
FILM^,
EMITTER CONTACT ;DIFFUSED EMITTER - -
UNDIFFUSED
BASE
PACKAGE
SOLDER
PACKAGE
UNDIFFUSED COLLECTOR
DIFFUSED COLLECTOR HEAVILY DOPED
(b) DOUBLE-DIFFUSED TYPE
( d ) TRIPLE-DIFFUSED PLANAR TYPE
Fig. 19-Cross-secrioirs
Bipolar Transistors
CONTACT ME T A L
15
' r
through a typical overlay emitter region. A f t e r fabrication, individual tranHEAVILY sistor chips a r e mechanically sepaD O P ED COLLECTOR PACKAGE rated and mounted on individual SO L DER headers. Connector wires a r e then ( 0 ) EPI T A XI A L - B A S E T Y P E bonded t o t h e metalized regions, and DIFFUSED EMITTER each unit i s encased in plastic or a E PIT A X IA L . hermetically sealed enclosure. In CO LL ECTOR ,,,, power transistors, t h e wafer is usually soldered o r alloyed t o a solid D O P ED PACKAGE SOLDER COLLECTOR metal header to provide f o r high thermal conductivity and low-resis(b) D UA L - EPIT A XI A L - L A Y E R T Y P E S ILI CO N tance collector contacts, and lowresistance contacts a r e soldered or metal-bonded from t h e emitter o r base metalizing contacts t o t h e ap,,,,,,,,, propriate package leads. This packEMITTER aging concept results in a simple BASE structure t h a t can be readily attached t o a variety of circuit heat sinks and R can safely withstand power dissipa(c) " O V ERLAY" TY P E tions of hundreds of w a t t s and currents of t e n s of amperes. Flg. 20-Cross-seclio,rs of el,i~axial IranD IFF U S ED EM I T T ER
slslors.
a single i n ~ p u r i t ydiffusion a r e used to define the emitter region. This Bipolar transistors a r e structure offers t h e advantages of amplifiers. When a small signal low collector resistance and easy.$ i s applied to t h e input ternlicontrol of impurity spacings and J a bipolar transistor, a n amemitter geometry. A variation of reproduction of this signal this structure uses two epitaxial a t the output layers. A thin lightly doped e p i - , r ~ l t h o u g h there a r e six possible ways taxial layer used for the collector of connecting the input signal, only is deposited over the original heavilyi three useful circuit configurations doped sen~iconductorw a f e r prior t o exist f o r current or power amplifithe epitaxial deposition of the base? cation: common-base, common-emitregion. The collector epitaxial layer \ter, and common-collector. In the1 is of opposite-type dopant t o t h e common-base (or grounded-base) conepitaxial base layer. This structure, nection shown in Fig. 21, t h e signal shown in Fig. 20(b), has t h e added is introduced into the emitter-base advantage of higher voltage ratings circuit and extracted from the collecprovided by the epitaxial collector tor-base circuit. (Thus the base layer. element of the transistor is common The overlay transistor is a double- to both t h e input and output cirdiffused epitaxial device which em- cuits). Because the input or emitterploys a unique emitter structure. A base circuit has a low impedance : large number of separate emitters (resistance plus reactance) in the ' a r e tied together by diffused and order of 0.5 t o 50 ohms, and the metalized regions t o increase t h e output o r collector-base circuit has ' emitter edge-to-area ratio and reduce a high impedance in t h e order of 1000 ohms to one megohm, the t h e charging-time constants of the transistor without compromise of voltage o r power gain in this type current- and power-handling capa- of configuration may be in the order bility. Fig. 20(c) shows a section of 1500.
(BASIC CIRCUITS?
16

is in the range of 20 to 5000 ohms, and the output (collector-enlitter) impedance is nbout 60 to 50,000 ohms. I'ower gains ill thc ortlcr of 10,000 (or approximately 40 d B ) can be realized with this circuit because i t provides both current gain and voltage gain. Current gain in t h e commonemitter configuration is measured between t h e base and the collector, rather than between the emitter and the collector a s in the common-base circuit. Because a very small change in base current produces a relatively large changc in collector current, the current gain is always greater than unity in a common-emitter circuit; a typical value is about 50. The input signal voltage undergoes a phase reversal of 180 degrees in a common-enlitter hmplifier, a s shown by the wavefor~llsin Fig. 22.
Fig. 21-Cottrrrron-bn.re circrtif corlfigrtraliorf.
The direction of the arrows in Fig.

21 indicates eleclron current flow.
:/f
v '
As stated previously, most of the current from the emitter flows to t h e collector; t h e remainder flows through the base. In practical transistors, from 95 to 99.5 per cent of the emitter current reaches the collector. The current gain of this configuration, therefore, is always less than unity, usually in the order of 0.95 to 0.995. 'The waveforms in Fip. 21 represent the input voltage produced by the signal generator e. and t h e output voltage developed across the load resistor RT.. When thc input voltage is positive, a s shown n t AB, it opposes the forward hias produced by the base-emitter battery, and thus reduces current flow through t h e n-p-n transistor. The reclucetl electron current flow through RI. then the top point of the resistor less negative (or more positive) with respect to the lower point, a s shown a t A'B' on the output waveform. Conversely, when the ' input signal is negative, a s a t CD{ the output signal is also negative, as a t C D . Thus, the phase of the '' signal remains u~ichanyred in this circuit, i.e., there is no voltage phase reversal between the input and the output of a common-base amplifier. I n the common-enlitter ( o r grounded-emitter) connection shown in Fig. 22 the signal is introduced into the base-emitter circuit and extracted from the collector-emitter circuit. This configuration has more moderate input and output impedances than the common-base circuit. The input (base-emitter) impedance
Fig. 22-Corrt~rtorf-crrrittcr circctir figftmlio~r.

*a
corl-
\\"hen the input voltage is positive, a s shown a t AB, i t increases the forward bias across the base-emitter junction, and thus increases the total current flow through the transistor. The increased electron flow through RI. then causes the output voltage to become negative, a s shown a t A'B'. During the second half-cycle of the v ~ v e f o r m ,the process is reversed, ~,e.', when the input signal is negative, the output signal is positive (as shown a t CD and C D . '') The third type of connection, sho\vn in Fig. 23, is the common-collector ( o r grounded-collector) circuit. In this configuration, the signal is introduced into the base-collector circuit and extracted from the emittercollector circuit. Because the input
6.
Bipolar Transistors
impedance of t h e transistor is high and the output impedance low in this connection, the voltage gain is less than unity and the power gain is usually lower than t h a t obtained in either a common-base or a comnlon-emitter circuit. The commoncollector circuit is used primarily a s
17
on all the electrodes. The dynamic characteristics, therefore, a r e indicative of the performance capabilities of the transistor under actual working conditions. u Published d a t a f o r transistors include both electrode characteristic curves and transfer characteristic curves. These curves present t h e same information, b u t in two differe n t f o r m s t o provide more useful data. Because transistors a r e used most often in the common-emitter configuration, characteristic, curves a r e usually shown f o r the collector or output electrode. T h e collectorcharacteristic curve i s obtained by varying collector-to-emitter voltage and measuring collector current f o r dilrercnt values of base current. The a n impetlance-matching device. As in transfer-characteristic curve is obthe case of the common-base circuit, tained by varying the base-to-emitter there is no phase reversal of t h e s ~ g - (bias) voltage o r current a t a specinal between t h e input and the output. fied o r constant collector voltage, ant1 measuring collector current. A The circuits shown inFigs. 21 t collector-characteristic family of through 23 a r e biased f o r n-p-n transistors. When p-n-p transistors a r e curves is shown in Fig. 24. Fig. 25 used, the polarities of the batteries shows transfer-characteristic curves must be reversed. The voltage phase f o r the same transistor. relationsliips, however, remain t h e UI W n same. W
CHARACTERISTICS
f
5 500 4
T . .
HE term "characteristic" is used to ~ d c n t l f y tlistinguisl~ing the electrical features and values of a transistor. These values may be shown in curve for111 or they may be tabulated. When the characteristics values a r e given in curve form, the curves may be used f o r t h e determination of transistor performance and t h e calculation of additional transistor parameters. Characteristics values a r e obtained from electrical measurements of transistors in various circuits under certain definite conditions of current and voltage. Static characteristics a r e obtaillet1 with dc potentials applied to the transistor electrodes. Dyntuuic characteristics a r e obtained with a n ac voltage on one electrode under various conditions of dc potentials
1400 I
-z I-
300
k !
u 3
0
200
u 100
W
6
d 0
2 4 6 8 1 0 COLLECTOR- TO- EMITTER VOLTS (VCEl
9268-123277
0 0
Fig. ,74-Collec1or-chnr~c1crisricclrrves.
A measure of the current gain of a transistor is its forward currenttransfer ratio, i.e., the ratio of the current in the output electrode to the current in the input electrode. Because of the different ways in which transistors may be connected in circuits, the forward currenttransfer ratio is specified f o r a
18
C
' x

typical electrode currents in a common-emitter circuit ( a ) under nosignal conditions and (b) with n one-microampere signal applied to the base. The signal current of one microampere in the base causes a change of 49 microamperes (147-98) in the collector current. Thus the ac beta f o r the transistor is 49. T h e cutoK frequency of a tmnsistor is defined a s the frequency a t
$ ' I
d
1 400
A
t 300 !
g 200
too 0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 BASE- TO- EMITTER VOLTS (VBE)
1
0 I)
0.2
e
I W 0
0.4
92CS-I232(lT
Fig. 25-Trarrsfer-c\raracterislic
cltrves.
particular circuit configuration. The common-base forward current-transf e r ratio is often called alpha ( o r a),and the common-emitter forward current-transfer ratio is often called beta ( o r 8). I n the common-base circuit shown in Fig. 2 1 the emitter is the input electrode and the collector is the output eIectrode. The dc alpha, therefore, is the ratio of the steady-state collector current Ir to the steadystate emitter current IE: I c 0.98 1 a=-=-= In 1
0.98
'F;T+
Pa
NO SIGNAL
ELECTRON
IE=lOOpA
+ (a)
I.
IB=15OpA
.,(b)
.-
ln t h e c o m m o n - e , n i t ~ e r circuit shown in Fig. 22, the base is the input electrode and the collector is the output electrode. The dc beta, therefore, is the ratio of the steaclystate c ur r ent It' steady-state base current 111: lr 0.98 I N = - ' = =49 I,, 0 0 2 1
Because the ratios given :~bovea r e based on ~ t e a d y - ~ t a t ~ c~lrrcnts,they a r e properly called dc alpha and dc beta. I t is more conlnlon, however, for tile curl.ent-trnnsfer ratio to be given in tcrms of the ratio of signal currents in the input and output electrodes, o r the ratio of a change in the output current to the inpilt signal current which causes the change. Fig. 26 shows
Fig. 26-Elcc/rotlc crrrrc.trts rrrrtfer ( n ) 110sigrrcrl mrll ( 6 ) s i g ~ m l corrditior~s.
the o f alplla (for a conlmol,-~ase circuit) or beta (for a ,olll,l,on~en,i~tcr circuit) drops t o 0.707 times its 1-ItIIz vnluc. The? gain-bnndwitlt 11 ~ ~ r o d o&he ct frequency a t ~vhich the colnmot~emitter f o r w ~ r d cul.rent-tralisfel~ ratio ( b e t a ) is equal to unity. These charactc!ristics 1)rovitle an a])l>roximate indication of the useful fieqllcllc~ range of the device, and help to determine the niost suitable circuit c~llfigul~atioll a particular for application. Fig. 27 shows typical curves of all)lia and beta a s functions of frequency. y E x t r i r ~ s i c transcondnctnnce may be defined as the quotient of a small change in collector current tlivided
. :
Bipolar Transistors
cAlN-aAk9WtOTH specified electrodes at which t h e crystal structure changes and current begins to rise rapidly. T h e voltage then remains relatively constant over a wide range of electrode currents. Breakdown voltages m a y be measured with t h e third electrode open, shorted, o r biased in either the forward or the reverse direction. F o r example, Fig. 28 shows a series of collector-characteristic curves f o r different base-bias conditions. It can
FREQUENCY- Hz
Fig. 27- Forward crcrretrt-transfer ratio as

a fu~rcriott of frequency.
1b)))
<1
a. .,
'<,
.)
'
by the small change in emitter-tobase voltage producing it, under the condition that other voltages remain unchanged. Thus, if a n emitter-tobase voltage change of 0.1 causes a collector-current change of 3 milliamperes (0.003 ampere) with other voltages constant, the transconductance is 0.003 divided by 0.1, o r 0.03 mho. ( A "rnho" is t h e unit of conductance, and was named by spelling "ohm" bacltward.) F o r convenience, a millionth of a mho, or a micromho (pmho), is used t o express transconductance. Thus, in the example, 0.03 mho is 30,000 ~nicromhos. Cutoff currents a r e small steadystate reverse currents which flow when a transistor is ljiased into non-conduction. They consist of Icakage currents, which a r e related to the surface characteristics of the sen~icontluctormaterial, and saturation currents, which a r e related to the impurity concentration in the material and which increase with increasing temperatures. Collectorcutoff current is the steady-state current which flows in the reversebiased collector-to-base circuit when the emitter-to-base circuit is open. Emitter-cutoff current is the current which flows in the reversebiased emitter-to-base circuit when the collector-to-base circuit is open. Transistor breakdown voltages define the voltage values between two
YBRICERV(BR)CEV COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER VOLTAGE

Fig. 28- Typical collector-characteristic crtrves sltowitig locntiotr of various breakdorvrr vol~anes.
~(BRI'CEO c ~ s l jv(0i
be seen that the collector-to-emitter brealcclown voltage increases as the base-to-emitter bias decreases from the normal forward values through zero to reverse values. The symbols. shown on the abscissa a r e sometimes used to designate collector-to-emitter breakdown voltages with the base open V , n n , c ~ o ,with external base-toemitter resistance VqonIc~n,with the base shorted to the emitter V,nR,cas, and with a reverse base-to-emitter voltage Vcnn,cer. As the resistance in the base-toenlitter circuit decreases, the collector characteristic develops two breakdown points, a s shown in Fig. 28. After the initial breakdown, the collector-to-emitter voltage decreases with increasing collector current

until another hrenktlo\vn occurs a t a lower voItage. This 111iuin111nl collcctor-to-emitter l)realtdotv~~ voltage is called the x u s t a i n i n ~ voltage. 111 large-nrcn polvcr Lr:~nsistors, there i s a l i ~ n i t i n g ~ncchanism referred to a s "second breakdown". This c o n t l i t i o ~ ~ not a volLage 1)renliis c l o w ~ ~ , rather a n rlcctrically and but tl~crmally regenerative process in which curr(,nt is focusctl in a very small a r e a of the order of the diametcr of a human hair. The very high current, together with the volta g e across the transistor, causes a localized heating t h a t may melt a n~inute hole from the collcctor to the emitter of the transistor and thus cause a short circuit. This regenerative process is not initiated unless certain high voltages and currents a r e coincident f o r certain finite l e n ~ t h s time. of I n conventional transistor structures, t h e l i n ~ i t i n geffects of second brcaktlown vary directly with the amplitude of the applied voltage and inversely with the width of the base region. These effects a r e most severe in power transistors in which narrow base structurcs a r e used t o achieve fiood high-frequency response. I n RCA "overlay" power transistors, a special emitter configuration is used to provide greater current-handling capability and minimize the possibility of "hot spots" occurring a t the emitter-base junction. This new design extends the r a n g e of power and frequency over which transistors c a n be operated before second breakdown begins t o limit performance. The curves a t thc left of Fig. 28 show typical collcctor characteristics under normal fornfnrd-l~ias conilitions. F o r a given basc input rurrent, the collector-to-emitter saturation voltnge is the n ~ i n i n l u nvoltngc re~ quired to maintain the transistor in f111l conduction (i.e., in thc saturation region). Under saturation conditions, a further increase in forward bias produces no corresponding incrcnse in collector current. Saturation voltages a r e very ilnportnnt in s\vitch-
ing applications, and a r e usually spccificd f o r several conclitior~s of electrode currents and ambient temperatures. llracll-throug11 ( o r ~ ) u ~ ~ c h - t I ~ r o u g voltage defines the v o l t a ~ e valuc a t which the depletion region in the pass's coml)lctely collector r e g i o ~ ~ t.hrough thc Ijase rerion ant1 maltcs contact a t sonlc point wilh thc emitter region. This "reach-through" phenomenon results in a rclativcly low-resistance path betwcerl the emitter ant1 the collector, and causcs a sharp increase in currcnt. Punchthrougll voltagc docs not result in permanent daniage to a transistor, provided there is sulncient impetlance in the power-supply source to limit transistor dissipation to safe values.
BIASING
F o r most non-switching applications, the operating point for n ~ a r ticular transistor by t h e quiescent (dc, 1 1 0 - s i ~ t ~ avalues l) of collector voltage ant1 emitter current. In general, a transistorns a current-operatcmcl clevice, i.e., the current flowing i n the emitter-base circuit the current flowing in the collcctor circuit. The voltage a ~ l t lcurrent values selected, a s well a s the particular binsing arrangement used, both the transistor chnrartcrl s t ~ c sand the specific require~ncnts of the application. As mentionctl previously, biasing of a transistor for most applications o f forlvard bias across the emitte~,-l~asc junction ancl reverse bias across t h e collector-base junction. In Figs. 21, 22, and 23, two ljatterics to estnblish I ~ i a s of the correct po1:lrit.y for an n-p-n transistor in the common-hasc, conlmon-emitter, and common-collector circuits, respectively. hIany varintions of these basic c i r c u i t ~ a l s o .% ( I n these simplifietl tlc circuits, inductors and transformeronly by their series resistancc.)
Bipolar Transistors
A sin~plifictl biasing arrangement for the common-l)ase circuit is shown in Fig. 29. Bias for both the collectorbase jrlnction and the emitter-base
n-P-n
21
tial and 13esistor HI establish the emitter current; the emitter current establishes the collector current; and the collector current and RI establish the collector potential. REi s bypassed with capacitor C,so t h a t t h e base i s effectively grounded f o r a c signals. A single battery can also be used to bias the common-emitter circuit. The simplified arrangement shown in Fig. 30 is commonly called "fixed bias". I n this case, both t h e base and the collector a r e made positive with respect to the emitter by means of the battery. The base resistance Rs is then selected to provide t h e desired base current In f o r t h e transistor (which, in turn, establishes the desired emitter current I.), by means of the following expression: vsu - Vos
(b)
Ro =
ID
Fin. 29-Uinsirrg rretw~ork/or4611r1rrorr-bass where V n n is the battery supply voltcircrrit for (n) 11-p-rrnrrd ( h ) p-11-p a g e and Vns i s t h e base-to-emitter lrolrsistors.
junction is obtained from the single battery through the voltage-divider networlc consisting of resistors E and It,. ( F o r the n-p-n transistor shown in Fig. 29(a) the emitter-base junction is forward-biased because the emitter is negative with respect to the base, and the collector-base junction is reverse-biased because the collector is positive with respect to the base, a s shown. F o r the p-n-p transistor shown i n Fig. 29 ( b ) , the polarity of the battery and of the electrolytic bypass capacitor Ct is reversed.) The electron current I from the battery and through the voltage tlivicler causes a voltage drop across resistor R1 which biases the base. The proper amount of current then flows through Rt so t h a t the correct emitter potential i s established to provide forward bias relative to the base. This emitter current establishes the amount of collector current which, in turn, causes a voltage drop across R,. Simply stated, the voltage divider consisting of R? and Ra establishes the base potential; the base potential essentially establishes t h e emitter potential; the enlitter poten-
voltage of the transistor. I11 the circuit shown, f o r example, the battery voltage is six volts. The
Fig. 30-"Fixed-bias"
urrungcrnerrt co~nrnorr-emitter circrril.
for
value of Itll was selected to provide a base current of 27 microamperes, a s follows:
Rn = 27 x 10-3 = 200,000
0.6
ohms
The fixed-bias arrangement shown in Fig. 30, however, is not a satisfactory method of biasing the base in a comn~on-emitter circuit. T h e critical base current in this type of circuit is very difficult t o maintain untler fixed-bias conditions because of variations between transistors and the sensitivity of these devices
22
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode M a n u a l

t h e base bias voltage i s determined by the current through the voltage divider. This type of circuit provides less gain t h a n the circuit of Fig. 31, but is commonly used because of its inherent stability. The common-emitter circuits.shown in Figs. 33 and 34 may be used to provide stability and y e t minimize loss of gain. In Fig. 33, a resistor
to temperature changes. This problem is partially overcome in the "selfbias" arrangement shown in Fig. 31.
Fig. 31-"Sell-bias" nrrarrgerrrerrt /or cotrtrrrorr-errfilter circriif,
In this circuit, t h e base resistor is tied directly to the collector. This connection helps to stabilize the operating point because a n increase or decrease in collector current produces a corresponding decrease or increase i n base bias. The value of RI, is then determinetl a s described above, except t h a t the collector volta g e VCR used in place of the supis ply voltage Vnn:
Fig. 33-Bias rrefwork rrsirlg e ~ ~ r i t t eslar bitizirrg resistor.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 31 overcomes many of the disadvantages of fixed bias, although i t reduces the effective gain of the circuit. In the bias method shown in Fig. 32 the voltage-divider network composed of R, and K provides t h e
R, is added t o the emitter 'circuit, and t h e base resistor R2 is returned to the positive terminal of the battery instead of to the collector. The emitter resistor R,: provides additional stability. I t is bypassed with capacitor C E . The value of Ce depends on the lowest frequency t o be amplified. I n Fig. 34 t h e R,R3voltage-divider network is split, and all ac feedbaclc currents through R3 a r e shunted to ground (bypassed) by capacitor C,.
Fix. 34-Bias ~retworktr.rirrr: .~plir ~,olta,oedivider network.
Fig. 32-Bias rtet~cork risirrg voltagedivider arrarrgenrerrt for irrcreascd smbilitp.
required forward bias across t h e base-emitter junction. The value of
The value of R, is usually larger than t h e value of R,. T h e total resistance of R? and R2 should equal the resistance of RI in Fig. 32. In practical circuit applications. any combination of t h e arrangements shown in Figs. 31, 32, 33, and 34 may be used. However, the stability of Figs. 31, 32, and 34 may be
Bipolar Transistors
poor unless the voltage drop across the load resistor Rr, is a t least onethird the value of the supply voltage. The determining factors in the selection of the biasing circuit a r e usually gain and bias stability (which is discussed later). I n many cases, the bias network may include special elements to compensate f o r the effects of variations in ambient temperature or in supply voltage. F o r example, the thermistor (temperature-sensitive resist o r ) shown in Fig. 3 5 ( a ) is used to compensate f o r the rapid increase of collector current with increasing
23
current under no-signal conclitions). A s the temperature increases, this bias voltage decreases. Because the transistor characteristic also shifts in the same direction and magnitude, however, the idling current remains essentially independent of temperature. Temperature stabilization with a properly designed diode network is substantially better than t h a t provided by most thermistor bias networks. Any temperature-stabilizing element should be thermally close t o the transistor being stabilized. In addition, the diode bias current varies in direct proportion with changes in supply voltage. The resultant change in bias voltage is small, however, so t h a t t h e idling current also changes in direct proportion to the supply voltage. Supply-voltage stabilization with a diode 'biasing network reduces current variation to about one-fifth t h a t obtained when resistor o r thermistor bias is used f o r a germanium t r a n sistor and one-fifteenth f o r a silicon transistor. The bias networks of Figs. 30 through 34 a r e generally used in class A circuits. Class B circuits normally employ the bias networks shown in Fig. 35. The bias resistor values f o r class B circuits a r e generally much lower t h a n those f o r class A circuits.
4*,.
Fig. 35-Bins trrr~vorks irrclrrditrg ( a ) a ~lter~riistor ( 6 ) a voltage-cott~pcnsa!ing: arid : diode.
dy
BIAS STABILITY
temperature. Because the thermistor resistance decreases a s the temperature increases, the emitter-to-base bias voltage is reduced and the collector current tends to remain constant. The addition of the shunt and series resistances provides most effective compensation over a desired temperature range. The diode biasing network shown in Fig. 35(b) stabilizes collector current f o r variations in both temperature and supply voltage. The forward-biased diode current determines a bias voltage which establishes the transistor idling current (collector
Because transistor currents tend to increase with temperature, i t is necessary in the design of transistor circuits to include a "stability factor" to keep t h e collector-current variation within tolerable values under the expected high-temperature operating conditions. The bias stability factor SF i s expressed a s the ratio between a change in steadys t a t e collector current and t h e corresponding change in steady-state collector-cutoff current. F o r a given set of operating voltages, the stability factor can be calculated f o r a maximum permissible rise in steady-state collector current
21
f r o ~ n the room-ten~l)erat~t valucx, re a s follows:
COUPLING
Thrce basic methods are uscd to couple t r a n s i s t o r s t a g e s : t r a n s former, resistance-capacitance, and direct coupling. P- The major advantage of trans. former coupling is t h a t it permits power to be transferred from one-' impedance level to another. f A transformcr-coupled comn~on-emitter n-p-n stage is shown in Fig. 37. The voltage step-down transformer T, couples the signal from the collector of t h e preceding stage t o the base of the common-emitter stage. The volta g e loss inherent in this transformer is not significant in transistor circuits because, a s mentioned previously, the transistor i s a currentoperated device. Although the voltage is stepped down, the available current i s stepped up.@I?he chahge in base current resulting from the presence of t h e signdl causes a n alternating collector current to flow in t h e primary winding of transformer T?, and a power gain is obtained between T I and Tn., 7 This use of a voltage step-down transformer is similar t o t h a t in the output stage of a n audio amplifier, where a step-down transformer is
where Ic, and Icntll a r c measured a t 85"C, Irno? is measured a t the maximum expected ambient ( o r junction) temperature, and Ic,,,,. is t h e maximum pern1issil)le collector current f o r the specified collector-to-emitter voltage a t the n~axilnunl expected ambient (or junction) temperature (to keep transistor dissipation within ratings). The calculated values of S F can then be used, together with the appropriate values of beta and rb' (baseconnection resistance), to determine suitable resistance values f o r t h e transistor circuit. Fig. 36 shows equations f o r S F in terms of resistance values f o r three typical circuit confi~urations.The maximum value which S F can assume i s t h e value of beta. Although this analysis w a s originally made f o r germanium transistors, in which t h e collector s a t u r a tion current Ic0 i s relatively large, the same type of analysis may be applied to interchangeability with beta for silicon transistors.
Fig. 36-Bins-sfabi1il)-factor rqrtnfions l o r tlrree typical circrrit configrtratio~rs.
Bipolar Transistors
nornlally used to drive thc loudspeaker, which is also a currentoperated device. The voltage-divider network consisting of resistors R, and Ib in Fig. 37 provides bias f o r the transistor.
25
The use of resistance-capncitance coupling usually permits some economy of circuit costs and reduction of size, with some accompanying sacrifice of gain. This method of coupling is particularly desirable in low-level, low-noise audio amplifier stages to minimize hum pickup from s t r a y magnetic fields. Use of resistance-capacitance (RC) coupling in battery-operated equipment is usually limited to low-power operation. The frequency response of a n RCcoupled stage is normally better than t h a t of a transformer-coupled stage. Fig. 38 shows a two-stage RCcoupled circuit using n-p-n transistors in the common-emitter configuration. The method of bias i s similar to t h a t used in the transformercoupled circuit of Fig. 37. The major additional components a r e the collector load resistances R L ~ and RL) and the coupling capacitor C,. The value of C, must be made fairly large, in the order of 2 to 10 microfarads, because of t h e small input and load resistances involved. ( I t should be noted t h a t electrolytic capacitors a r e normally used f o r coupling in transistor audio circuits. Polarity must be observed, therefore, to obtain proper circuit operation. Occasionally, excessive leakage curr e n t through an electrolytic coupling capacitor may adversely affect transistor operating currents.) Impedance coupling is a modified form of resistance-capacitance coupling in which inductances a r e used
Fig. 37-Tra11sJorn1er-cori~~led conlmonetnilter slage.
The voltage divider is bGPassed by capacitor C, to avoid signal attenuat i o n . q h e stabilizing emitter resistor Ra permits normal variations of the transistor and circuit elements t o be compensated f o r automatically without adverse effects:"~hisresistor RI: is bypassed by capacitor C,. The voltage supply Vnn i s also bypassed, by capacitor C3, t o prevent feedback in the event t h a t ac signal voltages a r e developed across t h e power supply. Capacitors C, and C may nora m a l l y be r e p l a c e d b y a s i n g l e capacitor connected between the emitter and the bottom of t h e secondary winding of transformer TI with little change in performance.
C
Fig. 38-T~t.o-s1q~e resislnt~cc-cnpnciln~rce cartpled chcrril.

t o replace the load resistors. This type of coupling is rarely used except in special applications where supply voltages a r e low and cost is not a significant factor. 1)irect cor~plingis usetl primarily when cost is a n important factor. ( I t should be noted t h a t directcoupled amplifiers a r e not inherently dc amplifiers, i.e., t h a t they cannot always amplify dc signals. Lowfrequency response is usually limited by other factors than the coupling network.) I n the direct-coupled amplifier shown in Fig. 30, resistor R, serves a s both t h e collector load resistor f o r the first stage and t h e bias resistor f o r the seco~ld stage. Resistors R1 and R? provide circuit stability similar to t h a t of Fig. 32 1)ecause the emitter voltage of transistor Qz and the collector voltage of transistor Q , a r e within a few tenths of a volt of each other.
a
pronounced effect on the gain and power-output capabilities of transistors. A s a result, physical aspects such a s layout, type of chassis, shielding, and heat-sink considerations a r e important in the design of high-frequency amplifiers and oscillators.
General Considerations
I n general, high-frequency circuits a r e constructed on material such a s brass o r alun~inunlwhich is either silver-plated o r machined to increase conductivity. The input and output circuits a r e "compartmentalized" by use of a milling operation. Copperclad laminated o r printed circuit boards facilitate soldering operations, and have been used satisfactorily a t frequencies up t o 400 MHz when the entire copper surface w a s kept intact and dsed f o r t h e ground plane.
Because so few circuit p a r t s a r e ~.equiredin the direct-coupled amplifier, maximum economy can be achieved. However, t h e number of stages which can be directly coupled is limited. Temperature variation of the bias current in one stage may be amplified by all the stages, and severe temperature instability may result.
HIGH-FREQUENCY OPERATION
At freauencies of 100 RIHz or more, the' effects of s t r a y capacitances and inductances, ground paths, and feedback coupling have
Because even a short lead provides a large impedance a t high frequencies, it is necessary to keep all high-frequency leads a s short a s possible. This precaution i s especially important f o r ground connections and f o r all connections t o bypass capacitors and h i ~ h - f r e q u e n c y filter capacitors. I t is recommended t h a t a conlmon ground return be used f o r r . each s t a -e, and t h a t short. direct connections be made to the common ground point. The emitter lead esveciallv should be kevt a s short a s possibie. In many cases, problems of oscillation and regenerative feedback a r e
Bipolar Transistors
27
caused by unwanted ground currents may be mounted in a separate shield (i.e., ground-circuit feedback cur- can. Baffle plates may be mounted rents). An effective solution is to on the ganged tuning capacitor to isolate the ac signal path from the shield each section of the capacitor dc path so that the signal does not from the other section. pass through the power supply by The shielding precautions required way of the power leads. I n a multi- in a circuit depend on the design of s t a ~ e amplifier, the power leads the circuit and the layout of the should enter the circuit a t the high- parts. When the metal case of a est power stage to minimize the transistor i s grounded a t the socket amount of signal on the common terminal, the grounding connection power path. Lower-frequency oscil- should be a s short a s possible t o minlations can be minimized by use of imize lead inductance. Many transisa large capacitor across the power- tors have a separate lead connected supply terminals. High-quality feed- to the case and used a s a ground through capacitors should also be lead; where present, these leads a r e used a s the power-lead connections. indicated in the outline diagrams. Particular care should be taken with the lead dress of the input Transistor Requirements output circuits of h i g h - f r e q u e g stages so that the possibility of stray The important performance cricoupling is minimized. Unshielded teria in rf power-amplifier circuits leads connected to shielded compo- a r e power output, power gain, and nents should be dressed close to the efficiency. Transistors to be used chassis. (In high-gain audio ampli- for power amplification mLustaGliviif fiers, these same precautions should power efficiently with sufficient gain be taken to minimize the possibility in the frequency range of interof self-oscillation.) est. Power Output- The power-output Feedback effects may occur in radio or television receivers a s a result capability of a transistor i s debetween stages through termined by the current- and voltof c o u p l i ~ ~ g coninlon voltage-supply circuits. Fil- age-handling capabilities of the ters find an important use in mini- device in the frequency range of mizing such effects. They should be interest. The current-handling capplaced in voltage-supply leads to ability of the transistor is limited each transistor to provide isolation by its emitter periphery and the resistivity of the epitaxial layer. The between stages. Capacitors used in transistor rf voltage-handling capability of the circuits, particularly a t high frequen- device is limited by the breakdown cies, should be mica or ceramic. F o r voltages which are, in turn, limited by the resistivity of the epitaxial audio bypassing, electrolytic capaci- layer and by the penetration of the tors a r e required. junction. In high-frequency stages having Fig. 40 shows a typical family of high gain, undesired feedback may dc collector characteristics with base occur and produce harmful effects on current a s a parameter. The highest circuit performance unless shielding breakdown voltage is t h a t of the is used. The output circuit of each collector-to-base junction Vcnn)cn'o; stage is usually shielded from the the lowest voltage is t h a t of the input of the stage, and each high- collector-to-emitter junction with the frequency stage is usually shielded base open V,nn)r~:o.Breakdown voltfrom other high-frequency stages. I t ages may vary anywhere between is also desirable to shield separately these two values depending on how each unit of the high-frequency the base is biased with respect to stages. F o r example, each if and r f the emitter or on the resistance becoil in a superheterodyne receiver tween the emitter and the base. The
28
I
I-

In general, all rf power transistors have operating voltage restrictions, and only current-handling capability differentiates power transistors from small-signal units. A t high current levels, the emitter current of a transistor is concentrated a t the emitter-base edge; therefore, transistor current-handling capabili t y can be increased by the use of emitter geometries which have emittcr-periphery-to-enlitterhigh area ratios and by the use of improved methods of glowing collector substrate material. Transistors int en d e d for large-signal applications SllOuld be designed so the currents do not cause base widening, a condition t h a t would limit thc current-handlina capability of the device. Base widening is severe in transistors in which the collector side of the collector-base junction h a s a lower carrier concentration and higher resistivity. than the base side of the junction. I-Io~vever,the need f o r low-resistivity material in the collector to handle high currents without base widening severely limits the breakdown voltages. As a result, epitaxial layers of differe n t resistivity a r e often used for different operational voltages.
COLLECTOR'TO-EMITTER
VOLTAGE
VA
Fig. 40-Collector clrrretrl n~ n fltrlcriorr 01 collector-lo-crtlillcr 1.ollnge Jor a lypicol rf Ir-nrr.ristor. static V v ~ nand V(:IIO values are related by the follo\\ring equation: VCEO =
Vann
(1
h~l:)""
~ v h e r e hre is the static forwardcurrent transfer ratio and n is a n empirical number t h a t varies from 2.5 to 4 f o r n-p-n silicon transistors. When rf input is applied, the breakdown voltage is substantially higher than the dc or static value observed mode. Substitution of in the VCIW f ~ / f f o r hrr: in the equation f o r Vceo yields the following result:
Large-Signal Power Gain-The power gain of a transistor power amplifier i s cletermined by the dynamic f ~ the dynamic input imped, ance. and the collector load imnedwhere f r is the dynamic gain-band- ance; the collector load inlpcdance width product and f is the frcqt~ency depends on the required power outof operation. This equation indi- put and the collector voltage swing. cates an increase in the breakdown The power gain, P.G., of a transischaracteristic from thc V~130 value t o r power amplifier may bc exunder dc conditions to a value t h a t pressed in many forms. The simplest approaches Vcno a t operating fre- one i s a s follows: quencies equal to o r -greater than f ~ . P.G. = (f.r/f)' Rr. Another parameter which limits 4 R (Z,.) . the potver-handling capability of the transistor is the saturation volt- where RI. the real p a r t of the colis RRC. The rf value of t h e saturation lector parallel-equivalerrt-load imvoltage Vcc,srT, is significantly pedance determined by the required greater than the dc v a l ~ i e because power output, and ZI. is the dynamic the active area is less a t high fre- input impedance when the collector quencies than a t dc. load impedance is Zr..
Bipolar Transistors
The equation f o r power gain shows t h a t f o r high-gain operation large-signal or power transistors should have a high current gain which remains constant a s the largesignal current level i s varied. In other words, transistors suitable f o r large-signal operation m u s t provide current gain under large-currentswing conditions. Constant current gain f o r varied current level can be achieved with shallow diffusion techniques. The dynamic input impedance of the transistor pellet varies considerably under large-signal operation a s compared to small-signal operation. The resistive p a r t of t h e input impedance is inversely proportional t o the a r e a of the transistor and, therefore, t o the power output of the device. The package parasitic inductance has a significant effect on the input impedance. A simple representation of a common-emitter equivalent transistor input circuit a t uhf and microwave frequences is shown in Fig. 41. The large-signal R,. and LI, a r e different from the smallsignal values; therefore, their exact quantitative analysis is difficult. T h e gain, a s indicated by t h e following relation:
P.G. =
( f ~ /)' RL f 4 (rb + W T L ~ )
The effect of the emitter parasitic inductance is t o reduce t h e power gain.
Efficiency- Transistor efficiency is determined with the device operating unde signal-bias conditions. The collectu&o-base junction i s reversebiased, and t h e emitter-to-base junction is forward-biased partially with the input drive signal. The collector efficiency of a transistor rf amplifier is defined a s t h e ratio of the rf power output a t t h e frequency of interest t o the dc input power. Therefore, high efficiency implies t h a t circuit loss is minimum and t h a t t h e ratio of t h e transistor output, t h e parallel equivalent resistance, and its collector load resistance a r e maximum. Thus, t h e transistor parameter which limits t h e collector efficiency is output admittance. The output admittance of a transistor pellet consists of two parts: a n output capacitance C, and a n equivalent parallel output resistance which approaches l/oT C, a t microwave frequencies under small-signal conditions. In a common-emitter circuit, C u b is essentially t h e output capaciZin -4 tance because the impedance level a t the base i s low relative t o t h e impedance level a t t h e transistor output. The output capacitance represents effectively t h e transistor junction capacitance in series with Fig. 41-Eqrrivalerr~ irrpttl circrtir of arr a resistance. If t h e collector rerf power Irurrsi,~llor. sistivitv i s increased. the effective outputcapacitance and t h e collectorinput impedance Z ~ r lcan be expressed base breakdown voltage a r e both a s follows: increased. I n a vower transistor. I , variations cause variationsepitaxialb in junction and WT thickness in C o Z ' n = ('b + " T ~ ~ )j wLc with Ven. a s shown in Fie. 42. Thus. ' t h e dynamic output capacitance i s , where W T = 2 ~ f T w = 2;f, and L, is a function of voltage swing and the emitter parasitic inductance. power level. I t can be shown t h a t The parasitic emitter inductance t h e average C. under maximum voltalso has a significant effect on power a g e swing i s equal t o 2 C o b , where
f-
'(
;)
30

mum junction-to-case thermal resistance. The thernlal resistance 19, expressed in degrees C per w a t t of dissipation, may he calculated f o r t h e various sections of total heatflow path a s follows: where L is the distance t h a t the h e a t travels in inches, A is t h e area of the p a t h in square inches, and K i s t h e material constant in W / " C inches. K is equal t o 2.12 f o r silicon, 6.2 f o r beryllium oxide, 9.7 f o r copper, and 3.1 f o r aluminum. For a given length and width, t h e thermal resistance can t h u s be calculated f o r most geometries. I t has been conlmon practice to characterize the transistor h e a t dissipation by t h ~ average device thernlal resistance. The average junction-to-pmlbient thermal resistance 01-., of a device can be expressed a s . follows:
Cabi s measured a t the voltage value of Vrn. F o r a first approxinlation, t h e large-signal output resistance can be assumed t o be inversely proportional t o C,,.. Because the ratio of t h e transistor output resistance t o i t s collector load resistance determines the collector eflicicncy, a transistor with high output resistance and, therefore, low C,.I, is essential.
wL
Fig. 42-Collccror-to-base
Q
capucitotrce as f~tirc~iorzf collector-to-base volta,yc /or o n typical rf ponper trarrsttor.
Another transistor parameter t h a t affects the efficiency of t h e device is the dissipation capability. The m a x i ~ n u n lpower t h a t can be dissipated before thermal runway occurs depends on how well internal transistor heat is ~.emoved. The amount of heat removed by conduction i s a n inverse function of the thermal resistance. The total thermal resistance is equal t o the sum of several thermal drops in series: from t h e collector junction to the back of the pellet, a t the pellet-solder interface, a t the solder connection to the case, f r o m the case to t h e h e a t sink, and f r o m the h e a t sink to t h e atmosphere o r ainhient. These drops a r c usually divided into two major groups, junction-to-case t h e r n ~ a l resistance 01-c and case-to-ambient thermal Generally, power resistance en-.,. transistors a r e designed f o r mini-
One of t h e problems in power dissipation is t h a t of complete mounting of the pellet so t h a t there is no discontinuity in t h e bond between pellet and mounting. Considerable care must be usecl in selection of t h e mounting system. A t present, microwave power transistors a r c mounted with gold-silicon niountinfi. systems. I t should be pointed out t h a t the dissipation of a microwave power transistor i s .considerably higher under rf operation than under dc operation. The junction temperat u r e a t radio frequencies is more a function of t h e average device dissipation than of the peak dissipation. The dissipation of a n~icrolvave power transistor is also a function of t h e thermal time constant.
SWITCHING
Transistor switching applications a r e usually characterized by largesignal nonlinear operation of t h e devices. The switching transistor is generally required t o operate i n
Bipolar Transistors
either of two states: on o r off. In transistor switching circuits, the common-emitter configuration is by f a r the most widely used. Typical output characteristics f o r a n n-p-n transistor in the commonemitter configuration a r e shown in Fig. 43. These characteristics a r e divided into three regions of operation, i.e., cutoff region, active region, and saturation region.
EMITTERBASE JUNCTION
V)
COLLECTORBASE JUNCTION
twa
0
FaF
I -
Z
0
znz
s! k ;
S
Fig. 44- firtority-carrier concentrations in an P I - 2 n transistor: (1) in c ~ l t o f lregion, ( 2 ) 'in active region at edge o f saturatiotr region, (3) in saturation region.
Fig. 43- Typical collector chnrac!eristic o f an 11-p-11 tra~rsistor .rho$ving lllree principal regions involved in switching.
In the cutoff region, both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions a r e reverse-biased. Under these conditions, the collector current is very small, and is comparable in magnitude t o the leakage current ICE", ICRP, IcII~,, or depending on the type of base-emitter biasing used. Fig. 44 is a sketch of the minoritycarrier concentration in a n n-p-n transistor. F o r the cutoff condition, the concentration is zero a t both junctions because both junctions a r e reverse-biased, a s shown by curve 1 in Fig. 44. In the active region, the emitterbase junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction i s reversebiased. Switching from the cutoff region t o the active region is accomplished along a load line, a s indicated in Fig. 43. The speed of transition through the active region is a function of the frequency-response characteristics of the device.
The minority-carrier concentration f o r the active region is shown by curve 2 in Fig. 44. The remaining region of operation is the saturation region. In this region, t h e emitter-base and collector-base junctions a r e both forwardbiased. Because the forward voltage drop across t h e emitter-base junction under this condition [Vs.(sat)] i s greater t h a n t h a t across the collector-base junction, there is a n e t collector-to-emitter voltage referred t o a s Vce(sat). I t is evident t h a t any series-resistance effects of t h e emitt e r and collector also enter into determining V ~ ~ ( s a t ) Because the . collector is now forward-biased, additional carriers a r e injected into the base, and some into the collector. This minority-carrier concentration is shown by curve 3 in Fig. 44. A basic saturated-transistor switching circuit is shown in Fig. 45. The voltage and current waveforms f o r this circuit under typical
Fiz. 45-Basic sattirated transistor switching circ~rit.
32
base-drive conditions a r e shown in Fig. 46. P r i o r t o t h e application of t h e positive-going i n p u t pulse, t h e elllitter-base junction is reversebiased by a voltage -V131:(off) = VIIB.Because t h e t r a n s i s t o r is in t h e cutoff region, t h e 1)asc c u r r e n t 111is the reverse lealiage c u r r e n t Iner, which i s negligible compared w i t h In,, a n d t h e collector c u r r e n t Ic i s t h e reverse lealiage c u r r e n t Irrsv, which i s negligible compared w i t h Vrc/Rc. When t h e positive-going i n p u t pulse V, i s applied, t h e base c u r r e n t In imnlediately goes positive.
introduced by t h e capacitive component. T h e collector a n d e m i t t e r capacitances v a r y w i t h t h e collcctorbase a n d emitter-base junction volta g e s , a n d increase a s t h e voltage Vnn goes positive. A n a c c u r a t e determination of t o t a l delay time, therefore, requires Itnowledge of t h e nonlinear characteristics of these capacitances. When t h e collector c u r r e n t IC beg i n s to increase, the t r a n s i s t o r h a s m a d e t h e transition f r o m t h e cutoff region into t h e active region. T h e collector c u r r e n t talces a finite t i m e to r e a c h i t s final value. T h i s time, INPUT 7 1 ' " g called r i s e time ( t , ) , is determined PULSE by t h e gain-bandwidth product ( f r ) , t h e collector-to-emitter capacitance ( C C ) , arid t h e s t a t i c forward.currentt r a n s f e r r a t i o ( h Y E )of t h e transist o r . A t high collector c u r r e n t s a n d / o r low collector voltages, t h e effect of t h i s capacitance on rise time is negligible, a n d t h e rise t i m e of colCOLLECTOR lector c u r r e n t i s inversely proportional t o f ~ A t low c u r r e n t s a n d / o r . high voltages, t h e effect of gainbandwidth product is negligible, a n d EMITTER t h e rise time of collector c u r r e n t i s VOCTAGE directly proportional t o t h e product RcCc. A t intermediate c u r r e n t s a n d Fi.?. 46- Voltage nrtd crrvrcrtt w'avcforr)~~ voltages, t h e rise time is proporfor sat!rraletI s~vi1clli11,q circltit showtr ilr tional t o t h e sun1 ( $5-fT) $- R&c. Fig. 45. U n d e r a n y of t h e above conditions, T h e collector c u r r e n t , however, does t h e collector c u r r e n t responds e x not begin t o incrcase until some ponentially t o a s t e p of base current. time later. T h i s delay in t h e flow I f a turn-on base c u r r e n t (11,~)is of collector c u r r e n t (t,!) r e s u l t s be- applied t o t h e device, and t h e product cause the e m i t t e r a n d collector I ~ l l h ~ ils~ less t h a n VcrIRc, t h e capacitances (lo n o t allow t h e elnit- collector c u r r e n t rises exponentially ter-base junction to I)ecome f o r w a r d - until i t reaches the steady-state 1)iased instantaneously. These ca- value Iltshr;~?. Ill,liv,: is g r e a t e r t h a n If pacitances m u s t be charged f r o m VCVIR,., t h e collector c u r r e n t rises their original negative potential toward t h e value 1lllhP,:. The t r a n [-Vnp:(oK)] t o a f o r w a r d bias suf- s i s t o r becomes s a t u r a t e d when IC ficient to c a u s e t h e t r a n s i s t o r to reaches t h e value I,., (: = VrcIRc). conduct appreciahly. A f t e r t h e A t this point, 1,: is effectively emitter-base junction is suff~ciently clamped a t t h e value V r r / R r . forward-biased, t h e r c is a n addiT h e r i s e time, therefore, depends tional delay caused by t h e t i m e re- on a n exponential function of the quired f o r minority c a r r i e r s which r a t i o IC,;/II~,hpr:. Because t h e values : a r e injected into t h e basc to diffuse of ~ F I : , fT, a n d CC a r e n o t constant, across t h e basc and he coll'ccted a t b u t v a r y with collector voltage a n d the collector. T h i s delay is usually c u r r e n t a s t h e t r a n s i s t o r is switchnegligible compared with t h e delay ing, t h e rise t i m e a s well a s t h e
Bipolar Transistors
delay t i n ~ c depcnclerit on nonlinear is transistor characteristics. A f t e r the collector current of t h e transistor has reached a steady-state value Its, the minority-charge distribution is t h a t shown by curve 3 in Fig. 44. When the transistor i s turned off by returning the input pulse to zero, the collector current does not change immediately. This delay is caused by t h e excess charge in the base and collector regions, which tends t o maintain the collector current a t t h e Ica value until this charge decays to a n amount equal t o t h a t in t h e active region a t the edge of saturation (curve 2 in F i g 44). The time required f o r this charge to decay is called t h e storage time (t.). The r a t e of charge decay is determined by the minoritycarrier lifetime in the base and collector regions, on t h e amount of reverse "turn-off" base current (In.), and on the overdrive "turn-on" current (In,) which determined how deeply the transistor was driven into saturation. ( I n non-saturated switching, there is no excess charge in the base region, so t h a t storage time is negligible.) When t h e stored charge (Qs) h a s decayed to the point where i t is equal to t h a t a t t h e edge of saturation, the transistor again enters t h e active region and the collector current begins t o decrease. This falltime portion of the collector-current characteristic is similar to t h e risetime portion because the transistor is again in the active region. The fall time, however, depends on In?, whereas the rise time w a s dependent on IN,. Fall time, like rise time, also depends on f~ and Cc. The approximate values of Im, I[,?, and Its f o r t h e circuit shown in Fig. 45 a r e given by: I R I= I,,?
Ics
33
b w i t c h i n g Characteristics
The electrical characteristics f o r a switching transistor, in general, differ f r o m t h a t f o r a linear-amplifier type of transistor in several respects. The static forward currenttransfer ratio ~ F and the saturation E voltages V c ~ ( s a t ) and Vne(sat) a r e of fundamental importance in a switching transistor. The static forward current-transfer ratio determines t h e maximum amount of current an~plification t h a t can be achieved in a n y given circuit, saturated o r non-saturated. The saturation voltages a r e necessary f o r the proper dc design of saturated circuits. Consequently, ~ F Ei s always specified f o r a switching transistor, generally a t t ~ v oor more values of collector current. V c ~ ( s a t ) and Vne(sat) a r e specified a t one o r more current levels f o r saturated transistor applications. Control of these three characteristics determines t h e performance of a given transistor type over a broad range of operating conditions. F o r nonsaturated applications, Vce(sat) and V m ( s a t ) need not be specified. F o r such applications, i t i s important t o specify Vne a t specific values of collector current and collector-to-emitt e r voltage in the active region. -- Because t h e collector and emitter capacitances and the gain-bandwidth product influence switching time, these characteristics a r e specified f o r most switching transistors. The collector-base and emitter-base junction capacitances a r e usually measured a t some value of reverse bias and a r e designated Cob and Cib, respectively. The gain-bandwidth product (fT) of t h e transistor i s the frequency a t which the small-signal forward current-transfer ratio (hre) is unity.&Because this characteristic falls off a t 6 dB per octave above the corner frequency, f~ i s usually controlled by specifying the hr. a t a fixed frequency anywhere from 112 t o 1/10 f ~ Because Cob, Clb, . and f T v a r y nonlinearly over the
=
=
VG - Vnn - Vn!:(sat) Rn Vun Vue(sat)
Re
Vcc - VI:E(sat) Hc
34
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual j

i
transistor is exceeded under "off" conditions, the following requirenlents must be met: The miniinuin emitter-to-base breakdown voltage V,I,I:,EIws must be g r e a t e r than Vnn(0ff). Tile n ~ i n i l l l u ~ a collector-to-base breakdown voltage V,lrl{,c.ll<v must be greater than Vc.(:+ Vsl.;(on). The n ~ i n i m u mcollector-to-emitter breakdown voltage V,IIII,I.I:III. be must greater than vC,:. Vtllll,l:l,l, and Vll,,l,,.l,,, a r e al\vays specified f o r switching transistor. The collector-to-cnlitter brealrdown voltage V,nloon($ is usually specified under open-base conditions. l-he breal<do\\rn voltage B V ~ . ~ . ( ~h e, ,sub.t ~ script "RLU indicates a resistive load in the collector circuit) is generally higher than V(nlt,e*l:,,. The requirement t h a t V ~ I I I I ) be. R ~ ~ greater than v ~ . is . overly pessimistic. ~h~ ~ recluirement that~Vtl,ll,(.l.;lll, be greater than v ~ . ~ be used ,vherever applicable. Coupled with the breakdown voltages nre the collector-to-en~ittcrand base-to-enlitter transistor leakage currents. These leakage currents (1cv:r and IIWX) r e particularly inia portant considerations a t high opera t i n g temperatures. The subscript "V" in these symbols indicates t h a t these lealcage currents a r c specified a t a given emitter-to-base voltage (either forward or reverse). In the basic circuit of Fig. 41, these currents a r e determined by the following conditions:
operating range, these characteristics a r e generally more useful a s f i g i ~ r c s merit t h a n a s controls f o r of determining switch in^ speeds. When thc switching specds in a particular application a r e of major importance, it is preferable t o specify t h e requircd switching s ~ ) e c d sin the desired switching circuit rather than C,.I,,CII.,and f.r. The storage time ( t - ) of a transistor is dependent on t h e stored charge ((2s) and on the driving current enlploj~edt o switch t h e transistor between cutoff and saturation. Consccluentl~, either the stored charge or the storage time under heavy overdrive conditions should be specified. Most recent transistor specilications require t h a t storage time be specified. of the dependence of the switching times on current and voltlevels, these times a r e deternlinetl by the v o l t a ~ e sand currents employed in circuit operation.
'
,r
j
:
.
!
t
;
Current, and Voltage Ratings

Up to this point, no mention h a s l ~ e c n made of c l i s s i ~ t a t i o ~ ~ , current, and voltage ratings f o r a switching transistor. The inaximum continuous ratings f o r dissipation and current a r e determined in the same manner a s f o r a n y othcr transistor. In a switching applic-ation, however, the peak dissipation and current m a y be permitted to exceed these continuous on duraratings dcper~dinz the ~ t u l s e tion, on the duty factor, and on the thermal time constant of the transistor. Voltc~ge ratings for switching transistors a r e mol e complirated. In the basic s~vitchinlrcircuit shown in Fig. 45, three l)real<downvoltages 117ust be consitlered. Whcn the transistor is turned off, the emitter-base junction is reverse-biased by the voltage Vllr.( o f f ) , ( i.e., Vltn), the collector-base junction 1)s Vrc Vl,", and the emitter-to-collector Vrr. To assure t h a t junction by none of the voltage ratings f o r t h e
1
!
:
' ,
!
'
'
I,.,:,. 1 v,., = v,, 11t1:rj V,,O= VI,I:(OIT) -VItl, =
In a s~vitching tri~nsistor,these leak- ! a g e currents a r e usually controlled not only a t r o o n ~ temperature, but , also a t some higher operating tern- , perature near the upper operational 1 limit of the transistor.
Inductive Switching
1
t
Most inductive switching circuits [ can be represented by the basic j equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 47. ;
Bipolar Transistors
This t y p e of circuit requires a rapid t r a n s f e r of e n e r g y f r o m t h e switched inductance to t h e switching mechan"CC
35
and if t h e series resistance of t h e inductor c a n be ignored, t h e n t h e ene r g y t o b e dissipated i s '/z LIZ. T h i s t y p e of r a t i n g f o r a t r a n s i s t o r i s called "reverse-bias second breakdown." T h e e n e r g y capability of a t r a n s i s t o r varies with t h e load inductance and base-emitter reverse bias. A typical s e t of r a t i n g s which now a p p e a r s in RCA published d a t a is shown on Fig. 48.
TRANSISTOR UNDER TEST
SAFE-OPERATING-AREA RATINGS
/'in.
47-Bnsic
aqrri~~alenrrircrrir Jor it,~lrrcrii'estvitchi~rgcirctrit.
ism, which m a y be a relay, a t r a n sistor, a conlmutating diode, o r some o t h e r device. O f t e n a n a c c u r a t e calculation of t h e e n e r g y t o be dissipated in t h e switching device is required, particularly if t h a t device is a transistor. If t h e supply voltage is lo\\r compared t o the sustaining breakdown voltage of t h e t r a n s i s t o r
3 2
V)
w I
W LL
0
3
E X T E R N A L BASETO-EMITTER
10
20
30
40
a LL
L .
RESISTANCE-OHMS
2
u
8 1
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 BASE-TO-EMITTER VOLTAGE-V
Y 4
: a2
3
I
0
100 200 300 INDUCTANCE- p H

(c
400
D u r i n g normal circuit operation, power t r a n s i s t o r s a r e often required to s u s t a i n high c u r r e n t a n d high voltage simultaneously. T h e capability of a t r a n s i s t o r to w i t h s t a n d such conditions i s normally shown by use of a safe-operating-area r a t i n g curve. T h i s t y p e of r a t i n g curve defines, f o r both steady-state a n d pulsed operation, t h e voltagec u r r e n t boundaries t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h e combined l i n ~ i t a t i o n simposed by voltage a n d c u r r e n t ratings, t h e n ~ a x i m u mallowable dissipation, a n d t h e second-breakdown (Is/),) capabilities of t h e transistor. If t h e s a f e o p e r a t i n g a r e a of a power t r a n s i s t o r i s linlited within a n y portion of t h e voltage-current characteristics by t h e r m a l f a c t o r s ( t h e r m a l impedance, m a x i m u m junction t e m p e r a t u r e s , o r o p e r a t i n g case t e m p e r a t u r e ) , t h i s limiting is defined by a constant-power ( I = KV-') which c a n be represented on t h e log-log voltage-current curve by a s t r a i g h t line t h a t h a s a slope of -1. T h e e n e r g y level a t which secon breakdown occurs in a pou r er t r a n sistor increases a s t h e time duration of t h e applied voltage a n d c u r r e n t decreases. T h e power-handling capability of t h e t r a n s i s t o r also increases with a decrease in pulse duration because t h e t h e r m a l m a s s of t h e power-transistor chip and associated n ~ o u n t i n g h a r d w a r e i m p a r t s a n inherent t h e r m a l delay t o a rise in junction temperature.
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual i

!
!
!
If a t r a n s i s t o r i- to- I,c operated s F i g . 4 9 sI1on.s a forward- bias s a f e - a r e a r a t i n g c h a r t f o r a typical a t a pulse d u r a t i o n t h a t differs f r o m silicon power t r a n s i s t o r , t h e RCA- those shown on t h e s a f e - a r e a c h a r t , 2N3585. T h e boundaries defined b y t h e boundaries provided I)y t h c safet h e c u r v e s in t h e s a f e - a r e a c h a r t a r e a c u r v e f o r t h e n e x t h i g h e r pulse indicate, f o r both continuous-wave d u r a t i o n m u s t be used, o r t h e t r a n a n d nonrepetitive-pulse operation, s i s t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r should be cont h e m a x i m u m c u r r e n t r a t i n g s , t h e sulted. Moreover, a s indicated in ' m a x i m u m collector- to-emitter f o r - F i g . 49, s a f e - a r e a r a t i n g s a r e n o r m a l l y given f o r single nonrepetitive ward-bias avalanche breakdownvoltage r a t i n g [VnBI = 1, which i s pulse operation a t a c a s e t e m p e r a t, usually a p p r o x i m a t e d I)y V ~ ~ , ~ ( s u s ) ] u r e of 2 5 C a n d m u s t be tlerated and t h e t h e r m a l a n d second-break- f o r operation at h i g h e r r a s e t c m p e r a t u r e s a n d u n d e r repetitive-pulse down r a t i n g s of t h e t r a n s i s t o r s . A s shown in F i g . 49, t h e t h e r m a l o r continuous-wave conditions. F i g . 50 s h o w s t e m p e r a t u r e d e r a t (dissipation) limiting of t h e 2N3585 i n g c u r v e s f o r t h e 2N3585 s a f e - a r e a ceases w h e n t h e collector-to-emitter voltage r i s e s above 100 volts d u r i n g c h a r t of Fig. 49. T h e s e curves show dc operation. Beyond t h i s point, t h e t h a t t h e r m a l r a t i n g s a r e affected s a f e o p e r a t i n g a r e a of t h e t r a n s i s - f a r m o r e by increases in case t e m t o r i s limited b y t h e second-break- p e r a t u r e t h a n a r e second-breakdolvn down r a t i n g s . D u r i n g pulsed opera-
i
'
CASE TEMPERATURE-C
Fig. 50-Strfe-orca tcr~~~c~totrtrc-dcrntirrg curves l o r file 2N3585 silico~r poivcr Irarrsislor.
Fi:.
49-Sole-orcn rcrtirr: clrtrrt l o r rlre 2iV35Sj silicorr ~ ~ o w clrtrrrsis/or. r
tion, t h e thernlal limiting e x t e n d s t o h i g h e r v a l u e s of collector-toe m i t t e r voltagc hefore t h e secondbrealtdo~vn region is reached, a n d a s t h e pulse d u r a t i o n decreases, t h e thernlal-limited region increases.
r a t i n g s . T h e t h e r m a l (dissil)ationlimited) d e r a t i n g c u r v e decreases linearly t o zero a t the m a x i m u m junction t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e t r a n s i s t o r [ T , ( m a s ) = 2 0 0 " C j . "he sccontf-breakdown (Is/,,-liinitcd) t e m p e r a t u r e d c r a t i n g c u r v r , ho\vever. is less scvcre becausc t h e incrrase in t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e high current concentrations t h a t c a u s e second brealcdown is Icss t h a n t h e increasc in dissipation f a c t o r s a s t h e l e m pernt111.e increases.
Bipolar Transistors
Because the thermal and secondbrealtdown dcratings a r e different, it may be necessary to use both curves to determine the proper derating factor f o r a voltage-current point t h a t occurs near the breakpoint of the thermal-limited and second-breakdown-limited regions on the safe-area curve. F o r this condition, a derating factor is read from each derating curve. F o r one of the readings, however, either t h e thermal-limited section of the safearea curve must be extrapolated upward in v o l t a ~ eor t h e secondIweakdown-limited section must be extrapolated downward in voltage, depending upon which side of the voltage breakpoint the voltagecurrent point is located. The smaller of the collector-current values obtained from the thermal and secondbreakdown deratings must be used a s the safe rating. F o r pulsed operation, the derating factor shown in Fig. 50 must be applied to the appropriate curve on the safe-area rating chart. F o r the derating, the effective case temperature Ta(eff) may be approximated by the average junction temperature T,(av). The average junction tempernture is determined a s follows:
37
the case of high-speed devices. The most obvious precaution against such damage i s h u m i d i t y control in stora g e and operating areas. I n addition, i t is desirable t h a t transistors be stored and transported in metal trays rather than in polystyrene foam "snow". During testing and installation, both the equipment and the operator should be grounded, and all power should be turned off when the device is inserted into t h e socket. Grounded plates may also be used f o r stockpiling of transistors prior to o r a f t e r testing, o r f o r use in testing ovens o r on operating life racks. Further protection against static charges can be provided b y use of partially conducting floor planes and non-insulating footwear f o r all personnel. Environmental temperature also affects performance. Variations of a s little a s 5 per cent can cause changes of a s much a s 50 p e r cent in the saturation current of a transistor. . Some test operators can cause marked changes in measurements of saturation current because t h e heat of their hands affects the transistors they work on. Precautions against temperature effects include airconditioning systems, use of finger cots in handling of transistors (or use of pliers o r "plug-in boards" to eliminate handling), and accurate monitoring and control of temperature near the devices. Prior t o testing, i t is also desirable t o allow sufficient time (about 5 minutes) f o r a transistor to stabilize if i t h a s been subjected to temperature much higher o r lower than normal room temperature (25C). Although transient rf fields a r e not usually of sufficient magnitude to cause permanent damage to transistors, they can interfere with accurate measurement of characteristics a t very low signal levels o r a t high frequencies. F o r this reason, i t is desirable to check f o r such radiation periodically and t o eliminate i t s causes. I n addition, sensitive measurements should be made in shielded screen rooms if possible.
This approach results in a conservative rating for the pulsed capability of the transistor. A more accurate determination can be made by computation of actual instantaneous junction temperatures. (For more detailed information on safe-area ratings and temperature derating the reader should refer to the RCA I'ower Circuits Manual, Technical Series SP-51, pp. 94 to 105.)
HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS
The generation of static charge in tlry weather is harmful to all transistors, and can cause permanent damage or catastrophic failure in
38

r e n t - t r a n s f e r r a t i o ( b e t a ) , t h e dc collector-cutoff c u r r e n t , a n d t h e inp u t a n d o u t p u t impedances. T o avoid undesired changes in circuit opcration, i t is rccolnmcntlcd t h a t t r a n s i s t o r s be located a w a y f r o m h e a t sources in equipment, a n d also t h a t provisions be m a d e f o r a d e q u a t e h e a t dissipation and, if necessary, f o r t e m p e r a t u r e compensation.
Care m u s t also be t a k e n t o avoid t h e exposure of t r a n s i s t o r s to o t h e r a c o r m a g n e t i c fields. firany t r a ~ i s i s t o r l ~ a r a c t c r i s t i c s r e c a sensitive to variations in tcmpcrature, ant1 m a y change enough a t high o p e r a t i n g t c m p c r a t u r c s to alFcct circuit performance. Fig. 51 illustrates the effect of increasing t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e common-emitter f o r w a r d cur-
FORWARD CURRENT! TRANSFE R RATIO
MOS Field-Eff ect

S'
\ \
'
Transistors
'
F I E L D - E F F E C T transistors rep- by variation o f a n electric field esresent a unique and important tablished by application of a voltage category of electronic components. to a control electrode referred to a s These devices combine many of the the gate. In contrast, current flow desirable characteristics of electron in bipolar transistors i s controlled tubes with small size, low power by variation of the current injected consumption, mechanical rugged- into the base terminal. Moreover, ness, and other advantages inherent L ~ ~ = p e r f o r r n a n cof bipolar transise in solid-state devices. ;For example, ors depends on the interaction of these devices can provide a square- two types of charge carriers (holes law transfer characteristic t h a t is / a n d electrons). Field-effect transisespecially desirable f o r amplification 1 tors, however, a r e unipolar devices; of multiple signals in rf amplifiers a s a result, their operation i s basicthat a r e required to exhibit excep- ally a function of only one type tionally low cross-modulation eRects. of charge carrier, holes in pI n this section, the basic opera- channel devices and electrons in ntion and structure of the various channel devices. A charge-control concept can be types of field-effect transistors a r e briefly described and compared. The used to explain the basic operation main emphasis, however, i s placed of field-effect transistors. A charge on ,'metal-oxide-semiconductor field- on the gate (control electrode) ineffect transistors, which a r e becbm- duces a n equal, but opposite, charge ing increasily popular in electronic- in a semiconductor layer, referred circuit applications, particularly in to a s the channel, located directly receiver rf-amplifier and mixer cir- beneath the gate. The charge incuits. The fabrication, ,electrical duced in the channel controls the characteristics, biasing, and basic conduction of current through the circuit configurations of these de- channel and, therefore, between the vices a r e discussed, and the integral source and drain terminals which gate-protection system developed f o r a r e connected to opposite ends of the channel. fi dual-gate types is explained.-/ r i I Discrete-device field-effect tran! sistors a r e classified, on the basis of TYPES OF : their control-gate construction, a s FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS ; either junction-gate types or metal/ oxide-semiconductor tyaes.7Althou~h Field-effect transistors (FET's) i both types operate on-t-hedasic pr$derive their name from the f a c t t h a t 1 ciple t h a t current conduction is concurrent flow in them is controlled ',trolled by variation of a n electric
i
'

fieltl, t h e significant difference in their g a t e construction results in uniqtlc characteristics and advantages f o r each type. * nals with zero gate-bias voltage. A p-n junction is formed a t the interface of the g a t e and the source-to-drain layer. When this junction is reverse-biased, current conduction in the channel between the source and drain terminals is controlled by the magnitude of reverse-bias voltage, which if suflicient can virtually cut off the flow of curr e n t through t h e channel. If the junction becomes forward-biased, the input resistance (i.e., resistance between t h e g a t e and the sourceto-drain layer) decreases sharply, and an appreciable amount of g a t e current flows. Under such conditions, the g a t e loading reduces the amplitude of the input signal, and a significant reduction in power gain resultQJThis characteristic is a major disadvantage of junction-gate field-effect transistors. Another yndesirable feature of these devices is t h a t t h e leakage currents across the reverse-biased p-n junction can vary marltedly with changes in ambient temperature. This latter fact o r tends to complicate circuit design considerations. Nonetheless, t h e junction-gate field-effect transistor is a very useful device in many small-signal-amplifier and chopper applications.
r.
(- Jpnction-Gate Types C////'';)., <{;" '~ u n c t i o ~ i - g a t field-effect transise tors, wl~ich r e c o m ~ u o r ~ refrrrctl to a lg a s J F E T ' s or, in popular parlance, a s JUG-FET's, may be either nchannel or p-channel tlevices. F ~ E 52 . shows t h e structure of a n n-channel junction-gate field-effect transistor, together with the sche~uatic symbols f o r both n-channel and p-channel versions of tlicse devices. The structure f o r a p-channel device is identical to t h a t of a n n-channel device \vith the exception t h a t n- and ptype semiconductor ~ u a t e r i n l s a r e replaccd by p- and n-type materials, respectively. In both types of junction-gate devices, a thin c l ~ a n n c l under the g a t e provides a conductive path between t h e source and drain termiGATE T E R M I N A L
,.
,DRAIN TERMINAL
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor TYpes
Figs. 53 and 54 show the structures and schematic symbols f o r both enhancement and depletion types of metal-oxide-semiconductor fieldeffect transistors (RIOSIFET'S). In these devices, the nletallic g a t e is electrically insulated from the semiconductor surface by a thin layer of silicon dioxide. These devices, which a r e commonly referred to a s MOS field-effect transistors or, more simply, a s MOS transistors, derive their name from the tri-layer construction of metal, oxide, and sen~iconductor material. Another name sometimes used f o r them is IGFET, which is a n acronym f o r insulated-gate fieldeffect transistor. Insulation of t h e g a t e f r o m the remainder of the
DRAIN
n - CHANNEL
p-CHANNEL
Fin. 52-Jrrrrctiorr-gntc field-cflcc! tr.rrrtsistor (JFEI'): In) .side-ijie~v cro.rs sectiorr of ur~ rr-clrnrrrtel device; ( h ) scl~crrtrrtic syrrtbols for I[- o~rrl p-cltarrrrel de~~ices.
MOS Field-Effect Transistors

n CHANNEL (EXISTS ONLY WHEN GATE IS SUFFICIENTLY s O U R ~ s ' T I V \ E )B G h I N n L TERMINAL (METAL)
41
T h e marked differences in the construction of enhancement and depletion types of MOS field-effect transistors, a s is apparent from a comparison of Figs. 53(a) and 54(a), results in significant differences in t h e characteristics of these devices and, therefore, in t h e applications in which they a r e normally employed. (The differences i n t h e
OXIDE INSULATION SOURCE TERMINAL GATE TERMINAL ( METAL )
OXIDE INSULATION DRAIN TERMINAL
DRAIN TERMINAL
Q DRAIN
SUBSTRATE G-ATE
6 SOURCE
0 DRAIN
SUBSTRATE GATE
Q DRAIN
SU B STR ATE
GATE
6 SOURCE
n- CHANNEL
Fig. 53-Err/tnrlcrrrrerr1-f~~pe rtrelol-oxidesc~r~rjcorrrl~rcror field-enect rrnr~sistor( M O S I FET): ( a ) side-vietv cross src~iort o f nrt 11-clltrrrrrel (levice; ( 6 ) sclterrrolic s)lrrr6ols of 11- nrtd p-clrar~rrel devices.
Q DRAIN
SUBSTRATE
SOURCE
transistor structure results in a n exceedingly high input resistance (i.e., in the order of 10" ohms). I t should bc realized t h a t the metal g a t e and the semiconductor channel form a capacitor in which the oxide layer serves a s the dielectric insulator.
Fir. 54-Dep1erior1-type r~tetal-oxide-semicorrdrrcror field-eflecf fmrrsislor (MOSI FET): (n) side-view cross seclion o f art 11-cl~utlrreldevice; ( b ) schcnmtic syrrtbols for n- arid p-charrrrel devices.
42
R C A Transistor, Tllyristor, & Diode M a n u a l
ctiaractcl.istics of t h e two t y p e s of RIOS t r a n s i s t o r s a r e discussed subsequently in tlie section o n Electrical Characteristics.)
channel dcvices, o r positive with res p e c t to t h e source f o r p-channel devices), the channel c a n I)e depleted of c h a r g e c a r r i e r s ; conduction in t h e channel, therefore, c a n be c u t off if I~nha~~cenie~it-Tyl,r 1)cviccs-As t h e g a t e potential i s sufTicirntly indicntrtl I)y t h e i n t r r r u p t i o n s in t h e high. channel line of t h e schematic sylnA unioue characteristic of d e l ~ l e 1)ols slionrn in F i g 5 3 ( b ) , enhancetion-ty p e' hIOS t r a n s i s t o r s is {hat nicrit-type RlOS field-effect transis- additional c h a r g e c a r r i e r s c a n he t o r s a r e characterized by t h e f a c t produced in t h e channel a n d , tlieret h a t t h e y have a " normally open" f o r e , conduction in t h e channel c a n channel so t h a t no useful channel be increased b y application of f o r conductivity exists f o r e i t h e r zero w a r d bias to t h e gate. No reduction o r reverse g a t e hias. Consequently, in power g a i n occurs under t h e s e this t y p e of device is ideal f o r use in conditions, a s i s t h e case in junctiondigital a n d switching applications. g a t e field-effect t r a n s i s t o r s , because T h e g a t e of t h e e ~ ~ h a n c e r n c n t p e t h e oxide insulation between t h e ty of RIOS field-cffect t r a n s i s t o r m u s t g a t e ant1 t h e source-to-drain l a y e r be forward-biased with rcsl)ect t o blocks t h e flow of g a t e c u r r e n t even t h e source to produce t h e active when t h e g a t e i s f o r w a r d - l ~ i a s c d . c h a r g e c a r r i e r s in t h e cliannel reT h e d i a g r a m shown in Fig. 5 4 ( a ) quired f o r contluction. W h e n s u n - illustrates t h e s t r u c t u r e of a sinqlecient for\\.ard-hias (positive) volt- g a t e depletion-type RlOS field-effect a g e is applied t o t h e g a t e of a n transistor. Depletion-type MOS fieldn-channel device, tlie region u n d e r effect t r a n s i s t o r s t h a t have t ~ v oint h e g a t r c h a n g e s f r o m p-type to n- dependent insulated g a t e electrodes type a n d provides a contluction p a t h a r e also available. These devices ofbetween t h e n - t y p e source and d r a i n f e r unique a d v a n t a g e s and rcpreregions. Sinlilarly, in p-channel de- s e n t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t category of vices, application of suficient ncgaMOS field-effect transistors. tive g a t e voltage d r a w s holes into F i g . 5 5 ( a ) shows a cross-sectional t h e region helow t h e ate so t h a t cliagrani of a n n-channel depletionthis channel region c h a n g e s f r o m type d u a l - g a t e RIOS field-eKect t r a n n-type to p-type t o provide a source- sistor. T h e t r a n s i s t o r includes t h r e e to-drniri coriduction p a t h . t e r m i n a t i n g (n-diffused) regions conT h e technology f o r enliancementnected b y two conductive channels, t y p e &IOS field-effect t r a n s i s t o r s i s each of which i s controlled by i t s nialting i t s g r e a t e s t inipact in t h e own independent g a t e terminal. F o r f a l ~ r i v a t i o nof i n t e g r a t e d circuits f o r convenience of explanation, t h e t r a n digital applications, particularly i n s i s t o r i s sho\vn divided into two large-scale-integration ( L S I ) cir- units. Unit No. 1 consists of t h e cuits. source, g a t e No. 1, channel No. 1, a n d t h e c e n t r a l n-region which func1)epletion-Type Devices-Depletions a s d r a i n No. 1. T h e s e elements tion-type nlOS field-effect transist o r s a r e characterized by t h e f a c t a c t a s a conventional single-gate t h a t , w i t h zero g a t e bias, t h e thin depletion-type MOS field-effect t r a n channel under t h e g a t e rcgion pro- sistor f o r \vliich unit No. 2 functions vides a condrlctive p a t h 1,etwecn t h e a s a load resistor. U n i t No. 2 consource a n d drain trrmin:lls. In t h e sists of t h e c e n t r a l n-region, which sclirmatic sy1111)ols f o r tllrsc devices, functions a s source No. 2, g a t e No. sl~o\vnin Fig. 51(1)), t h e c11:lnncl line 2, channcl No. 2, and t h e drain. T h i s is clra\vn continuous to indicate t h i s unit m a y also be used a s a n inde"nornially on" condition. IVlien t h e pendent single-gate t r a n s i s t o r f o r gate i s reverse-biased ( n r g a t i v e which unit No. 1 a c t s a s a source with respect to t h e source f o r n- resistor. Fig. 5 5 ( b ) shows the sche-

GATE NO I TERMINAL (METAL)
TERMINAL (METAL)
43
Current can be cut off if either g a t e i s sufficiently reverse-biased with respect to the source. When one g a t e SOURCE OXIDE DRAIN i s biased to cutoff, a change in t h e 'EyM'NAL INSULATION TERMIYAL voltage on the other gate is equivalent to a change in the value of a resistor in series with a cut-off transistor. The dual-gate MOS field-effect transistor is analogous t o a multigrid electron tube in its versatility f o r circuit applications. The independent pair of gates makes this UNlT N0.I ] UNlT N0.2 device attractive f o r use in rf ampli(0) fiers, gain-controlled amplifiers, mixers, and demodulators. In a gaincontrolled amplifier, the signal is applied to gate No. 1, and the gaincontrol voltage is applied t o gate No. 2. This arrangement is recommended because t h e forward transconductSOURCE ance obtained with gate No. 1 is (SUBSTRATE AND CASE) higher than t h a t obtained with gate (b) No. 2. Moreover, unit No. 2 is very effective f o r isolation of the drain Fig. 55-Dirtil-gale 11-chanriel depletionand gate No. 1. This unit provides type ~rieral-oxide-senricottdi4ctor field-effect sufficient isolation so t h a t the dualrati is is tor (MOSIFET): ( a ) side-view cross gate devices can be operated a t fresectiorr; ( b ) schematic syntbol. quencies into the uhf range without the need f o r neutralization. Exmatic symbol for a n n-channel dual- amples of the use of dual-gate gate M O S field-effect transistor. , MOS field-effect transistors in cirEquivalent-circuit representations cuit applications a r e shown in t h e of the two units in a dual-gate MOS Circuits section of this Manual. transistor a r e shown in Fig. 56. A gate-protection system which can be incorporated a s a n integral p a r t of the transistor structure has been developed f o r dual-gate .MOS transistors. I n devices t h a t include this system, a set of back-to-back diodes is diffused directly into the semiconductor pellet and connected between each insulated gate and the source. (The low junction capaciUNIT NO. 2 ---- - tance of the small diodes represents a relatively insignificant addition to the total capacitance that shunts the UNIT N O I gate.) Fig. 57 shows a cross-sectional diagram and the schematic symbol f o r an n-channel dual-gate-protected depletion-type RlOS field-effect tran( 0 ) (b) sistor. The back-to-back diodes do not Fin. 56-Eqirivalerrt-circrti( represerttalio~i conduct unless the gate-to-source voltage exceeds + 10 volts typically. of tlre two irrrits iri a drral-gate MOS The transistor, therefore, can handle field-effect transistor.
GATE
N0.2
_________
R9
1 6
-
DIODES
DIODES
I-DRAIN
2- GATE 2 3-GATE I
4-SOURCE
{SUBSTRATE A N D CASE)
(b)
Fig. 57-Drrnl-gore-protectc(I 11-clr(o11rr1 tleplctiorl-type MOS firld-cflccl tra~rsistor:( ( 1 ) sidevic~r,cross scc/iorr; ( b ) sclrcrtraric sy11r6ol.
a v e r y wide dynamic s i g n a l s w i n g without significant conductivc shunti n g et'fects by t h c diodes ( l e a k a g e t h r o u g h t h e "nonconductive" diodes i s v e r y low). If t h e potential on either g a t e exceeds 10 volts typically, t h e u p p e r diode [shown in F i g . 5 7 ( b ) ] of t h e p a i r associated with t h a t p a r t i c u l a r g a t e hecomes contluctive i n t h e f o r w a r d direction a n d the lower diode b r e a k s down in t h e backward ( z e n e r ) direction. I n this way, t h e back-to-back diode p a i r provitles a p a t h to s h u n t excessive positive c h a r g c fro111 the gnLc to t h e source. Similarly, if t h e potential o n either g a t c exceeds -10 volts typically, t h e loiver cliodc l ) e c o n ~ e s conductive in the f o r w a r d tlircction a n d thc u p p c r diode breaks tlown in t h e reverse dircction to provide a s h u n t p a t h f o r cxcessive negativc charjie f r o m t h e g a t e t o t h e source. ( T h e diode gate-protection technique is
described i n m o r e detail in t h e following section o n I n t e g r a l G a t e Protection). Dual-gate-protected hlOS transist o r s c a n be connected s o t h a t functionally t h e y a r e directly equivalent t o a single-gate t y p e with g a t e protection. T h i s ~ n c t h o d connection i s of shown in Fig. 58.
INTEGRAL GATE PROTECT~ON

T h e a d v e n t of a n integral syst e m of gate-protection in M O S ficldefl'ect t r a n s i s t o r s h a s rcsultetl in a class of solid-state devices t h a t cxhibits r u g g e d n e s s on a p a r with , o t h e r solitl-state dcviccs t h a t provide comparable performance. T h e gate-protection s y s t e m mentioned in t h e preceding section offers protection a g a i n s t s t a t i c discharge d u r i n g handling operations without t h e need f o r e x t e r n a l s h o r t i n g mechanisms.
Fig. 58-Cor~tlectiott o f a drtal-gate-protected MOS field-effect transistor (a) so tllat it is frrrtcrionally equivalet~tto a single-gate-protected MOS field-effect transistor (6).
This system also guards against potential damage from in-circuit transients. Because t h e integral gateprotection system h a s provided a major impact on t h e acceptability of MOS field-effect transistors f o r a broad spectrum of applications, i t is pertinent to examine the rudiments of this system. Fig. 59 shows a simple equivalent circuit f o r a source of static electricity t h a t can deliver a potential e,, to the g a t e input of a n MOS
human body is usually less t h a n 1000 volts. Experience h a s also indicated t h a t t h e likelihood of dama g e t o an MOS transistor a s a result of static discharge i s g r e a t e r during handling than when the device i s installed in a typical circuit. I n a n rf application, f o r example, static potential discharged into t h e antenna must traverse a n input circuit t h a t normally provides a large degree of attenuation to t h e static surge before i t appears a t t h e g a t e terminal of t h e MOS transistor. The ideal gate-protection signal-limiting circuit is a configuration t h a t allows f o r a signal, such a s t h a t shown in Fig. 60(a), to be handled without clipping o r distortion, b u t limits the amplitude of all transients t h a t exceed a safe operating level, a s shown in Fig. 60(b). An arrangement of Fig. 59-Eqrtivalcrrt circrtit for a sorrrce back-to-back diodes, shown in Fig. o f static electricity. 60 (c), meets these requirements f o r transistor. The static potential ER protection of the g a t e insulation i n MOS transistors. stored in a n "equivalent" capacitor Ideally, the transfer characterisC,, must be discharged through a n internal generator resistance Rs. tic of the protective signal-limiting Laboratory experiments indicate diodes should have a n infinite slope that the human body acts a s a static a t limiting, a s shown in Fig. 61(a). (storage) source with a capacitance Under these conditions, the static CI, ranging from 100 to 200 pico- potential across Cn in Fig. 61(b) disfarads and a resistance Rn greater charges through i t s internal impedthan 1000 ohms. Although the upper ance Rsinto the load represented by limits of accumulated static voltage the signal-limiting diodes. The ideal can be very high, measurements sug- signal-limiting diodes, which have gest t h a t the potential stored by t h e a n infinite transfer slope, would then

(+)
-----...------( . ) - - i n *
'
J__[z(t)A N D ( - ) I N A MPLIT U D E
D RAI N
(-1
(a)PASS 'IGNAL
(-1 - - - - - - - - - - - (b'C~kPE~~~~,","N
IR drop across the internal impedante of the source R., i.e., e. = E. e,~ where E i s the potential in the source of static electricitv and c , ~s i the diode voltage drop. The instantaneous value of the diode current is then equal to e./R.. During physical handling, practical peak values of currents produced by static-electricity discharges range from several nlilliamperes to several hundred milliamperes. Fig. G2 shows a typical transfer characteristic curve measured on a typical set of back-to-back diodes used to protect the g a t e insulation in a n MOS field-effect transistor t h a t is nominally rated f o r a gate-tosource breakdown voltage of 20 volts.
J
SOURCE
( c ) BACK-TO- BACK DIODES PROTECT
aw
Z 1.2-.8;
GATE INSULATION
55
Fig. 60-bfOS gore-prorecfiorr rcqrrircrrrerrts nrrd a solrttiorr.
-.
0.8 - 0.4 -8
-.5 5 C1 W
i-?
[ r
lirnit the voltage present a t the g a t e terminal to its knee value, e , ~ .The differcnce voltage e, appears a s a n
I
-32
-24
-16
-- 5 5 -.fu
. .
-0,4..
::I4 1 2 2 0 28 3; PEAK GATE VOLTS
- 0.8
--
- 10
I I
I I
+ 10 E
-a
-1.2-
Fi,q. 62-Typicol rliodc trrrrtsjer cltnroctcrisric rrteo.rrrrrr1 ivith I-rrricrosecorrrl prrlsc ividrlr a! o drrry factor o f 4 x lo-".
I
(a )
The transfer-characteristic curves show t h a t the diodes will constrain a transient impulse to potential values well below the k 2 0 volt limit, even when the source of the transient surge is capable of delivering several hundred nlilliamperes of current. (These data were measured with 1-n~icrosecond pulses applied to the protected g a t e a t a dutyfactor of 4 x 10.").
I
:
,
(b)
FABRICATION
'\
.r
Fig. 61-Trnrrsjer clrnrocrcrisric o f , prolecrive cliorles (n), arrd resrrltirrg n~o~vforr,rs irr eqrrivnletrt circrtir (b).
The fabrication techniques used to produce hfOS transistors a r e similar to those used f o r modern high-speed
M O S Field-Effect Transistors
47
silicon bipolar transistors. The s t a r t - The flow of drain current (I,,) proing material f o r a n n-channel tran- duces a n I R drop along the channel. sistor is a lightly doped p-type The polarity of this drop is such a s silicon wafer. (Reversal of p-type to oppose the field produced within and n-type materials referred t o in the g a t e oxide by the g a t e bias. A s this description produces a p-chan- the drain voltage is increased, a nel transistor.) A f t e r t h e wafer is point is reached a t which t h e IR polished on one side and oxidized in drop becomes sufficiently high so t h a t a furnace, photolithographic tech- .the capability of the g a t e field to niques a r e used t o etch- away- the a t t r a c t enough carriers into t h e oxide coat in^ and expose bare sili- channel to sustain a higher draincon in the source and drain regions. current i s nullified. When this conThe source and drain regions a r e dition occurs (in the proximity of then formed by diffusion in a furnace point B in Fig. 63), the channel i s containing a n n-type impurity (such essentially depleted of carriers (i.e., a s phosphorus). If the transistor i s becomes "constricted"), and drain to be a n enhancement-type device, current increases very much more no channel diffusion is required. If slowly with f u r t h e r increases in a depletion-type transistor is de- drain-to-source voltage VllP. This sired, a n n-type channel is formed condition leads to t h e description of to bridge the space between t h e dif- region B-C a s t h e "pinch-off" region fused source and drain. because the channel "pinches off" The wafer i s then oxidized again and the drain current (11,s) tends t o to cover the bare silicon regions, saturate a t a constant value. Beyond and a second photolithographic and point C, the transistor enters the etching s t e p is performed t o remove "breakdown" region (also known a s the contact regions. the "punch-through" region), in the oxid;-in After metal i s evaporated over the which unrestricted current flow and entire wafer, another photolitho- damage to t h e transistor result if graphic and etching s t e p removes all current flow is not limited by the metal not needed f o r t h e ohmic con- external circuit. tacts t o the source, drain, and gate, The individual transistor chips a r e then mechanically separated and mounted on individual headers, connector wires a r e bonded to the metalized regions, and each unit i s hermetically sealed in i t s case i n a n inert atmosphere. A f t e r testing, the external leads of each device a r e physically shorted together to prevent electrostatic damage to t h e g a t e insulation during branding and shipping.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The basic current-voltage relationship f o r a n MOS transistor i s shown in Fig. 63. With a constant gate-tosource voltage (e.g., VC;S O), t h e = resistance of the channel is essentially constant, and current varies directly with drain-to-source voltage (Vl,%),a s illustrated in region A-B.
A B D R A I N - TO- SOURCE VOLTAGE ( V D S l
Fig. 63-Basic clrrrerrt-voltage relalionsl~ip for art MOS transislor.
M O S transistors a r e especially useful in high-impedance voltage amplifiers when they a r e operated in the "pinch-off ' region. The direct variation in their channel resistance (Region A-B in Fig. 63) makes them very attractive f o r use in voltageJ
48

ENHANCEMENT
controlled rcsistor applicatior~s, such a s the chopper circuits used in conncction with some typcs of dc amplifiers. Typical o u t p u t characteristic curves f o r n-channel RIOS transistors a r e shown in Fig. 64. The rcsemblance of these curves to the hasic curve shown in Fig. 63 should be noted. ( F o r p-channel transistors, the polarity of the voltages and the direction of t h e current a r e reversed.) Typical transfer charxctcristics f o r n-channel single-gate MOS transistors a r e shown in Fig. 65. (Again, voltage polarities and current direction would be reversed f o r p-channel devices.) The threshold voltage (V711) shown in connection with the enhancement-type transistor illustrates the "normally-open"
_1
IH
TYPE
/--
(CONSTANT
I
GATE- TO- S O U R C E VOLTAGE (VGS)
GATE- SOURCE TO-
VOLTAGE
(VGSl
Fig. 65- Typical trarr.rfer clraracteristics for rr-charrrrel MOS trartsistors.
source-drain characteristic of the device. In these transistors, conduction does not begin until Vcs i s increased to a particular value. Fig. GG shows typical drain-current curves
DRAIN- TO- SOURCE VOLTAGE (VDS)
DEPLETION T Y P E
DRAIN- TO- SOURCE VOLTAGE ( VDS)
GATE- NO. I - TO- SOURCE VOLTAGE -V
Fig. 66-Drailr crrrrort of n clrrcrl-gore MOS trtrrrsislor n.7 a frrrrc~iorr of ,gate-No. I-tori.g. 64--T].picn/ o r r l ~ ~ r r t - c / ~ o r - n c t ~ ~ r i . ~ t i c vorrrce ~.o/rogcfor se130.ir/ ~'o/rrrs f galeo c r r ~ - ~for s11-clrrr~rrrc~l ~, hIOS t~orrsislors. N o . 2-to-sorrrce ~ ~ o l l a g c .

f o r a dual-gate device a s a function of g a t e No. 1-to-source voltage f o r several values of gate No. 2-tosource voltage.
49
conductance. The source voltage VS, the source resistance Ra, and the dc supply voltage Von can then be readily calculated, a s follows:
BIASING TECHNIQUES FOR SINGLE-GATE MOS TRANSISTORS

The bias required for operation of a single-gate MOS transistor can be supplied by use of a self-bias (source-bias) arrangement, from a supply of fixed bias, or, preferably, by a combination of these methods. Fig. 67 illustrates each of the three biasing techniques. The design of a self-bias circuit is relatively simple and straightforward. For example, if a 3N128 MOS transistor is to be operated with a drain-to-source voltage VDS of 15 volts and a small-signal transconductance gr, of 7400 micromhos,
Vx = Va - V o s = 1.1 volts Ra = Vs/Io = 1.115 = 220 ohms Voo = Vns Vs = 15 1.1 = 16.1 volts
The self-bias arrangement is satisfactory f o r some applications. A particular source resistance, however, must be selected f o r each device if a specified drain current is required because the drain-current characteristics of individual devices can vary significantly from the typical values. The dashed-line curves in Fig. 68(b) define the "high" and "low" limits f o r the characteristics of t h e 3N128 MOS transistor. F o r example, the zero-bias drain current Ioas can vary from a low value of 5 milliamperes
Fig. 67-Rinsitrg nrmrr,qorrerr!s for sirrgle-gnte MOS trnrrsislors: (a) self-bias circrtit; ( 6 ) fixed bins slipply; fc) conlbitrntion o f self bias and fixed bias.
the drain current 11, required f o r the specified value of transconductance is first obtained from published curves, such a s those shown in Fig. G8(a). Next, the gate-to-source voltage required f o r this value of drain current is determined from another published curve, such a s the solidline curve shown in Fig. 68(b). These curves indicate that the drain current should be 5 milliamperes and t h a t the gate-to-source voltage should 1.1 volts for the specified values be of drain-to-source voltage and trans-
to a high value of 25 milliamperes, a range of 20 milliamperes. Use of a source resistor of 220 ohms, a s calculated in the preceding example, reduces the range of the drain current between "high" and "low" 3N128 transistors operated in selfbias circuits from 20 milliamperes to about 4 milliamperes. A reduction of about 5 to 1 in the range of Ioss values among individual devices can be achieved, therefore, by a judicious choice of the proper value of source resistance.
50
m a d e f o r a d j u s t n i e n t of the bias voltage if a specific d r a i n c u r r e n t i s required f o r a p a r t i c u l a r device. T h e combination bias s y s t e n ~ shown in F i g . G7(c) is t h e m o s t effective a r r a n g e m e n t when a n application requires a specific d r a i n c u r r e n t despite the r a n n e of draincur~.entcha~~acteristics encountcl.etl a m o n r individual devices. Fig. 60 shows t w o families of characteristic curves developetl empirically f o r t h e combination bias systern shown in F i g . G7(c). T h e f a m i l y of curves o n t h e l e f t i s pertinent f o r operation a t a d r a i n c u r r e n t of 5 milliamperes. F o r operation a t a d r a i n c u r r e n t of , 10 n ~ i l l i a m p e r e s t h e f a m i l y of c u r v e s on t h e r i g h t should be used. If a d r a i n c u r r e n t of 5 m i l l i a ~ n peres is desired, t h e p e r t i n e n t curves C M O -S U C C I R C U I T O MNORE i n F i g . G9 show t h a t , f o r a soufce resistance of 1000 ohms, a bias s y s t e m c a n provide this value of curr e n t within l nlilliampefe ( a s indicated by projections of lines a a n d h to t h e abscissa), despite a ranEe of I 5 to 25 milliamperes in t h e value of 11,saf o r individual devices. A drain c u r r e n t 11) of 5 milliamperes, howP ever, develops a self bias of -5 volts across t h e 1000-ohm source resistor Rs, a n d t h e t r a n s i s t o r will I)e c u t off unless sufficient positive bias is g -4 -3 -2 -1 0 I GATE-TO-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VGS)-VOLTS applied across t h e i n p u t resistors ( R Land R?) to establish t h e correct (b) Fig. 68-0pcrntirr.q clrnrnctrrir~ir.rfor /Ire o p e r a t i n g point. T h e positive bias KCA-3N17R MOS trarr.ristor: l o ) for~~,ctr.d voltage c a n be obtained f r o m t h e Irntrscorrtlrrctflrfce ns a frtrrcfiorr o f tlroirr positive d r a i n supply Vllll SO t h a t cfrrrerrf;( h ) [irflirr crrrrotf rrs o f~trrctiorro f t h e r e i s n o need f o r a s e p a r a t e bias gotc-to-sorrrce vo/lo,qc. supply. F o r a drain-to-source voltof Fixed-bias-supply s y s t e m s , such a g e VIBS 1 5 volts, a drain c u r r e n t 11,of 5 milliamperes, a gate-to-source a s t h a t shown in Fig. G8(b), a r e voltage VGFof 1.1 volts, and a generally unaLtl.activc f o r usc with R40S t r a n s i s t o r s f o r two main rea- source resistance RE of 1000 o l i ~ n s , t h e circuit p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e conisons. F i r s t , this t y p e of systeni is bination bias system shown in Fig. undesirable because i t requires t h e use of a s e p a r a t e , negative-voltage G7(e) c a n be calculated a s follows: power supply. Second, a s shown by vs = 11,Rs = (0.005) (1000) t h e curves in Fig. F 8 ( b ) , f o r a fixed = 5 volts bias supply of 1.1 volts, d r a i n curv = \',:s c vs = -1.1 + 5 r e n t ~ v o u l dbe 14 milliamprres f o r a = 3.0 volts "high" 3N128 t r a n s i s t o r a n d would Vno = Vns Vs = 1 5 + 5 be c u t off f o r a "low" device. Con= 20 volts sequently, if a n e x t e r n a l bias sysV I , I , / ~ O(R, Re) I I L = 2013.0 = tctn i s used provisions m u s t be = 5.12
+ +' +
DRAIN CURRENT (ID)-MILLIAMPERES
Fig. 69-Drairr
curreirt I D as a frrrrctiotr of zero-bias drain clrrrent ID,, valrres of source resislance R . ,
f o r several
The lower limits f o r the values of the input resistors RI and R2 a r e determined on the basis of the maximum pern~issibleloading of the input circuit. The resistance t h a t corresponds to this value is set equal to the equivalent value of the parallel combination of the two resistors. For e x a m ~ l e . the total resistance if in shunt with the input circuit is to be no less than 50,000 ohms, the values of Rl and R3 a r e calculated as follows:
RIR?/(RI R2) = 50,000 (R1 Rz)/Ra = 5.12
Therefore, RI = 256,000 ohms and Ra = 62,000 ohms. I n rf-circuit applications, the effects of input-circuit loading can be circumvented by use of the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 70.
BIASING TECHNIQUES FOR DUAL-GATE MOS TRANSISTORS

The following example illustrates the techniques used to provide the bias required f o r operation of a dualgate MOS transistor. This example assumes a typical application in which a 3N140 dual-gate MOS transistor is required to operate with a drain-to-source voltage VI,R of 15 volts and a forward transconductance g f , of 10,500 micromhos. (The techniques described f o r the 3N140 transistor a r e also applicable to dualgate-protected MOS transistors.) The characteristic curves f o r the 3N140, shown in Fig. 71(a), indicate that the desired value of transconductance can be obtained for a gate NO. 1-to-source voltage Val* of -0.45
Rs
;cCS
f i g . 70-Circrtic
rrsed lo e!i,,riirnte inputcircrrit loodiirg irr rf-ar~rplifier applicatioirs.
52
volt a n d a g a t e No. 2-to-source volta g e V(;2s of +4 volts. Tlie curves in Fig. 7 1 ( b ) show t h a t f o r t h e s e conditions t h e d r a i n c u r r e n t 11, i s 1 0 milliamperes.
m
~,)+$c: !
(REVERSE)
COMMON-SOURCE CIRCUIT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (TA)= 2 5 C
F i g . 72- Typical hinsitrg circrrit /or drrol-
gntc MOS field-eflect rrtrtr.risrors.
GATE NO.-TO-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VGI~)---V0~~~
(a)
s h u n t resistance f o r g a t e No. 1 is assumed to be 25,000 ohms. Gate No. 2 i s operated a t rf ground ( b y mcpns of a d e q u a t e bypassing) and is I ~ i a s c d w i t h a fixed dc potential. Empirical experience with dual- gate hlOS t r a n sistors h a s shown t h a t a source resistance of a p p r o x i n ~ a t e l y270 ohms provides adequate self-bias f o r t h e t r a n s i s t o r f o r operation f r o m t h e F proposed dc supply v o l t a ~ e . o r this value of source resistance, the remaining p a r a m e t e r s of t h e 1)ias circ u i t a r e obtained f r o m t h e following calculations:
Vs
GATE N 0 . I - TO- SOURCE VOLTAGE ( V G I S ) VOLTS
V,;, = V,;,, + Vs = (-0.45) (+2.7) = +2.25 volts V,;?= V,;zs + Vs = (+4.0) 4- (+2.7) = +6.7 volts V,,t, = Vl,s + Vs = (+15) 1- ( f 2 . 7 ) = f17.7 volts
= It,Rs = (0.010) (270) = +2.7 volts
(b)
Fi,v. 71-Oprratitr~ rlrartrclerislic..~for llre RCA-31V140 rlrrul-golc M O S 1,-crtr.ristor: ( ( 1 ) jont.ard rratrscotrdr~clntrcetrs n frrtrcliotr of xnfe-hro. I-to-sorrrce rolrojie; (1)) tlroirr crtrreril ar n frtrrcriotr o/ ficrrr-No. I-losorrrce rollrtjie.
Fig. 72 sliows a b i a s i n ~n r r a n g e nlent t h a t c a n be used f o r ciual-gate bIOS field-effect transistors. F o r t h e application being considered, t h e
T h e values of t h e voltage-divider resistances required to provide the a p p r o p r i a t e voltage a t each g a t e a r e determined in a m a n n e r similar to t h a t described f o r single-gate hIOS transistors. T h e value calculated f o r R1 i s 197,000 ohms, t h a t f o r R , is 28,600 ohms, a n d t h e r a t i o R , / R , is 11.67. T h e circuit shown in Fig. 73 i s normally used in rf amplifier applications. I n this circuit, t h e sijinal

voltage is applicd a t point "a" through appropriate input circuitry. If the agc fcature is not employed, (e.g. in mixer circuits), the resistor R,,, is disconnected a t point "b." In a mixcr application, the local oscillator signal is injected a t point "b." gain with feedback, A', f o r a common-source circuit i s given by
A'=
r,.
+ (g~. + 1) RS+ RL r..
gf.
ro. RI.
GENERAL CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

There a r e three basic single-stage amplifier configurations f o r MOS transistors: common-source, common-gate, and common-drain. Each of these configurations provides certain advantages in particular applications. The common-source arrangement shown in Fig. 73 is most frequently used. This configuration provides a
where Rs is t h e total unbypassed source resistance in series with the source terminal. The common-source output impedance with feedback, Z , is increased by the unbypassed source resistor a s follows: The common-drain arrangement, shown in Fig. 74, is also frequently referred to a s a source-follower. I n this configuration, t h e inp u t impedance is higher than i n the common-source configuration, the output impedance is low, there is no polarity reversal between input and output, the voltage gain is always less than unity, and distortion is low. The source-follower is used in applications which require reduced input-circuit capacitance, downward impedance transformation, o r increased input-signal-handling capability. The input signal is effectively injected between gate and drain, and the output is taken between source and drain. The circuit inherently h a s 100-per-cent negative
Fig. 73-Bosic
con~~~lorr-sortrce circzril /or
MOS field-eflcct ~rorrsislors.

h i ~ hinput impedance, medium to high output impedance, and voltage gain greater than unity. The input signal is applied between gate and source, and the output signal is taken between drain and source. The voltage gain without feedback, A, for the common-source circuit may be determined a s follows:
RII r u r Rr. A = r.. R. r
Fig. 74-Basic co~nmorz-drain(or sourceJollower) circrril lor MOS lransislors.
where gf, is the gate-to-drain forward transconductance of the transistor, r.. is the common-source output resistance, and Rr, is the effective load resistance. The addition of a n unbypassed source resistor to the circuit of Fig. 73 produces negative voltage feedback proportional to the output current. The voltage
voltage feedback; given by
its gain A' is
Because the amplification factor ( p ) of a n MOS transistor is usually much greater than unity, the equation f o ~

gain in the source-follower can be simplified a s follows: tance g f , of 2000 micronlhos and a common-source output resistance r.. of 7500 ohms is used in a sourcefollower s t a g e with a n unbypassed source resistance Ra of 500 ohms, the efective output resistance R,,' of the source-follower s t a g e is 241 ohms. The source-follower output capacitance C,' may be expressed a s follows:
For example, if it is assumed t h a t the gate-to-drain forward transconductance gt, is 2000 micromltos (2 x lo-' mho) and t h e unhypassed source resistance RS is 600 ohms, the stage gain A' is 0.5. If t h e same source resistance is used with a transistor having a transconductance of 10,000 micromhos ( 1 x 10.' mho), the stage gain increases to 0.83. When t h e resistor Ra is returned to ground, a s shown in Fig. 74, t h e input resistance 1t1 of the sourcefollower is equal to Ro. If Ro is returned to the source t c r n ~ i n n l ,however, the effective input resistance RI' is given by
R,' =
1 - A'
n, -
where c,~. and c,, a r e the intrinsic drain-to-source and gate-to-source capacitances, respectively, of the D10S transistor. If A' i s equal to 0.5 ( a s assumed f o r the sample input-circuit calculations), C,' is reduced t o the sum of c,~.and c,.. The common-gate circuit, shown in Fig. 75, is used to transf6rm from a low input impedance to a
where A' is the voltage amplification of the stage with feedback. F o r example, if Ra is one nlegollm and A' is 0.5, the effective resistance RI' is two megohms. If the load is resistive, the effective input capacitance CI' of the source-followcr i s reduced by the inherent voltage feedbnclc and i s given b y where c,.~ and c,, a r e the intrinsic gatc-to-drain and gate-to-source capacitances, respectively, of t h e RlOS tmnsistor. F o r example, if a typical RIOS transistor having a c,,~of 0.3 picofarad and a c,, of 5 picofarads is used, and if A' is equal to 0.5, thcn CI' is reduced to 2.8 picofarads. The effective output resistance R,,' of the source-follower stage is ~iven by high output impedance. The input inlpetlnnce of this configuration has approximately the same value a s the output impedance of t h e source-follower circuit. The common-gate circuit is also a desirable configul.ation f o r high-frequency applications because i t s relatively low voltage gain makes neutralization unnecessary in most cases. The common-gate volta g e gain, A, is given by
A = -
R,' =
(gr. r,,.
+ 1) Rs + r,.
r,,. Rs
(gt. rum 1) RI, (gr. r,, 1 ) Rn r,. f Rr.
where r,,, is t h e transistor commonsource output resistance in ohms. F o r example, if a unit having a gate-to-drain forward transconduc-
where RG i s t h e resistance of the input-signal source. F o r a typical MOS transistor (gr. = 2000 micromhos, r,. = 7500 ohms) and with RI. = 2000 ohms and Rn = 500 ohms, the common-gate voltage gain

is 1.8. If the value of Rn is doubled, the voltage gain is reduced to 1.25.
55
runaway," therefore, is virtually impossible. 7. A very low gate leakage current t h a t is relatively insensitive to temperature variations. 8. Very low osciIlator feedthrough in dual-gate mixer circuits. 9. Dual-gate transistors can provide good gain in common-source amplifiers into t h e uhf range without neutralization.
TECHNICAL FEATURES
I t is apparent from the tliscussions t h a t MOS field-effect transistors exhibit a number of technical features t h a t result in unique performance advantages in circuit applications such a s mixers, product detectors, remote gain-control circuits, bnlaneed modulators, choppers, clippers, and gated amplifiers. These features include: 1. An extremely high input resistance and a low input capacitance-as a result, MO transistors impose virtually no loading on ,an agc voltage source (i.e., virtually no agc power is required) and have a wide agc range capability. 2. A wide dynamic range-MOS transistors, therefore, can handle positive and negative input-signal excursions without diode-current loading. 3. Cross-nlodulation effects and spurious response t h a t a r e substantially less than those of other types of electronic devices-the crossmodulation characteristics of dualgate transistors actually improve a s the device approaches cutoff. 4. Zero offset voltage- this feature is cspecinlly desirable for chopper applications. 5. An exceptionally high forward tmnsconductance. 6. Negative temperature coefficier~t the drnin current- "thermal for
HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS
MOS field-effect transistors, like high-frequency bipolar transistors. can be damaged by exposure to excessive voltages. The gate oxide insulation is susceptible to puncture when subjected to voltage in excess o f ' t h e rated value. The very high i resistance of the oxide insulation. i imposes a negligible load on electro- : statically generated potentials and, i therefore, provides a n ineffective discharge path f o r sources of static ,; electricity. As discussed earlier, t h e integral gate-protection system incorporated into some types of dualgate MOS transistors is highly effective in the protection of these devices against the effects of electrostatic charges. Special precautions, however, must be taken in the handling and application of other types of MOS transistors t h a t do not contain the integral gate protection. ' The tliscussion of blOS Transistors in the section on Testing and Mounting outlines the special handling pro- ; cedures recommended f o r such devices.
Thyristors
rent increases rapidly and t h e SCR switches to the ON state.;This value of voltage is called t h e breakover voltage. :When the SCR i s in the ON state, the forward current is limited primarily by the. impedance of the external circuit. Under reverse bias (anode negative with respect t o cathode), the SCR exhibits a very high internal impedance, and only a small amount of current, called the reverse blocking current, flows through the device. This current remains very small and the device remains in this O F F s t a t e unless the reverse voltage exceeds the reverse-breakdown-voltage limitation, A t this point, the reverse current increases rapidly, and the SCR undergoes thermal runaway, a condition t h a t norlnally causes irreversible damage K i V to t h e device. The value of reverse O E R breakdown voltage differs f o r individual SCR types, but is approximately 100 volts greater than t h e forward breakover voltage f o r most types. Under forward-bias conditions, the breakover voltage of the SCR can be controlled or varied by application of a current pulse to t h e .gate electrode,%s shown in Fig. 77. ! As the amplitude of the g a t e current pulse is increased, the breakover voltage f o r t h e SCR decreases until i,\\\ the curve _closely resembles t h a t of a rectifie-_fn normal operation, the SCR is operated with critical values well below the breakover voltage and is made t o switch on by g a t e signals of sufficient magnitude to assure t h a t ',
57
the device i s switched t o the ON state a t the instant desired. After the SCR is triggered by the g a t e signal, the current through the device is independent of the g a t e voltage or g a t e current. The SCR remains in the ON s t a t e until t h e principal current i s reduced t o a level below t h a t required to sustain conduction. Construction details of a typical SCR pellet a r e shown in Fig. 78.
CATHODE ELECTRODE
Thyristors
HE thyristor is generic Tanametermcharacteristics the devices f o r solid-state t h t have similar t o
TERMINAL TERMINAL
those of thyratron tubes. Rasically, this group includes bistal~lc solids t a t e devices t h a t have two or 1 QUADRANT I more junctions (three or more semiANODE (t) conductor layers) and t h a t can be switched between conducting s t a t e s HOLDING CURRENTlh ( f r o m O F F t o ON or from ON to O F F ) within a t least one quad~ E ~ TETE ~ E ~ ------------ : ~ ~ ~ S A R ~ ~ C " K ;OLT~-GE r a n t of the principal voltage-cur\ v rent characteristic: Ileverse-blocking triode thyristors, comnionly called %FF~?TATE REVERSE B R E AKD O W N silicon controlled rectifiers ( SCR's) , VOLTAGE and bidirectional triode thyristors, usually referred t o a s triacs, have (b) three electrodes and a r e switched QUADRANT It I between states by a current pulse ANODE(-) applied to the g a t e terminal. The bidirectional trigger diode, commonly called a diac, h a s only two electrodes. CATHODE This device has no g a t e electrode hut nlay be switched from an OFF s t a t e to a n ON s t a t e f o r either polarity of applied voltage. \The discussions in this section deal pri~narily with the SCR and t h e triac, their operaANODE (CASE) tion, electrical characteristics, and ratings. A brief description is also Fi,?. 76-(0) Jrtrrcrio,r diopr-orrr, f h ) l~ritrcigiven of the operation of the diac pol voltage-c~rrrerrrchnl-octrristic, alrcf f c ) and its chief function in trinc phase: 1 sclier~iatic , s).rrfhol for art SCR fltwisfor. control circuits. \ , , Fig. 76(b) shows that' under forward-bias conditions (anode positive , SILICON CONTROLLED .with respect t o cathode) t h e SCR ' , ,,. RECTIFIERS !,?I? I,;,.!\. has two states. ! ~ tlow values of 1 h*si~i$on controlled rectifier (SCR) forward bias, the SCR exhibits a is basically a four-layer p-n-p-n de- very high impedance;,' in this forvice t h a t has three clectrodes ( a war d-blocking or O F F state, a snla11 for\vard current, called the forward cathode, an anode, and a_-control electrode called t h e gate), Fig. 76 OFF-state current. flows tllr0uiZh shows the junction diagralii, prin- t h e device. As t h e forward bias is cipal voltage-current charactevistic, increased,..howdver, a voltage point is reached a t which the forward curand schematic symbol for a n SCR.
7
ELECTROM
AN~DE
Fig. 78-Cross-section o f a typical SCR pellet.
The shorted-emitter construction used in RCA SCR's can be recognized by the metallic cathode electrode in direct contact with the p-type base layer around t h e periphery of t h e pellet. The gate, a t the center of t h e pellet, also makes direct metallic contact to t h e p-type base so t h a t t h e portion of this layer under the n-type I emitter acts a s a n ohmic path f o r current flow between g a t e and cathode. Because this ohmic path i s in parallel with the n-type emitter junction, current preferentially takes the ohmic path until the IR drop in this path reaches the junction threshI old voltage of about 0.8 volt. When / I I I ; ; " the g a t e voltage exceeds this value, Ig4> Ig3>Ig2>Igl=0 the junction current increases rapidly, Fin. 77-Crrn,rs slro~virtg the jor~t-ard-~,olr- and injection of electrons by the ntype emitter reaches a level high rigc clrorocteristics o f a tltgristor for differctrt valtces o f gate currer~t. enough to turn on the device.

In addition to I,rovitling :L precisely controlled gate current, tlic shortedemitter construction also improves the high-temperature and dvldt (niaxim~umallowable rate of rise of OFF-state voltage) capa1)ilities of the device. The center-gate construction of the SClt pellet provitlcs f a s t turn-on and high dildt capa1)ilities. In :In SCR, conduction is initiated in the cathode region im'nlediatcly adjacent t o the gate contact and must then propagate to the more remote regions of the cathode. Switching losses are influenced by the rate of propagation of conduction and the distance conduction must propagate from tlie gate. With a central gate, all regions of the cathode are in close proximity to the initially conducting region so that propagation distancc is significantly decreased; a s a result, smitching losses a r e minimized.
MAlN TERMINAL I
Thyristors
this device, the main-terminal-No. 1 electrode makes ohmic contact to a p-type emitter a s well a s to an n-type emitter. Similarly, the main-terminalNo. 2 electrode also makes ohmic contact to both types of emitters, but the p-type emitter of the mainterminal-No. 2 side is located opposite the n-type emitter of the mainterminal-No. 1 side, and the mainterminal-No. 2 n-type emitter is opposite the main-terminal-No. 1 p-type emitter. The net result is two fourlayer switches in parallel, but oriented in opposite directions, in one silicon pellet. This type of construction makes i t possible for a triac either to block o r to conduct current in either direction between main terminal No. 1 and main terminal No. 2,
n-TYPE
TERMINAL
(01
"ON'STATE
'I I
QUADRANT I MAIN TERMINAL 2(*)
n
0
MAlN TERMlNAL l
6
, --
MAIN TERMINAL 2 (CASE)
Fig. 82-(aJ Jrorctiorr diagranr, (bJ voltage-cfirrent characteristic, and (cJ sclle. nlatic syr~lbol/or a diac.
Fig. 79 shows the junction tliagram, voltage-current cliaracteristic, and schematic symbol for a triac. The triac, liltc the SC11, has three electrodes; they are designated a s main tcrminal No.1, maill terminal No.2, and the 'gate. As sho\vn in Fig. 'iD(b), the triac exhibits tlie same forward-blocl~ing, forwardconducting voltage-current characteristic of the SCR, \)ut for either polarity of voltage applicd to the main terminals. Untlcr forw;lrd bias (main terminal No.2 ~ ~ o s i t i vwith e respect to main ter~ninal No.1) or reverse bias (main tcrminal No.2 negativc with respect to mnin terminal No.l), the triac cxliibits first a forward-bloclting ( O F F ) state, then a forward-conducting (ON) state. The point a t which thc device voltswitches states is the brcalio~er age. Again like the SCIt, the breakover voltage of tlie triac can be controlled o r varicd by application of a positive or negative current pulse to the gate electrode. As the amplitude of tlie current ~ ~ u l sis e
Fig. 7 9 4 " ) Jrrrrctiort rIio,qr(trrt, (1)) />rirrcipol vol~oge-crrrrer~t clrorocrc~risfic, or~rl (c) schcrrrntic syrrrbol /or n trim th),ri.rtor.
increased, the brealcover point of the triac is dccrcased. The triac can therefore be considerctl a s two SCR's connected in parallel and oriented in opposite directions, a s shown in Fig. 80.
P
MAlN TERMINAL 2 ()MAIN TERMINAL I
EMITTER WIN-TERMINAL-NO 2 ELECTRODE
Fig. ~ ~ - C ~ - O S S - S C C Io O I ~ o f ~ typical triac pcllet.
Fi,q. 60-A tr.;nc rqrti~olr~rr~ circrrit: / I ! , O SCR's irl parallrl nrrd or-ierrted irr opposite rlir.ectiorrs.
Construction of a typical RCA 1 triac pellet is sho\vn in Fig. 81. 11
A diac is a two-electlsode, threelayer bidirectional avalanche diode which can be switched from the O F F state to the ON state for either polarity of applied voltage. Fig. 82 shows the junction diagram, voltagecurrent characteristic, and schematic symbol f o r a diac. This three-layer trigger diode is similar in construction to a bipolar
transistor. A diac differs from a bipolar transistor in t h a t the doping concentrations a t t h e two junctions are approximately the same and there is no contact made to the base layer. The equal doping levels result in a symmetrical bidirectional switching characteristic, a s shown in Fig. 82(b). When a n increasing positive o r negative voltage is applied across the terminals of the diac, a minimum (leakage) current I,Iw,, flows through the device until the voltage reaches the breakover point Vcno,. The reverse-biased junction then undergoes avalanche breakdown and, beyond this point, the device exhibits a negative-resistance characteristic, i.e., current through the device increases substantially with decreasing voltage. Diacs are primarily used a s triggering devices in triac phase-control circuits used for light dimming, universal motor-speed control, heat control, and similar applications. Fig. 83 shows the general circuit diagram f o r a diac/triac phasecontrol circuit. The magnitude and

switches to the ON s t a b and is effectively a closed switch. The breakover voltage can be varied o r controlled by injections of a signal a t the gate terminal. The manufacturer's specifications indicate the magnitude of gate current and voltage required to turn on these devices. Gate characteristics, however, vary from device to device even among devices within the same family. For this reason, manufacturer's specifications on gating characteristics provide a range of values in t h e form of characteristic diagrams. A diagram such a s that shown in Fig. 85 is given to define the limits of gate currents and voltages that may be used t o trigger any given device of a specific family. The boundary lines of 'maximum mid minimum g a t e impedance on this characteristic diagram representsthe loci of all possible triggering points f o r thyristors in this family. The curve OA represents t h e gate characteristic of a specific device t h a t is triggered within the shaded area. The magnitude o f gate current and voltage required to trigger a thyristor varies inversely with junction temperature. As the junction temperature increases, the level of gate signal required to trigger t h e thyristor becomes smaller. Worst-case triggering conditions occur, therefore, a t
Thyristors
t h e minimum operating junction temperature. , The gate nontrigger voltage V is the maximum dc gate voltage that may be applied between gate and cathode of the thyristor f o r which the device can maintain its rated blocking voltage. This voltage is usually specified a t t h e rated operating temperature (100C) of the thyristor. Noise signals in the gate circuit should be maintained below this level t o prevent unwanted triggering of the thyristor. When very precise triggering of a thyristor is desired, the thyristor gate must be overdriven by a pulse of current much larger than t h e dc gate current required to trigger t h e device. The use of a large current pulse reduces variations in turn-on time, minimizes the effect of temperature variations on triggering characteristics, and makes possible very short switching times. The coaxial gate structure and the "shorted-emitter" construction techniques used in RCA thyristors have greatly extended the range of limiting gate characteristics. A s a result, the gate-dissipation ratings of RCA thyristors a r e compatible with t h e power-handling capabilities of other elements of these devices. Advantage can be taken of t h e higher peakpower capability of the gate t o improve dynamic performance, increase di/dt capability (maximum allowable rate o f -r i s e of .ON-state current), minimize interpulse jitter, and reduce switching losses. This higher peak-power capability also allows greater interchangeability of thyristors in high-performance applications. The forward gate characteristics for thyristors, shown in Fia. 86, indicate the maximum allowable pulse widths for various peak values of gate input power. The pulse width is determined by the relationship that exists between gate power input and t h e increase in the temperature of the thyristor pellet t h a t results from the application of gate power. The curves shown in Fig. 86(a) a r e f o r RCA SCR's t h a t have relatively small current ratings (2N4101, 2N4102, and 40379 families), and the curves shown i n Fig. 86(b) a r e f o r RCA SCR's t h a t have larger current ratings (2N4103, 2N3873, and 2N3899 families). Because
Fig. 83-Gerferfll circftit diflgrflttl for a diacltriac phase-conrrol circriit.
duration of the current pulse applied to the gate of the trinc a r e determined by t h e value of phaseshift capacitance C, the change. in voltage across and t h e dynamlc Impedance of the diac, and the triac gate impedance. The interaction of all circuit in~pedances and t h e phaseshift capacitance can best be represented b y the curve of peak current a s a function of t h e capacitance shown in Fig. 84.
GATE CURRENT-A (b)
Fig. 86-Forward gate characteristics for pulse triggering of RCA SCR's: (R) lowcurrot1 lypes: (b) high-current types.
ALLUNITST THESE A TEMPERATURES

I
SCR AND TRlAC GATE CHARACTERISTICS
.'
Silicon controlled rectif ers and triacs a r e ideal for switching applications. When the working voltage of the thyristor is below the breakover point, the device is essentially an ope11 s\\fitch; above the brcaltovcr voltngc, thc thyristor
GATE CURRENT-&
the higher-current thyristors have larger pellets, they also have greater thermal capacities than t h e smallercurrent devices. Wider g a t e trigger pulses can therefore be used on these devices f o r the same peak value of gate input power. Because of t h e resistive nature of the "shorted-emitter" construction, similar volt-ampere curves can be constructed for reverse g a t e voltages and currents, with maximum allowable pulse widths f o r various peakpower values, a s shown in Fig. 87. These curves indicate t h a t reverse dissipations do not exceed the maximum allowable power dissipation f o r t h e device. The total average dissipation caused by gate-trigger pulses is the sum of the average forward and re-

symbol represents the gate-to-mainverse dissipations. This total dissipation should be less than the Rlaxi- terminal-No. 1 voltage. mum Gate Power Dissipation P G ~ I Table I-Triac Triggering shown in the published data for the Modes selected SCR. If the average gate dissipation exceeds the niaximum Gate-to-Main- Main-Terminal-No. 2-to- Operating Terminal-No. 1 Main-Terminal-No. 1 auadrant published value, a s the result of high forward gate-trigger pulses Voltale Voltage and transient or steady-state rePositive I(+) Positive verse gate biasing, the maximum allowable forward-conduction-current Negative Positive I(--) rating of the device must be reduced to co~npensate for the inI11 (+) Positive Negative creased rise of junction temperature 111(-) Negative Negative caused by the increased gate power dissipation The gate-trigger requirements of The triac can be triggered in any of four operating modes, a s sunima- the triac are different in each operatrized in Table I. The quadrant des- ing mode. The I ( + ) mode (gate positive with respect to main terminal ignations refer to the operating No. 1 and main terminal No. 2 posiquadrant on the principal voltagetive with respect to main terminal current characteristics, shown in Fig. No. l ) , which is comparable to equiv79 (either I or 111), and the polarity alent SCR operation, is usually the most sensitke. The smallest gate current is required to trigger the triac in this mode. The other three operating modes require larger gatetrigger currents. For RCA triacs, the maximum trigger-current rating in the published data is the larxest value of gate current that is required to trigger the selected device in any operating mode.
Thyristors
thyristor is decreased, and the width of the gate pulse may be reduced. When highly inductive loads a r e used, the inductance controls the current-rise portion of the turn-on time. For this type of load, the width of the gate pulse must be made long enough to assure that the principal current rises to a value greater than the latching-current level of the device. The latching current of RCA thyristors is always less than twice the holding current. The application usually determines whether a simple o r somewhat sophisticated triggering circuit should be used to trigger a given thyristor. Triggering circuits can be a s numerous and a s varied a s the applications in which they a r e used; this text discusses the basic types only. Many applications require t h a t a thyristor be switched full ON o r full O F F in a manner similar to the operation of a relay. Although higher currents a r e handled by the thyristor, only small trigger or gate currents are required from the control circuit or switch. The simplest method of accomplishing this type of triggering is illustrated in Fig. 88. Each circuit shows a variable resistor in the gate circuit to control the conduction angle of the thyristor. OFF. As the resistance is reduced in the SCR circuit, a point is reached a t which sufficient gate trigger current is provided a t the positive peak of the voltage wave (90 degrees) to trigger the SCR ON. The SCR conducts from the 90-degree point to the 180-degree point for a total conduction angle of (180 - go), or 90 degrees. In the triac circuit, a s the resistance is reduced, the gate current increases until the triac is triggered a t both the peak positive (90 degrees) and peak negative (270 degrees) points on the voltage wave. The triac then conducts between 90 degrees and 180 degrees, and between 270 degrees and 360 degrees for a total conduction angle of 180 degrees. The conduction angles of both the SCR and the triac can be increased by further reduction of the resistance in the gate circuits. For the SCR, the firing point is moved back from 90 degrees toward zero f o r a total conduction angle approaching 180 degrees. The triac firing points can also be moved back from 90 degrees toward zero for .the positive half-cycle and from 270 degrees toward 180 degrees for the negative half-cycle to obtain a total conduction angle approaching 360 degrees. The resistor in the gate circuit assures t h a t the gate current decreases to a negligible value after the thyristor is fired. An easier method of obtaining a phase angle greater than 90 degrees for half-wave operation is to use a resistance-capacitance triggering I .A network. Fig. 89 shows the simplest 90"y Bc form of such networks for use with i ; MIN an SCR and a triac. The thyristor . I I. . *' _ I is in series with the load and in I I OC-Y +90e BC': k90' parallel with the RC network. A t MIN MIN the beginning of each half-cycle (0) (b) (positive half-cycle only f o r the Fig. 88- Degree o f corlfrol over cot~drtcSCR), the thyristor is in the O F F lion ar~gles ~vhetr ac resisfive tterwork is state. As a result, t h e ac voltzcsrd f o trigger SCR's arld friacs. age appears across the thyristor The waveforms indicating the de- and essentially none appears across gree of control exercised by the the load. Because the thyristor is variable resistance a r e also shown in parallel with the potentiometer in Fig. 88. With maximuni resistance and capacitor, the voltage across the in either circuit, the thyristor i s thyristor drives current through the
Gate Trigger Circuits

The gate signal used to trigger an SCR or triac must be of sufficient strength to assure sustained forward conduction. Triggering requirements are usually stated in terms of dc voltage and current. Because i t is comtnon practice to pulse-fire thyristors, i t is also necessary to consider the duration of firing pulse required. A trigger pulse that has an amplitude just equivalent to the dc requirements must be applied f o r a relatively long period of time (approximately 30 microseconds) to ensure that the gate signal REVERSE GATE CURRENT-A is .. ~ r o v i d e d durinrr the full turn-on (b) period of the thyFistor. As the amFiq. 8 7 - R ~ v e r ~ p gare rl~ar~rcrrristic~ of RCA S C R ~ a~ ~ o l u - r r r r r e ~ t r ( ) types; ( b ) plitude of the gate-triggering signal is increased, the turn-on time of the high-crrrrerrt t)'pes.
-0.5 -0.4 -03
-02 -01
REVERSE GATE CURRENT-A
4 7 -
1 .
'.
type employ elc~nents such as ncon bulbs, diacs, unijunction transistors, and two-transistor switches. Fig. 90 shows a l i g h t - d i m ~ ~ l i n ~ circuit in which a diac is used to trigger a triac. The voltage-current
Thyristors SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS

The ratings of thyristors a r e based primarily upon the amount of heat generated within the device pellet and the ability of the device package to transfer t h e internal heat t o the external case. F o r high-frequency applications in which the peak-to-average current ratio is high, or f o r highperiormance applications t h a t require large peak values but narrow current pulses, t h e energy lost during the t u n - o n process may be t h e main cause of heat generation within the thyristor. The switching properties of t h e device must be known, therefore, to determine power dissipation which may limit the device performance. When a thyristor is triggered by a gate signal, the turn-on time of the device consists of two stages, a delay time t r and a rise time t,, a s shown in Fig. 93. The total turn-on time tKt defined a s the time interis val between t h e initiation of the gate signal and t h e time when the resulting current through the thyristor reaches 90 per cent of its maximum value with a resistive load. The delay time t , is defined a s the time interval ~ between the 10-per-cent point of t h e leading edge of t h e gate-trigger voltage and the 10-per-cent point of t h e sum of both the delay and rise times of the thyristor. Although the turn-on time is affected to some extent b y t h e peak OFF-state voltage and the peak ONstate current level, i t is influenced primarily by the magnitude of the gate-trigger current pulse. Fig. 94 shows t h e variation in turn-on time with gate-trigger current f o r t h e RCA-2N3873 SCR.
LINE VOLTAGE
Fig. 90-A I i ~ / ~ t - d i ~ t rcirc~rit it! % I ~ / I ~ c / I r~~er a diac is used to trigger a triac. Fig. 89-RC tri,q,cerirrp rrc.tu~orks rrscd lor phase-cotztrol trigpri11.g of tlryrislors.
potentionleter and charges the capacitor. When thc capacitor voltage reaches the brealtover voltage of the thyristor, the capacitor discharges through the gate circuit and turns the thyristor on. A t this point, t h e ac voltage is transferred from the thyristor to the load Rr, f o r the remainder of the half-cycle. If the potentiometer resistance is reduced, the capacitor charges more rapidly, and the breakover voltage is reached earlier in the cycle; a s a result, the power applied to the load is increased. The gate trigger voltage can be more closely controlled in simple resistance or resistance-capacitance circuits by use of a variety of special t r i g ~ e r i n gdevices. These triggering devices, including the diac, have a sn~aller range of cllaracteristics, and are less temperature-sensitive. Basically, a thyristor triggering device exhibits a negative resist-ance a f t e r a critical voltage is reached, so t h a t the gate-current rcquircment of the thyristor can be ohtained a s a pulse from the discharge of the phase-shift capacitor. Because the gate pulse need 1)e only microseconds in durnlion, the g:rtepnlse energy and the size of the trig~erin~ co~nponenls:ire relatively small. Triggering circuits of this
characteristic f o r the diac in this circuit is shown in Fig. 01. The magnitude and duration of the gate-current pulse a r e determined
NEGATIVE RESlSTANCE
CURRENT +I
jI"
0l
,,p+
0.1
I 0.3
I
0.5
0.7
I
0.9
1.1
GATE CURRENT-&
F ~ K94-Rarlge o f trrrn-OIZ . tinte as a f~trtction o f gate crcrrerrt for the 2N3873 SCR.
VOLTAGE
Vp-
-i
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE
Fig. 9/-Volm,~e-cztrrrr1t chamctc!ri.ilic for triggerirrg device sl~ott~rr Fig. 90. irr
by the interaction of the capacitor C,, the diac characteristics, and the impedance of the thyristor gate. Fig. 92 shows the typical shape of the gate-current pulse that is produced.
TIME
Fig.
92-Ty/>ir~rl ,gc~rc,-rtrrrcrrt ~t'rrl~?Jorrrr for circrrit slrott~rrirt Fig. 90.
To guarantee reliable operationand provide guidance f o r equipment designers in applications having short conduction periods, t h e voltage drop across RCA thyristors, a t a given instantaneous forward current and a t a specified time after turn-on from a n OFF-state condition, is given 3 I I in the published data. The waveshape f o r the initial ON-state voltANODE a g e for t h e RCA-2N3873 SCR is CURRENT shown in Fig. 95. This initial voltage, together with the time required f o r reduction of the dynamic forward voltage drop during the spreading time, is a n indication of the currentswitching capability of the thyristor. GATE TRIGGER When the entire junction area of "GT P UL S E a thyristor is not in conduction, t h e '<IfOlNL--current through t h a t fraction of t h e Fie. 93-Gate-crtrrerir arrd voltage tro.t~-or2 pellet area in conduction may result ~r~avcf~~rtrrs thyrrstor. jor a in large instantaneous power losses. resulting current with a resistive These turn-on switching losses a r e load. The rise time t, is the time proportional to the current and the interval required for the principal voltage from cathode t o anode of the current t o rise from 10 t o 90 per device, together with the repetition ccnt of its maximum value. The rate of the gate-trigger pulses. The total turn-on time, thercfore, is t h e instantaneous power dissipated in a
L-
"(~01~
x
--f
"~(11

may exceed the maximunl oper:lting temperature given in the manufacturer's data; in this case, the thyristor should not be required to block voltages immediately a f t e r t h e conduction interval. If the thyristor must block voltages immediately following the conduction interval, the junction-temperature rating must not be exceeded. The turn-off time of a n SCR also consists of two stages, a reverserecovery time and a gate-recovery time, a s shown in Fig. 97. When t h e
Thyristors
The gate-recovery time of a n SCR is usually much longer t h a n t h e reverse-recovery time. The total time from the instant reverse-recovery current begins to flow to t h e s t a r t of the re-applied forward-blocking voltage is referred t o a s the circuit commutated turn-off time t,. The turn-off time is dependent upon a number of circuit parameters, including the ONstate current prior t o turn-off, t h e rate of change of current during the forward-to-reverse transition, t h e reverse-blocking voltage, t h e r a t e of change of t h e re-applied forward voltage, t h e g a t e trigger level, t h e gate bias, and the junction temperature. The junction temperature and the ON-state current, however, have a more significant effect on turn-off time t h a n any of the other factors. Because t h e turn-off time of a n SCR depends upon a number of circuit parameters, the manufacturer's turnoff time specification is meaningful only if these critical parameters a r e listed and the t e s t circuit used f o r t h e measurement is indicated. Thyristors must be operated within the maximum ratings specified by the manufacturer to assure best results in terms of performance, life, and reliability. These ratings define .limiting values, determined on t h e basis of extensive tests, t h a t represent the best judgment of the manufacturer of the safe operating capability of the device. natively, this condition may be referred to a s operation i n the first quadrant.
--t--- I
,
I
OFF-State Voltages
The repetitive peak OFF-state voltage V,,tl,f is the maximum value of OFF-state voltage, either transient or steady-state, t h a t the thyristor should be required to block under t h e stated conditions of temperature and gate-to-cathode resistance. If this voltage i s exceeded, the thyristor may switch t o t h e ON state. The circuit designer should insure t h a t t h e Vlmx rating is not exceeded to assure proper operation of the thyristor. Under relaxed conditions of temperature or g a t e impedance, or when the blocking capability of t h e thyristor exceeds the specified rating, i t may be found t h a t a thyristor can block voltages f a r in excess of its repetitive OFF-state voltage rating VI3nv. Because the application of a n excessive voltage to a thyristor may produce irreversible effects, a n absolute upper limit should be imposed on the amount of voltage t h a t may be applied to the main terminals of the device. This voltage rating is referred to a s the peak OFF-state voltage Vl,,!. t should be noted t h a t I the peak OFF-state voltage has a single r a t i n g irrespective of the voltage grade of the thyristor. This rating is a function of t h e construction of the thyristor and of the surface properties of the pellet; i t should not be exceeded under either continuous or transient conditions.
Fig. 95-Irritiol orr-slate volto~?c nrlrl crfrrerlt ~r.ovelorrrls/or the 2N3873 SCK.
thyristor under such conditions is shown in Fig. 96. The curves shown in this figure indicate t h a t the pealc
d i r d t
iI1
w;v;i9
I
I I
I I
LC-A-1
"RM
I
r i g . 97-~ircrtit-corrrtr111101(~[1 I trtrrr-on \,nt/tq age arrd ctrrrerrt wavejorr~ls/or a tlr~.ris/or.
power dissipation occurs in thc short interval in~nlcdiately after the device s t a r t s to conduct, usually in the first microsecond. During this time interval, the peak junction temperature
forward current of a n SCR is rcduced to zero a t the end of a conduction period, application of reverse voltage between the anode and cathode terminals causes reverse current to flow in the SCR until t h e reverse-blocking junction establishes a depletion region. The time interval between the application of reverse voltage and the time t h a t t h e reverse current passes its peak value to a steadystate level is called t h e reverserecovery time t.,. A second recovery period, called the gate-recovery time t,,, must then elapse for the forwardblocking junction to establish a forward-depletion region so t h a t forward-blocking voltage can be reapplied and successfully blocked by the SCR.
VOLTAGE RATINGS
The voltage ratings of thyristors are given f o r both steady-state and transient operation and f o r both forward- and reverse-blocking conditions. F o r SCR's, voltages a r e considered to be in the forward or positive direction when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. Negative voltages f o r SCR's a r e referred t o a s reverse-blocking voltages. F o r triacs, voltages a r e considered t o be positive when main terminal No. 2 is positive with respect to main terminal No. 1. Alter-
Reverse Voltages (SCR's only)

Reverse voltage ratings a r e given f o r SCR's to provide operating guidance in the third quadrant, or reverse-bloclting mode. There a r e two voltage ratings for SCR's in the reverse-bloclting mode: repetitive peak reverse voltage (Vnnxl) and nonrepetitive peak reverse voltage
(VllS,,).

Tlie rcpctitivc pcali revcrsc voltage is the maximum allowable value of rcvcrse voltage, including a11 repetitive transient voltages, that may be applied to the SCR. Because reverse power dissipation is sinall a t this voltage, the rise in junction temperature because of this reverse dissipation is very slight and is accoyntcd for in the rating of the SCR. The nonre~etitive peak reverse voltage is t h e maxinium allowable value of any nonrepctitive transient reverse voltage which may be applied to the SCR. These nonrepetitive transient voltages a r e allowcd to exceed the steady-state ratings, even though thc instantaneous power dissipation can be significant. While the transient voltage is applied, the junction temperature may increase, b u t removal of the transient voltage in a specified time allows the junction teinperature t o return t o its steadystate operating temperature before a thermal runaway occurs. flow tlirougll thc thyristor, and t l ~ c ambient temperature. The effect of these factors in the determination of current ratings is illustrated by t h e following example. Fig. 98 shows curves of the niaximum average forward power dissipation for the RCA-2N3873 SCR a s a
Thyristors
The maximum average forward current rating f o r the specified conditions can then be determined from the rating curves shown in Fig. 98. F o r example, if a conduction angle of 180 degrees is assumed, the average forward current rating f o r a maximum dissipation of 38 watts is found to be 22 amperes. These calculations assume t h a t the temperature is uniform throughout the pellet and the case. The junction temperature, however, increases and decreases under conditions of transient loading o r periodic currents, depending upon the instantaneous power dissipated within the thyristor. The current rating takes these variations into account. The ON-state current ratings f o r a thyristor indicate the maximum values of average, rms, and peak (surge) current that should be allowed to f o through t h e main lw terminals of the device, under stated conditions, when the thyristor is in t h e ON state. F o r heat-sinlc-mounted thyristors, these maximum ratings a r e based on the case temperature; f o r lead-mounted thyristors, the ratings a r e based on the ambient temperature. The maximum average ON-state current rating is usually specified for a half-sine-wave current a t a particular frequency. Fig. 99 shows curves of the maximum allowable average ON-state current I ' r ~ c n r p ) f o r the RCA-2N3873 SCR family a s a function of case temperature. Because peak and r m s currents may be high f o r small conduction angles, the curves in Fig. 99 also show maximum allowable average currents a s a function of conduction angle. The maximum operating junction temperature f o r the 2N3873 is 100C. The rating curves indicate, f o r a given case temperature, the maximum average ON-state current f o r which the average temperature of the pellet will not exceed the maximum allowable value. The rating curves may be used f o r only resistive or inductive loads. When capacitive loads a r e used, the currents produced
Fig. 99--C~crrerrt ratirtg chart for
2N3873
SCR.
the
ON-State Voltages
IVIicn a thyristor is in n highcorlduction state, the voltage drop across the device is no diflerent in nature from the forward-conduction voltage drop of a scmiconductor diode, although the magnitude may be slightly higher. As in diodes, the ON-state voltage-drop characteristic is the major source of power losses in the operation of the thyristor, and the teniperatures produced become a limiting feature in the rating of the device.
Fit!. 98-P~r~~rr-dissiporio,lrntirrg rhnrf {or the 2N3873 SCR.
CURRENT RATINGS
The current ratings f o r SCR's a i d triacs define maximum values for normal or rcpctitive currents and f o r surge or nonrepetitive currents. These maximum ratings a r e determined on the basis of thc maximu111 junction-temperature rating, the junction-to-case thermal resistance, the internal pourer dissipation t h a t results frotii the current
function of average forward current for dc operation and f o r various conduction angles. F o r the 2N3873, the junction-to-case thcrmal resistance el-c is 0.9Z0C per w a t t and the maximum operating junction temperature T j is 100C. If the maximum case temperature Trc,n.r, is assumed to be 65"C, the maximum average forward powcr dissipation can be determined as follows: TlglllnX) -TC~~,,..> PAFG(~..~) =
01-0
by the charge o r discharge of the capacitor through the thyristor may be excessively high, and a resistance should be used in series with the capacitor to limit the current to the rating of the thyristor. The ON-state current rating for a triac is given only in r m s values because these devices normally conduct alternating current. Fig. 100 shows a n r m s ON-state current rating curve
= 38 watts
Fig. 100-Cttrrertf rafitrg curve /or a typical RCA triac,
70
Thyristors
and the size of this area is increased f o r larger values of gate trigger current. F o r this reason, the d i l d t rating is specified f o r a specific value of gate trigger current. an important consideration when a thyristor is to be used with a n inductive load because t h e inductance limits t h e r a t e of rise of the anode current. Precautions should be taken to insure that, under such conditions, t h e gate signal is present until the anode current rises to the latching value so t h a t complete turn-on of the thyristor is assured.
for a typical triac a s a function of case temperature. As with the SCR, the triac curve is deratcd to zero current when the case tenlperature rises to the mnximunl o p c r a t i n ~ junction temperature. Triac cul,rcbntratings a r e given for full-wave conduction under resistive o r inductive loads. I'rccautions slioultl be talcen to liniit the pealc current to tolerable levels when capacitive loads a r e used. The surge ON-state current ratinc ITP,.,,.~,) indicates the maximutn peak value of a short-duration current pulse that should be allowed to flow through a thyristor during one ONstate cycle, under stated conditions. for a n y This rating is rated load condition, During normal operation, the junction tenlperature rise to the maxiof a tllyristor nlllln allowallle value; if tile surge occulos a t this timc, the maximum limit is exceeded. For this reason, a thyristor is not rated to l)loclt OFFstate voltage immediately following the occurrence of a current surge. Sufficient time must be allowed to permit the junction temperature to return to tlie normal operating value 1)cforc nate control is restored to t h e t11~risto.r. Fig. 101 shows a surgecurrent rating curve f o r the 2N3873
5;
loo
$ ; Y$g
Fz
; ; I
$?
L':
26
o~~~,"~~,STEAOr-sTATE I 2 4 6 B i 0 2 4 6B1& 2 4 6~~~~ sURGE C m E M WRATW-FULL CYCLES
RATEo/--l / j 1
Fig. I U ~ - S I I I , ~ ~ - C Irati~rgcrfrvc lor a I~~~II~ typical Iriac.
CRITICAL RATE OF RISE OF OFF-STATE VOLTAGE (dv/dt)

Because of the internal capacitance of a thyristor, the forward-blocking capability of the device is sensitive to the r a t e a t which the forward voltage is applied. A steep rising voltage impressed across the main terminals of a thyristor causes a capacitive charging current t o flow through the device. This charging current (i = Cdvtdt) is a function of t h e r a t e of rise of t h e OFF-state voltage. If the rate of rise of the forward voltage exceeds a critical value, the capacitive charging current may become large enough t o trigger t h e thyristor. The steeper t h e wavefront of applied forward voltage, t h e smaller the value of the thyristor breakover voltage becomes. The use of the shorted-emitter construction in SCR's has resulted in a substantial increase in t h e dvldt capability of these devices by providing a shunt path around the gate-tocathode junction. Typical units can withstand rates of voltage rise up to 200 volts per microsecond under worst-case conditions. The d v l d t capability of a thyristor decreases a s t h e temperature rises and is increased by the addition of a n external resistance from gate t o reference terminal. The dvtdt rating, therefore, is given f o r the maximum junction temperature with t h e g a t e open, i.e., f o r worst-case conditions.
cal triac. For triacs, the rat in^ curve shows peak values f o r a full-sinewave current a s a function of the nulnber of cycles of overload duration. Multicycle surge curves a r c the basis for the selection of circuit breakers and fuses t h a t a r e ~ i s e d to prevent damage to the thyristor in the event of accidental -short-circuit of the device. The number of surges permitted over the life of the thyristor should be limited to prevent device
Fin. 103-Voltage atrd crcrretrt wavejon~rs rrsed to dcrerttritre di/dt ratitrg of the
2N3873 SCR.
HOLDING AND LATCHING CURRENTS

After an SCR or triac h a s been switched to the ON-state condition, a certain n~inimum value of anode current is required to maintain the thyristor in this low-impedance state. If the anode current is reduced below this critical holdingcurrent value, the thyristor cannot maintain regeneration and reverts to t h e O F F o r high-impedance state. Because the holding current (111) is sensitive to changes in temperature (increases a s temperature decreases), this rating is specified a t room temperature with the gate open. T h e . latching-current rating of a thyristor specifies a value of anode current, slightly higher than t h e holding current, which is the minimum amount required to sustain conduction immediately after the thyristor is switched from the O F F state to the ON state and the gate signal is removed. Once the latching current (Ir.) is reached, the thyristor remains in t h e ON, or low-impedance, state until its anode current is decreased below the holding-current value. The latching-current rating is
RATE OF OF ON-STATE CURRENT (dildt)

In an SCR o r triac, the load current is initially concentrated in the small area of the pellet where load current first begins to flow. This small area ef~ectivcly limits the a n ~ o u n tof current t h a t the device can handle and results in a high voltage drop across the pellet in the first microsecond after the thyristor is t r i g ~ e r e d .If the rate of rise of current is not maintained within the rating of the thyristor, localized hot spots may occur within the pellet and permanent d a ~ n a a e to the device mav result. Thc waveshape f o r testing tlie dildt capability of the RCA 2N3873 is shown in Fig. 103. The critical rate of rise of ON-state current is clependent upon the size of the cathode area that begins to conduct initially,
Fi,r. 101-Srcypc,-crtrr.e,rr r.nri11.q crtrre for. rhc 2N3873 SCR.
SCR. This curve shows pealc values of half-sine-wave forward (ON-state) current a s a function of overload duration measured in cyclrs of the GO-Hz current. Fig. 102 shows a surge-current rating curvc for n typi-
TRANSIENT PROTECTION
Voltage transients occur in electrical systems when some disturb-

A ' ance disrupts t h e normal opera t Ion cause of overvoltage or because the of the system. These disturbances thyristor d v l d t capability is exmay be produecd by various sources ceeded. One of the obvious solutions to (such a s lighting surges, cncrgizing transformers, and load switch- insure that transients do not exing) ant1 may generate volt:~gc!s ceed the maximum allown1)le volt.which exceed the rating of tlic thy- a g c rating is t o provide a thyristor . ristors. In addition, transients gcn- \\.it11 : voltage rating greater than erally have a i a s t r a t e of rise t11;lt thc highest transient voltage exis usually greater than the critical pected in a system. This technique, value for the rate of rise of t h e however, does not represent a n thyristor OFF-state voltage (static economical solution because, in most cases, the transient magnitude. dvldt). If transient voltages have mngui- which is dependent on the source of tudes f a r greater than the device transient generation, i s not easily rating, the thyristor. may switch defined. Transient voltages a s high from the O F F state to the ON state, a s 2G00 volts have resulted from and energy is then transferred from lighting disturbances on a 120-volt t h e thyristor to the load. Because residential power line. Usually, t h e t h e internal resistance of the thyris- best solution is to specify devices t o r is high during the O F F state, t h a t can withstand voltage from 2 t h e transients may cause consider- t o 3 times t h e steady-state value. able energy to be dissipated in t h e This technique provides a reasonthyristor before hreakover occurs. able safety factor. The effects of I n such instances, the transient colt- voltage transients can further be a g e exceeds the ~ n a x i m u n ~ allow- minimized by use of external circuit able voltage ratinp, and irreversible elements, such a s RC snubber netdamage to the thyristor nlay occur. works across t h e thyristor terminals, Even if the magnitude of a tran- a s shown in Fig. 104. The r a t e a t sient voltage is within tlre ~ n n s i m u m which the voltage rises a t the thyrisallowahle voltnre rating of t h e thy- t o r terminal is a function of t h e load .~ - . . ristor, the rate-of rise'-of the transient niay exceed the static dvfdt capability of the thyristor and cnuse the device to switch from thc O F F state to the ON state. This condition also results in transfer of energy from tlre thyristor t o t h e load. I n this case, thyristor switching from t h e O F F state to the O N s t a t e does not occur because the nlaximunl allowable voltage is exceeded but, instead, occurs because of the f a s t rate of rise of OFF-state voltafre (dvldt) and the thyristor capacitance, which result in a turn-on current i = Cdvldt. Thyristm switching produced in this may is impedance and the values of the refree from high-energy dissipation, sistor R and the capacitor C in the and turn-on is not destructive pro- snubber network. Because the load vided t h a t t h e current that rcsults impedance is usually variable, the from the energy transfer is within preferred approach is to assume a worst-case condition for the load the device capability. I n either case, transient suppres- and, through actual transient meassion techniques a r e eml~loyed to urement, to select a value of C that minimize the effects of turn-on be- provides the minimum rate of rise
Thyristors
a t each zero-current point, or twice each cycle, of the applied a c power. This action i s called commutation. If the triac fails to block the circuit voltage (turn off) following the zero-current point, this action is not damaging to the triac, b u t control of the load power is lost. Commutation f o r resistive loading presents no special problems because the voltage and current a r e essentially in phase. F o r inductive loading, however, the current lags the volta g e so that, following t h e zerocurrent point, a n applied voltage opposite to the current and equal to the peak of the ac line voltage occurs across the thyristor. The maximum r a t e of rise of this voltPOWER INPUT age which can be blocked without the triac reverting to the ON state is termed the critical r a t e of rise of commutation voltage, o r t h e commutating d v l d t capability, of the triac. Fig. 105-Sz~~pressiotz of trattsicrrt rise SCR's do not experience commufirnes at tlre terinirrnls of a thyristor By tation lilnitations because t u n - o n nrcalrs of a coil 6 series with the load. 1 is not possible f o r t h e polarity of voltage opposite to current flow. The commutating d v t d t i s a major infinite rise time i s assumed to occur a t the input terminals and if the operating characteristic used to deeffects of the load impedance a r e scribe the performance capability of neglected, the rise time of the tran- a triac. The characteristic can be sient a t the thyristor terminals is more easily understood if the triac npproxin~ately equal to E , ~ / ~ / L C . pellet, shown in Fig. 106, is considIf the value of t h e added inductor ered to be divided into two halves. L is 100 nlicrohenries and the value of the snubber capacitor C is 0.1 microfarad, the infinite rate of rise of the transient a t the thyristor terminals is reduced by a factor of 3. F o r a filter network consisting GATE of L = 100 microhenries, C = 22 microfarads, and R = 47 ohms, a Fig. 106-1~~1criot1 diagrant for a friac 1000-volt-per-microsecond transient pellet. that appears at the input terminals is suppressed by a factor of 6 a t One half conducts current in one direction, the other half conducts in the thyristor terminals. the opposite direction. The main blocking junctions and a lightly COMMUTATING dv/dt CAPABILITY doped n-type base region in which charge can be stored a r e common to both halves of t h e triac pellet. In ac power-control applications, (The base region i s the section n triac must switch from the conshown between t h e dotted lines in ducting state to the blocking s t a t e Fig. 106.) a t the thyristor terminals. The snubber resistance should be selected to minimize t h e capacitor discharge currents during turn-on. F o r applications in which it is necessary to minimize false turnon because of transients, the addition of a coil in series with the load, a s shown in Fig. 105, is very effective for suppression of transient rise times at the thyristor terminals. F o r example, if a transient of

Charge is stored in the base when 400-Hz on-state current of the same current is conducted in either direc- magnitude, it is evident t h a t the tion. The amount of chargc stored commutating di/dt is much greater a t the end of each half-cgclc of con- than a t (i0 Hz and, thcrcforc, the duction depends on the co~nniut:~ting commutating d v l d t capability is dildt, i.e., the rate of decrease of greatly reduced. These relationships load current a s commutation is ap- indicate t h a t a triac capable of 400proached. The junction capacitance Hz operation must have an extrenieof the triac a t commutation is a ly high commutating capability. function of the remaining c h a r ~ e t a COMMUTATING t h a t time. The greater the dildt, dl/dt the more remaining charge, and the greater the junction capncitance. When the voltage changes direction, the remaining charge diffuses into the opposite half of the triac structure. The rate of rise of t!lis voltage (commutating dvldt) in conjuncticn with the junction capacitance results in a current flow ~vhich, if large enough, can cause the triac to revert to the conducting state in the absence of a gate signal. The commutating dvldt capability is specified in volts per microsecond for the following conditions:
1. the maximuni rated on-state current [I-r(RRIS)]; 2. the ~naximunl case tenipcrature for the rated value of on-state current; 3. the maxinlum rated off-state voltage (V~wm,) ; 4. the maximum comniutating dildt (where dildt = I,,t sin ot and w = 2sf).
Thyristors
400-Hz triac is used a t less than its maxim.um rated junction temperature and less than its rated current, its frequency capability i s greatly enhanced.
LL LZ
50
PERCENTOFRATEOCURRENT
I I 100
Fig. 108-Frcqtret~cy capability o f a 400-Hz ~ r i a c u f~t~criorr load crtrrertt. as O/
Fig. 107-Deperidorce o f triac corrtntrttatirrg cupabili~y orr cttrrerit artd /reqrrertcy.
One other factor that greatly affects commutating capability is temperature. All commutating characteristic data a r e specified for maximum operating case temperature a t maximum rated steady-state current. If the operating case temperature is below the rated value, the commutating capability is increased.
RCA offers a complete line of triacs rated for 400-Hz operation. Applications of such devices a r e described in the section on I'ower Switching and Control. I t should be evident t h a t 400 Hz I t is apparent, therefore, that the is not an upper liniit on frequency frequency ( f ) of the applied ac capability f o r triacs; 400 IIz is a power is a n important factor in characterization point simply bedetermination of the co~il~nutating cause i t is a standard operating frequency. Figs. 108 and 109 indicate dvldt capability of a triac. Fig. 107 indicates how the com- how the frequency capability of a mutating d v l d t capability of a triac typical RCA 400-Hz triac can be depends on current and frequency. increased. Fig. 108 shows t h a t reA particular triac has a spedfic duction of load current increases commutating d v l d t capability :it the frequency capability. Maximuni rated rated GO-IIz on-state current. If this junction temperature and minimum GO-IIz on-state current is reduced ratcd commutating d v l d t a r e held (dashed-line), then its associated constant f o r this test of capability. commutating dvldt capability is in- Fig. 109 shows the effects of junccreased. I t should be noted t h a t al- tion temperature on frequency cathough the sine-wave current is de- pability. F o r this test, rated current creased in magnitude, the commutat- and minimum rated d v l d t are held ing dildt is also decreased. For a constant. Therefore, if a typical
500
W 3 LZ
I
JUNCTION TEMPERATURE-*C
70
100
F$. 109-Freqrrertcy capability o f a 400-Hz rrinc as a jtrrictiott o/ jrrrtctiorr Ierrlperatrtre.
RADIO-FREQU ENCY INTERFERENCE The fast switching action of triacs when they turn on into resistive loads causes the current to rise to the instantaneous value determined by the load in a very short period of time. Triacs switch from t h e
high- to the low-impedance state within 1 o r 2 microseconds; t h e current must rise from essentially zero to full-load value during this period. This f a s t switching action produces a current step which is largely composed of higher-harmonic frequencies of several megahertz t h a t have an-. amplitude varying inversely a s the frequency. In phase-control applications, such a s light dimming, this current step is produced on each half-cycle of the input voltage. Because the switching occurs many times a second, a noise pulse is generated into frequency-sensitive devices such a s AM radios and causes annoying interference. The amplitude of the higher frequencies in the current step is of such low levels that they do not interfere with television o r F M radio. I n general, the level of radio-frequency interference (RFI) produced by the triac i s well below t h a t produced by most acldc brush-type electric motors; however, some type of R F I suppression network is usually added. There a r e two basic types of radio-frequency interference (RFI) associated with the switching action of triacs. One form, radiated RFI, consists of the high-frequency energy radiated through the air from the equipment. In most cases, this radiated R F I is insignificant unless the radio is located very close to the source of the radiation. Of more significance is conducted RFI which i s carried through the power lines and affects equipment attached to the same power lines. Because the composition of the current waveshape consists of higher frequencies, a simple choke placed in series with the load increases the current rise time and reduces the amplitude of the higher harmonics. To be effective, however, such a choke must be quite large. A more effective filter, and one t h a t has been found adequate f o r most light-dimming applications, is shown in Fig. 110. The LC filter provides adequate attenuation of the highfrequency harmonics and reduces
76

Fig. 111 sho\rs a triac control circuit that includes RFI suppression for the purpose of minimizing highfrequcncy interference. The values indicated a r e typical of those used
120 VAC OR
60 Hz
Silicon Rectifiers
120 VAC OR 240 VAC 60 Hz
+1
O R CONTROL CIRCUIT
I
,
Fig. 110-RFI-.rrrppressio,t rrc'l~.o~ (C = k.r 0.1 PF, 200 V at I20 V ac; 0.1 P F , 400 V at 240 V ac).
' jdnction. As a result, they have low
SILICONcontaining aa r esimple p-n rectifiers essentially cells

resistance to current flow in one (forward) direction, but high resistance to current flow in the opposite (reverse) direction. They can be operated a t ambient temperatures up to 200C and a t current levels a s high a s hundreds of amperes, with voltage levels greater than 1000 volts. In addition, they can be used in parallel or series arrangements t o provide higher current or voltage capabilities. Because of their high forward-toreverse current ratios, silicon rectifiers can achieve rectification efficiencies greater than 99 per cent. When properly used, they have excellent lifc characteristics which a r e not affected by aging, moisture, or temperature. They a r e very small and light-weight, and can be made impervious to shock and other severe environmental conditions.
temperature effects a r e very important in the consideration of silicon rectifier characteristics.
REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a silicon rectifier, a limited amount of reverse current (usually measured in microamperes, a s compared to milliamperes or amperes of forward current) begins to flow. As shown in Fig. 112, this reverse current flow increases slightly a s the bias voltage increases, but then tends
VOLTAGE
the noise interference to a low lcvcl. The capacitor connected across the cntirc nctworlt bypasscs high-frequency signals so t h a t thcy are not connected to any external circuits through the power lines.
Fig. 111-Lni~tp-co~trrol circctir i~rcorpotnfiris RFI srrppressior~.
!
I
'
Fig. 112-T)~pical reverse characteris!ics DI a silicon rectifier.
to remain constant even though the voltage continues to increase signifiAlthough rectifiers can operate a t cantly. However, an increase in operh i ~ htemperatures, t h e thermal ca- ating temperature increases the pacity of a silicon rectifier is quite reverse current considerably f o r a low, and the junction temperature given reverse bias. rises rapidly during high-current At a specific reverse voltage (which operation. Sudden rises in junction varies f o r different types of diodes), temperature caused by either high a very sharp increase in reverse curcurrents or excessive an~bient-tcm- rent occurs. This voltage is called perature conditions can cause failure. the breakdown or avalanche (or ( A silicon rectifier is considered to zener) voltage. In many applications, have failed when either the forward rectifiers can operate safely a t the voltage drop or the reverse current avalanche point. If the reverse volthas increased to a point where the age is increased beyond this point, crystal structure or surrounding ma- however, or if the ambient temperaterial brealts down.) Consequently, ture is raised sufficiently (for ex-
THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS

anll)lc, a rise fro111 25 to 150C increases the current by a factor of several hundred), "thermal runaway" rcsults and the diode may 1)e destroy ed.
Silicon Rectifiers
figurations, these relationships are, of course, changed again. Current (and voltage) relationships have been derived f o r various types of rectifier applications and a r e given in the section on DC Power Supplies. Published data f o r silicon rectifiers usually include maximum ratings f o r both average and peak forward current. As shown in Fig. 116, the maximum average forward current is the maximum average value of current which is allowed t o flow in the forward direction during a full ac cycle a t a specified ambient or case temperature. Typical average current outputs range from 0.5 ampere to a s high a s 100 amperes f o r single silicon diodes. The peak recurrent forward current is the . maximum repetitive instantaneous Fig. 115-Variatio~z o f the sqrcore of sit~e- forward current permitted under wave clrrrrflr with ti~rre. stated conditions. a t this point is t h e root-mean-square SURGE OR FAULT CURRENT (rrns) value of the current. The relationship between r m s and peak PEAK REPETITIVE current is given by CURRENT I,,. = 0.707 Ipe.t - AVERAGE FORWARD CURRENT or . I,..r = 1.414 I.,.,. Fig. 116-Representarion of rectifier currents. Because a single rectifier cell passes current in one direction only, I n addition, ratings a r e usually it conducts f o r only half of each cycle of an a c sine wave. Therefore, given f o r non-repetitive surge, o r the second half of the curves in Figs. fault, current. In rectifier applica114 and 115 is eliminated. The aver- tions, conditions may develop which age current I.. then becomes half of cause momentary currents t h a t a r e the value determined f o r full-cycle considerably higher than normal operating current. These increases conduction, and the r m s current I.,. is equal to the square root of half the (current surges) may occur from mean-square value f o r full-cycle time to time during normal circuit conduction. I n terms of half-cycle operation a s a result of normal load sine-wave conduction ( a s in a single- variations, o r they may be caused phase half-wave circuit), the rela- by abnormal conditions or faults in tionships of the rectifier currents the circuit. Although a rectifier can usually absorb a limited amount of can be shown a s follows: additional heat without a n y effects other than a momentary rise in juncI,.,t = rr x I., = 3.14 I.. I.. = ( 1 1 ~ Ipc.k = 0.32 IrBpat tion temperature, a sufficiently high ' ) surge can drive, the junction temI,,. = ( ~ 1 2 I.. = 1.57 I,. ) I.. = (21s) I,,. = 0.64 I,,,,. perature high enough to destroy t h e rectifier. Surge ratings indicate t h e I,..L = 2 I,",. amount of current overload o r surge I r m a = 0.5 1p. ~ m that the rectifier can withstand withFor different con~binationsof recti- out detrimental effects. fier cells and different circuit conFig. 117 shows universal surge
-
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS
A silicon rectifier usually requires

n forward voltane of 0.4 to 0.8 volt (depending upon the temperature and the impurity concentration in the p-type and n-type materials) before significant current flow occurs. rise As shown in Fig. 113, a s l i ~ h t in voltage beyond this point increases the forward current sharply. Because of the small mass of the silicon rectifier, the forward voltage tlrop n ~ u s t carefully controlled so be that the specified maximum value of dissipation for the device is not exceeded. Othenvise, the diode may be seriously damaged o r destroyed. Fig. 113 shows the effects of a n increase in temperature on the forwardcurrent characteristic of a silicon
is reached. PRV ratings range from about 50 volts to a s high a s 1000 volts f o r some single-junction diodes. As will be discussed later, several junction diodcs can be conricctcd in series to obtain the PRV values required for very-high-voltage powersupply applications. Because the current through a rcctifier i s normally not dc, current ratings a r e usually given in terms of average, rms, and peak values. Tine waveshapes showrl in Fig. 114 and 115 help to illustrate the relationships among these r a t i n ~ s .F o r example, Fig. 114 shows the current variation with time of a sine wave.
Fig. I14-Vnrioriorr of crtrrorr of n sitre wove wit11 riflle.
VOLTS
Fig. 113-Tl,p;col jor~clord c\torncterisrics i11 a si/icorr recrifier.
rectifier. I n certain applications, close control of ambient temperature is reHowever, the power P consunled quired f o r satisfactory operation. by a device (and thus thc heat genClose control is not usually requi~ed, erated within i t ) is equal to the however, in power circuits. square of the current through it times its finite electrical resistance RATINGS R (i.e., P = IR). Therefore, the Ratings for silicon rectifiers a r e power is proportional to the square determined by the rna~~ufncturcrn of t h e current rather than t o the o the basis of extensive reliability test- peak or average value. Fig. 115 ing. One of t h e most important rat- shows the square of thc current for ings is the nlaximunl peak reverse the sine wave of Fig. 114. A horizonvoltage (PRV), i.e., the highest t a l line drawn through a point halfa ~ n o u n of reverse voltage which can way up the I' curve indicates the t be applied to a specific rectifier be- average (or mean) of the squares, fore the avalanche breakdo\vn point and the square root of the 1-value
t h a t h a s a peak current I,vnkof 10 amperes. The area under the curve can be translated mathematically into a n equivalent rectangle t h a t indicates the average value I,, of the sine wave. The relationship between the average and peak values of the total sine-wave current is then given by I,, = 0.637 I p v , r or I,,,t = 1.57 1%"

rating charts f o r families of recti- ~ i v e ncircuit can be deternlined by use of a coordination chart such as fiers having average current ratings that shown in Fig. 118. Two characup to 40 amperes. The rnls currents shown in these charts are incrcmen- tcristics a r e plotted on the coordination chart initially: ( A ) the surge tal values which ndtl to the normal rating curve for the rcctificr, and rms forward current during surge periotls. The charts indicate maxico mum current increnlents t h a t can be - o o z ] safely handlcd by the rectifiers f o r given lengths of time. These charts can bc used by designers to detcrnline whclhcr circuit motlifications a r e necessary to protect the rectifiers. If the value and duration of expected currcnt surges a r e .. p e a t e r than the ratings for the rec$ -'"' S U R G E DURATION-SECONDS tifier, inlpedance should be to Fi.,. ,,R-TYpicn, coort,~rlnfioll c/l(lr-, lor circuits Or fuses Or ~ ~ c ~ ~ c r f f l i f l ~ f l s r ~ q ~ t i ~ c ~ ~ Ae r r ~ ~ /rrsiflg (l = circuit breakers to variable-load cirs,lrsc-rafipll: chart lor 20-arrrpere recfificr; cuits f o r surge protection. U = expected s ~ t r , ~crorott irr Irn!j-11@Ore c The fusing requirements f o r a circlrir: c = operrirrg clrnracrcrisrics ol ( R ) the maximum surge (fault current) expected in the circuit. I n Fig. 118, curve A is the surge rating curve f o r a 20-ampere rectifier, and curve B is the maximum surge expected to occur in a single-phase Iialf-wave rectifier circuit t h a t has an input voltage of 600 volts and is subject to overload conditions in which the load resistance can decrease to 2 ohms. The maximum rms current which can flow under these conditions is given by I,,,,. = E1,,/2Rr. = 60014 = 150 anlpcres The incremental portion of this current is determined by subtracting the normal rms current of thc 20ampere rcctificr (I ,,,,. = 1.57 1" = . 1.57 x 20 = 31.4 amperes; I.,,,,. = 150 - 31.4 = 118.6 nmpcres). The straight line of curve I3 is then drawn a t a n mms value of 118.G ampcl.es in F i g 118. The intersection of curves A 2nd 1 indicates that thc 20-aml)crf! rcc3 tifier can safely support a n Incremental rnis surge current of 118.6 anlperes f o r a lnasinlunl duration of allout 40 niilliscconds. Thcrcior~., the circuit nlust be lllodificd to include Io r a protective element t h a t has an
Silicon Rectifiers
"opening" characteristic t h a t falls below the rectifier surge rating curve f o r all times greater than 40 n~illisecontls. The opening characteristic of such a protective element is shown in Fig. 118 a s curve C. Surge current in the modified circuit is then limited by the circuit resistance f o r periods u p to 40 milliseconds and by the protective elenlent f o r surges of longer duration, a s shown by curve D. Surge currents generally occur when the equipment is first turned on, or when unusual voltage transients are introduced in the a c supply line. Protection against excessive currents of this type can be provided in various ways, a s will be discussed later. Because these maximum current ratings a r e all affected by thermal variations, ambient-temperature conditions must be considered in the application of silicon rectifiers. Temperature-rating charts a r e usually provided to show the percentage by which maximum currents must be decreased f o r operation a t temperatures higher than normal room temperature (25C). age usually depends on the application. F o r a single-phase half-wave application using switching of the transformer primary and having no transient suppression, a rectifizr having a peak reverse voltage three o r four times the expected working voltage should be used. F o r a fullwave bridge using load switching and having adequate suppression of transients, a margin of 1.5 to 1 i s generally acceptable. Because of the small size of the silicon rectifier, excessive surge currents a r e particularly harmful to rectifier operation. Current surges m a y be caused by short circuits, capacitor inrush, dc overload, o r failure of a single cell in a multiple arrangement. I n t h e case of low-power cells, fuses o r circuit breakers a r e often placed in the a c input circuit to the rectifier to interrupt the fault current before i t damages the rectifier. When circuit requirements a r e such t h a t service m u s t be continued in case of failure of a n individual diode, a number of cells can be used in parallel, each with i t s own fuse. Additional fuses should be used in t h e ac line and in series with the load f o r protection against dc load faults. In high-power cells, an arrangement of circuit breakers, fuses, and series resistances is often used to reduce the amplitude of the surge current. Fusing requirements can be determined by use of coordination charts f o r the particular circuits and rectifiers used.
'
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
.-
SURGE DURATION - SECONDS
- f l ; . /
RC.4 rcrrificrs.
I n the application of silicon rectifiers, i t is necessary to guard against both over-voltage and over-current (surge) conditions. A voltage surge in a rectifier arrangement can be caused by dc switching, reverse recovery transients, transformer switching, inductive-load switching, and various other causes. The effects of such surges can be reduced by t h e use of a capacitor connected across the input or the output of the rectifier. I n addition, t h e magnitude of the voltage surge can be reduced by changes in the switching elements or the sequence of switching, or by a rcduction in the speed of current interruption by the switching elements. I n all applications, a rectifier having a more-than-adequate peak reverse voltage rating should be used. The safety margin f o r reverse volt-
SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENTS

Silicon rectifiers can be arranged in series o r in parallel to provide higher voltage o r current capabilities, respectively, a s required f o r specific applications. A parallel arrangement of rectifiers can be used when the maximum average forward current required i s larger than the maximum current rating of a n individual rectifier cell. I n such arrangements, however, some means must b e provided to assure proper division of current
82

resistors a r e used in steady-state applications, and shunt capacitors in a,pplications in which transient voltages a r e expected. Both resistors and capacitors should be used if the circuit is to be exposed to both dc ant1 ac components. When only a few diodes a r e in series, multiple transformer windings may be used, each winding supplying its own assembly consisting of one series diode. The outputs of the diodes a r e then connected in series f o r the desired voltage. RCA rectifier stacks (CR101, CR201, and CR301 series) a r e designed to provide equal reverse volta g e across the individual rectifier cells in the assembly under both steady-state and transient conditions. The CRlOl and CR301 series stacks include a n integral resistancec a ~ a c i t a n c enetwork to equalize the' rejerse voltage across the seriesconnected rectifier cells. Thd. CR201 series stacks use precisely matched rectifier cells f o r internal voltage equalization. Extended life tests have shown t h a t these rectifier stacks a r e capable of operating f o r many thousands of hours without noticeable degradation of performance.
through the parallel rectifier cells. Parallel rectifier arrangements a r e not in general use. Designers normally use a polyphase arrangement to provide higher currents, or simply substitute the readily available higher-current rectifier types. Series arrangements of silicon rectifiers a r e used when the applied reverse voltage is expected to be greater than the maximum peak reverse voltage rating of a single silicon rectifier ( o r cell). F o r example, four rectifiers having a maximum reverse voltage rating of 200 volts each could be connected in series to handle a n applied reverse voltage of 800 volts. I n a series arrangement, the most important consideration is t h a t the applied voltage be divided equally across the individual rectifiers. If the instantaneous voltage is not uniformly divided, one of the rectifiers may be subjected to a voltage greater than its specified maximum reverse voltage, and, a s a result, may be destroyed. Uniform voltage division can usually be assured by connection of either resistors or capacitors in parallel with individual cells. Shunt
Other Solid-State Diodes

I Ndescribed in the precedingrectifiers, addition to the silicon section,
a number of other types of solidstate diode devices a r e available f o r use in a broad variety of circuit applications.' ' F o r example, low-level rectifying diodes a r e widely used in signal-mixing, detector, and balanced-modulator applications. Such diodes, although they have significantly lo\ver voltage and current ratings, operate essentially the same a s the silicon rectifiers and a r e not discussed further. The emphasis in this section is on specialized types (i.e., tunnel, varactor, voltage-reference, and compensating diodes) t h a t a r e used primarily to provide functions other than rectification. not conduct current under conditions of reverse bias until the breakdown voltage is reached; under forward bias they .begin to conduct a t approximately 300 millivolts. I n tunnel diodes, however, a small reverse bias
TUNNEL DIODES
A tunnel diode is a slnall p-n junction device having a very high concentration of impurities in the p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. This high impurity density makes the junction depletion region (or space-charge region) so narrow t h a t electrical charges can transfer across the junction by a quantum-mechanical action called "tunneling." This tunneling effect provides a negative-~esistanceregion on the characteristic curve of the device that makes it possible to achieve amplification, pulse generation, and rf-energy generation.
Fig. 119-Tj~pical crtrretrt-volrage characrerisric of a tutrnel diode.
Characteristics Typical current-voltage characteristics for a tunnel diode a r e shown in Fig. 119. Conventional diodes do
causes the valence electrons of semiconductor atoms near t h e junction t o "tunnel" across the junction from the p-type region into t h e n-type region; as a result, the tunnel diode is highly conductive f o r all reverse biases. Similarly, under conditions of small forward bias, t h e electrons in the n-type region ''tunnel" across the junction to the p-type region and the tunnel-diode current rises rapidly to a sharp maximum peak I,. A t intermediate values of forward bias, the tunnel diode exhibits a negativeresistance characteristic and the current drops to a deep minimum valley point I,.. A t higher values of forward bias, the tunnel diode exhibits the diode characteristic associated with conventional semiconductor current flow. The decreasing current with increasing forward bias in t h e nega-

tive-resistance region of t h e characteristic provides the tunnel diode with its ability t o amplify, oscillate, and switch.

of the nenative-resistance slope permits the greatest signal swing. F o r high-temperature operation, a higher operating current is chosen; f o r low noise, the device is operated a t the lowest possible bias current. vice). I n tunnel rectifiers, however, substantial reverse current flows at very low voltages, while forward current is relatively small. Consequently, tunnel rectifiers can provide rectification a t smaller signal voltages than conventional rectifiers, although their polarity requirements a r e opposite. (For this reason, tunnel rectifiers a r e sometimes called $ "back diodes.")
Equivalent Circuit
In the equivalent circuit for a tunnel diode shown in Fig. 120, the ntype and p-type regions a r e s h o w ~a s l .I
" !
w r r v
TRANSITION REGION
Fig. 121-Eqviraletrr circrril for a lrr~trrel diode biased irr llte ttc~alive-resistalrce regiorr.
(1) it is the diode gain-bandwidth

L
C(V)
Fix. 120-Eqrrir~nletr~ circttic for a rrrrzrrel diode.
product f o r circuits operating in the linear negative-resistance region of the characteristic, and (2) its reciprocal is the diode switching time when the device is used a s a logic element.
Dure resistances r, and r,. The transition region is represented a s a voltage-sensitive resistance R ( v ) in parallel with a voltage-sensitive capacitance C ( V ) because tunneling is a function of both voltage and Junetion capacitance. This capacitance is similar t o t h a t of a parallel-~late capacitor having plates separated by the transition region. The dashed portion L in Fig. 120 represents a n inductance which results from the case and mounting the tunnel diode. This inductance IS u n i ~ ~ l p o r t a n t r low-frequency difo odes, but becomes i ~ ~ c r e a s i n g limy portant a t high frequencies (above 100 MHz). Fig. 121 shows t h e f0rnl of the equivalent circuit when the diode is biased s o that its operating point is in the negative-resistance region; dynamic characteristics of tunnel diodes a r e defined with respect to this circuit. Lqrepresents t h e total series inductance, and Ra the total scrics resistance. CD is the capacitance and -R,, is the negative resistance o f ' the diode. For small signal variations, both the resisbncc R D and the capacitance C,,arc constant. The ficrure of merit F of a tunnel cliorle is equal to the reciprocal of 2rRC. where R and C a r e the equivalent ialues -RD and Ca, rcspcctirely, s l ~ o ~ vin Fig. 121. This expression n has two very useful interpret a t 'Ions:
Operating Point
of
when the tunnel diode is used in such as amplifiers and oscill a t ors , the operating point be.' established in the negati v e-resistance region. ~h~ dc load line, shown a s solid line in ~ i 122, must be very ~ . steep so t h a t i t intersects the static characteristic curve a t only one point A. The ac load line can be either steep with only one i n t e r s e c t i o ~B, ~ as in the case of an amplifier, or relatively flat with three interseetions C, D, and E, as ill the case of an oscillator. l-he location of the opera ti ng point is determined by the anticipated simal swing, the signal-to-noise ratio, and the operatiI,g tenlperature of the device. Biasing at the centerof the linear portion
% -.
'I
F~X. ~22-Ty,)icctl
---
DC LOAD LINE
AC L O A D LINE
lour1 l i ~ r r .!or ~ttr~ttrl~ diode rircrrifs.
Radiation and Thermal Considerations One of the most important features of the tunnel diode is its resistance to nuclear radiation. Experimental results have shown tunnel diodes t o be a t least ten times more resistant to radiation than transistors. Because the resistivity of tunnel diodes is so low initially, i t is not critically affected by radiation until large doses have been applied. In addition, tunnel diodes a r e less affected by ionizI ing radiation because they a r e relaC ONVENT IO NAL I tively insensitive to surface changes 1 RECTIFIER TUNNEL 1 produced by such radiation. RECTIFIER I I n general, the tunnel-diode voltI age-current characteristic is relaI 1 J l tively independent of tenlperature. Specific tunnel-diode applications Fig. 123-C~rrretrr-voltage characrerisrics ]nay be affected, however, by the relof frrrurel rectifier o r ~ d conver~tional ative temperature dependence of the rectifier. various circuit components. I n such applications, negative feedback or Because of their high-speed capadirect (circuit) compensation may be bility and superior rectification characteristics, tunnel rectifiers can be required. used to provide coupling in one diTUNNEL RECTIFIERS rection and isolation in the opposite direction. Fig. 124 shows the use of In addition to its neaative-resistance properties, the tunnel diode has tunnel rectifiers to provide direcan efficient rectification character- tional coupling in a tunnel-diode istic which call be used in many logic circuit. rectifier applications. When a tunnel diode is used i n a circuit in such a way that this rectification property is emphasized rather than its negative-resistance characteristic, i t is called a tunnel rectifier. I n general, the peak current for a tunnel rectifier is less than one milliampere. The major differences in t h e current-voltage characteristics of tunnel rectifiers and conventional rectifiers are shown in Fig. 123. In conventional rectifiers, current flow is substantial in the forward direction, but catreniely small in the reverse direction (for signal voltages less than Fig: 124-Logic circrrir trsitzg a rutzrrel the breakdown voltage f o r the dediode and ~Izrec rrttrnel recrifiers.
'I
'i
---

VARACTOR DIODES
A varactor or variable-reactance
1)-n diode is a n ~ i c r o \ ~ a v e - f r e q u e ~ l c y junction solid-state device in which the depletion-layer capacitance 1,ears a nonlinear relation to the junction voltage, a s sho\vn in Fig. 125(a). When biased in the reverse direction, a varactor diode can be rcpreserlted by a voltage-sensitive capacitance C ( v ) in series with a resistance R., a s shown in Fig. 125(b). This nonlinear capacitance and low series resistance, which permit the device to perform frequency-nlultiplication, oscillation, and s\vitcliing functions, result from a very high impurity concentration outside the depletion-layer region and a relaFILTER

then1 useful a s stabilizing devices and a s reference sources capable of supplying extremely constant current loads.
87
mines a bias voltage which establishes t h e transistor idling current. This bias voltage shifts with varying temperature in the same direction and magnitude a s the transistor characteristic, and thus provides a n idling current t h a t is essentially independe n t of temperature.
COMPENSATING DIODES
Excellent stabilization of collector current f o r variations in both supply voltage and tenlperature can be obtained by the use of a colnpensating diode operating in the forward direction in the bias networlc of amplifier or oscillator circuits. Fig. 127 shows the transfer characteristics of a transistor; Fig. 128 shows the forward characteristics of a compensating diode. In a typical circuit, the diode is biased in t h e forward direction; the operating point is represented on t h e diode characteristics by the dashed horizontal line. The dioge current a t this point deter-
the varactor diode and flo\vs toward the load Z,.; another ideal filter is used in the output loop to bloclc the fundamental-frequency component of the input current. Varactor diodes can amplify signals when their voltage-dependent capacitance is modulated by an alter; nating voltage a t a different f r equency. This alternating,.- voltage supply, which is often referred to a s the "pump", adds energy to the sigVOLTAGE nal by changing the diotle capacitance in a specific phase relation with the stored signal charge so t h a t potential energy is added to this charge. Fi.?. 125-(n) C ~ p ~ r c . i ~ r r t ~ c e - ~rrl(rtiorr- ~ c ~ ~oltr~~ An "idler" circuit is gcnerally uscd n t ~ d ( 0 ) egrri\,aletrt cir-crrit Jor n 1,rrrnclor to provide the proper phase relationdiode. ship between t h e signal and the tively low concentration a t the "pu111p." junction. Very low noise levels a r e possible in circuits using varactor VOLTAGE-REFERENCE DIODES diodes because the dominant current Voltage-reference or zencr diodes across the junction is reactive and a r e silicon rectifiers in which the reshot-noise components a r e absent. Reactive nonlinearity, without an verse current remains small until appreciable series r e s i s t a ~ ~ c e con~po- the breakdown voltage is reached and then increases rapidly with little nent, enables varactor diodes to generate harmonics with very high ef- further increase in voltage. The brealtdown voltage is a function of ficiency in circuits such a s the shunttype frequency multiplier shown in t h e diode material and construction, Fig. 126. The circuit is driven by a- and can be varied from one volt to sinusoitlal voltage source V, having several hundred volts f o r various a fundamental frequency f and a n current and power ratinas, depending on the junction a r e a ant1 the method internal impedance Z.. Bccausr the ideal input filter i s a n open circuit of cooling. A stabilized supply can for all frcqucncics except thc funda- deliver a constant output (voltage or mental frequency, only the funda- current) unaffected by temperature, mental con~ponentof current i r can output load, or input voltage, within flow in the input loop. A second- given limits. T h e stability provided by voltage-reference diodes makes harmonic current i,r is generated by
p3
FORWARD DIODE VOLTAGE-mV
Fig. 128-Forward characteristics of cortlperlsatir~g diode.
BASE-TO-EMITTER
V L A Er V O T G -n
- -.
F i r . 127-1 rrorsler charoc~erisricsof trcrnsistor.
The use of a compensating diode also reduces t h e variation in transistor idling current a s a result of supply-voltage variations. Because t h e diode current changes i n proportion with the supply voltage, the bias voltage to the transistor changes in the same proportion and idling-current changes a r e minimized. (The use of diode compensation is discussed in more detail under "Biasing" in the section on Ripolar Transistors.
Receiver Tuner-Circuit Applications
Receiver Tuner-Circuit
AND DISCRIMINATOR
AMPLIFIER
SPEAKER
VIDEO
AMPLIFIER
PICTURE
W H E N speech, music, or video in- up by the radio receiver may contain formation is transmitted from either amplitude nlodulation (Ah[) a radio or television station, the or frequency modulation (FM). station radiates a modulated radiofrequency ( r f ) carrier. The function J 3 ~ t a t i 0 ~ either case, an>plifica+ In of a radio o r television receiver IS to the simply to reproduce the modulating tion prior by tuneddetector stage is performed amplifier circuits wave from the modulated carrier. frequency ,as. 6h"cri:wr i6'Pir: T B g L SLIIWT- designed for the proper conversion and bandwidth. Frequency heterodyne radio receiver picks up i s perfomled by mixer and oscillator t h e transmitted m o d u l a t ~ drf s i ~ n a l , or by a single amplifies i t and converts i t to a circuitsperforms both converter stage which miser osniodulated inter~nediate-frequency cillator functions. Separationand the of ( i f ) signal, amplifies t h e niodulated nlodulatinrz signal is nornlally acif signal, separates the modulating complished signal from the basic carrier wave, a detector by one or more diodes in o r discriminator circuit. and amplifies the resulting audio sigAmplification of the audio signal is nal to a level sufficient t o produce the by dcsirctl volume in a spenkcr. In ad- then perfor~ned one or more audio dition, the iecciver usually includes am lifier stages. (A%tlio 'arnpfisolnc means of producing automatic + 5 ~ & & l i 6 ~ u ~ a 7 ~fldi'cafitlnJ" gain control (agc) of t h e modulated &*qgcncg, signal before t h e audio information \ The operation of a television re&/ceiver & h 0 1 i ? i is separated from t h e carrier. is more complex The transmitted rf signal picked @&t&~Q*.?m
CIRCUITS
DEFLECTlON CIRCUITS
Fig.
130-Sitr1plified block diagranz
for a
lekl~isio~l receiver.
than that of a radjo receiver,+ ~ ~ ~ , c ~ 1 @ d

&3). 1f:.
DETECTOR
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
-
Fig. 129-Si111p1ific.d block dingra~r~ a Broadrosr-bond receiver. for
- The tuner section of the television receiver selects the proper rf signals f o r the desired channel frequency, amplifies them, and converts them to a lower intermediate frequency. As in a radio receiver, these functions are accomplished in rf-amplifier, mixer, and localoscillator stages. The if signal is then amplified in if-amplifier stages which provide the additional gain required to bring the signal level to an amplitude suitable f o r detection. After if amplification, the detected signal is separated into sound and picture information. The sound signal is an~plilicd and processed to provide a n audio signal which is fed t o an audio anlplifier system. The picture (video) signal is passed through a video n~nplifier ( - h. & e & Mifl-:.FmqBency : i$nq~li; &Q, ~vhichconveys beam-intensity information to the television picture tube and thus controls instantaneous "spot" brightness. A t the same time, deflection circuits cause the electron bcam of the picture tube to move the "spot" across the faceplate horizontally and vertically. Special "sync"
signals derived from the video signal i d assure t h ~ t the horizontal ~and vera . 9 ~ tical scanning a r e timed so t h a t the picture produced on the receiver exactly duplicates the picture being viewed by the camera or pickup t u b d tThe s y h c - a d .8eflection circuits a r e a s c r i b e d inpthe sectioh on T V h - ~ Aection:). In a television receiver, the video signal contains a dc component, and therefore the average carrier level varies with signal information. A s a result, the agc circuit is designed t o provide a control voltage proportional to the peak modulated carrier level rather than the average modulated carrier leveI. The time constant of the agc detector circuit is made large enough so that the picture content of the conlposite video signal does not influence the magnitude of the agc voltage. In addition, a n electronic switch i s often included in t h e circuit so t h a t i t can be operated only during t h e retrace portion of t h e scanning cycle. This "gated agc" technique prevents noise peaks from affecting agc operation.
DETECTION
The circuit of a radio, television, or communications receiver in which the

modulation is separated from the carrier is called the demotlulator or detector stage. Trans~uittcdrf signals nlay be modulated in cithcr of two ways. If the frequency of the carrier remains constant and its amplitude is varied, t h e carrier is called a n amplitude-modulated ( A M ) signal. If the amplitude remains essentially constant and the frequency is varied, the carrier is called a frequency-modulated (FFI) signal. The effect of amplitude modulation (12i11) on an 1.f carrier wave is shown in Fig. 131. The audio-
INPUT
;-+-),,y~~"T
AMPLITUDE-MODULATED RF WAVE

across the capacitor C varies in accordance with the rectified amplitude of the carrier and thus reproduces the af signal. Capacitor C should be large enough to smooth out rf o r if variations, but should not be so large a s to affect the audio variations. (Although two diodes can be connected in a circuit similar to a full-wave rectifier to produce full-wave detection, in practice the advantages of this connection generally do not justify the extra circuit cost and complication.) In the circuit shown in Fig. 132(a), it is often desirable t o forward-bias the diode almost to the point of conduction to improve performance f o r weak signal levels. I t is also desirable t h a t the resistance of the ac load which follows t h e detector be considerably larger than the diode load resistor to avoid severe distortion of the audio waveform a t high modulation levels. The basic diode detector may also be adapted to provide video-signal detection in black-and-white and color television receivers. Fig. 133 shows a n example of a diode type of video detector for a color television receiver. The video detector demodulates the if signal so that the luminance, chrominance, and sync signals a r e available a t the output of the detector circuit. A crystal diode with a n
SOUND TAKE-OFF
if filter is commonly used f o r this purpose. The video detector in a color receiver may employ a soundcarrier t r a p in its input. This t r a p attenuates the sound carrier and insures against the development of a n undesirable 920-kHz beat frequency which is the frequency difference between the sound carrier and the color subcarrier. When the sound carrier is attenuated in this manner, t h e sound take-off point is located ahead of the video detector. The effect of frequency modulation (FM) on t h e waveform of a n rf carrier wave is shown in Fig. 134. I n
Ib)
UNMODULATED HF CARRIER
Fig. 132-(11) Uasic tliotlc tfclrr~cror. circaif nrrtl ( h ) bcct~~clor~rr slron~ir~r: ~lrotlrrlnrerirl irrpttl (lip111 li~re) nrl(l ortrprtt vo/ra.ee (heavy /;tie) of diode-di>rcoor circ~tit.
A MPLI T U D E - M O D ULATED RF WAVE
UNMODULATED R F CARRIER
w
A f MODULATING
WAVE
Fir. 13l--ll'n1~c/or111.r slrowi~tg t~ljcr'l o f arrr~rlirtttle~ ~ ~ o d ~ t l a0r i oart r r f wave. 11 ~
frequency ( a f ) nlodulation can be extracted from the an~plitude-lnodulatetl carrier by means of a siniple diode detector such a s that shown in Fig. 132(a). This circuit eliminates alternate half-cycles of the waveform, and dctects the pcaks of the remaining half-cycles to produce t h e output voltage shown in Fig. 132(11). I n this figure, the rf voltage applied to the circuit is shown in light line; the output voltape across the caoacitor C is shown in heavy line. Retween points a and I) of Fig. 132(b), capacitor C charges up to the peak value of the rI voltage. Then, a s the appIied ~f voltage falls away from its peak value, the capacitor holds the cathode of the diode a t a potential Inore positive than the voltage applied to the anode. The capacitor thus temporarily cuts off current through the diode. While the
diode current is cut off, the capacitor discharges from b to c through the diode load resistor R. When the rf voltage on the anode rises high enough to exceed the potential a t which the capacitor holds the cathode, current flows again, and the capacitor charges up to the peak value of the second positive halfcycle a t d. In this way, the voltape across the capacitor follows the peak value of the applied rf voltage and reproduces the af modulating signal. The jaggedness of the curve in Fig. 132(b), which represents an rf component in the voltage across the capacitor, is exaggcrated in the drawing. In an actual clrcuit, the rf component of the voltage across the capacitor is small. When the voltage across the capacitor is amplified, the output of the a~nplifier reproduces t h e speech or music that originated a t the transmitting station. Another way to describe the action of a diode detector is to consider the circuit a s a half-wave rectifier. When t h e signal on the anode swings positive, the diode conducts and the rec- r tified current flows. The dc voltage I
I
F R E Q U E N C Y - M O D U L A T E D RF WAVE
F 6 . 134-Wnveforrrls sl~owitag effect of jreqltericy ~ttodrrlafiorton a ~ zrf wave.

TO
CARRIER
VIDEO AMPLIFIER
Fig.
133-Vitieo ticrector for v i s i o ~rccciver. ~
(1
color rrle-
this type of transmission, t h e frequency of t h e d carrier deviates from the mean value a t a rate proportional to the audio-frequency modulation and by an amount (determined in the transmitter) proportional to t h e amplitude of t h e af modulating signal. That is, the number of times the carrier frequency deviates above and below the center frequency i s a measure of t h e frequency of the modulating signal; t h e amount of frequency deviation from the center frequency i s a measure of the loudness (amplitude) of the modulating signal. For

The frequency of this audio voltage is determined by the modulation frequency of the F M signal, and the amplitude of the voltage is proportional to tlie frequency excursion from resonance. (The resistor R2in the circuit provides a dc return f o r t h e diodes, and also maintains a load impedance across the primary winding of t h e transformer.) the mutual coupling M, (this voltage addition may be made by either mutual o r capacitive coupling). Because of the phase-shift relationship of these voltages, the resultant detected signals vary with frequency variations in the same manner a s described for the phase-discriminator circuit shown in Fig. 135. However, the diodes in the ratio detector a r e placed "back-to-back" (in series, rather t h a n in push-pull) so that both halves of the circuit opera t e simultaneously during one-half of the signal frequency cycle (and a r e cut off on the other half-cycle). A s a result, t h e detected voltages El and Ez a r e in series, a s shown f o r the instantaneous polarities t h a t occur during the conduction half-cycle. When t h e audio output is taken between the equal capacitors CI and C2, therefore, t h e output voltage is equal to (Ez-B)/2 (for eaual resistors Rx and RI). The dc circuit of the ratio detector consists of a path through t h e secondary winding of the transformer, both diodes (which a r e in series), and resistors RIand R2. The value of t h e electrolytic capacitor C3 is selected so that the time constant of R1, Ri, and CJis very long compared t o the detected audio signal. A s a result, the sum of t h e detected voltages (El + E,) is a constant, and t h e AM components on the signal frequency a r e suppressed. This feature of the ratio detector provides improved AM rejection a s compared t o the phaseshift discriminator circuit shown in Fig. 135.
Bt
r i g . 13S-Bnlnrlced pltase-sltift discrirrri~raror circtcit.
this type of modulation, a detector is required to discriminate between deviations above and below the center frequency and to translate these deviations into a voltage having a n a m ~ l i t u d et h a t varies at audio frequencies. The FM dctector shown in Fie;. 135 is called a balanced phase-shift discriminator. In this detector, the mutually coupled tuned circuits in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer T a r e tuned to the center frequency. A characteristic of a double-tuned transformer is t h a t the voltages in the primary and secondary windings a r e 90 degrees out of phase a t resonance, and t h a t the phase shift changes as the frequency changes from resonancc. Therefore, the signal applied t o t h e diodes and the RC con~binationsf o r peak detection also changes with freqnency. Because t h e secondary winding of the transformer T is center-tapped, the applied primary voltage E, is added to one-half the secondary voltage E through the cap:icitor C,. The ,: addition of these voltages a t rcsonancc can be representcd by the diagranl in Fig. 136; the resultant volt-
a g e El is the signal applied to one peak-detector network consisting of one diode and i t s RC load. When the signal freqlrency decreases (from resonance), the phase shift of E.12 becon~es greater than 90 degrees, a s shown a t ( a ) in Fig. .137, and El becomes smaller. When the signal frequency increases (above resonance), t h e phase shift of E.12 is less than 90 degrees, a s shown at (b), and El becomes larger. The curve
Fig. 138-Dicrgrn~rr showirrg r.esrtltar~tvoltnjie E, it1 Fig. 136 o s a jrrtrc/iorr of ireqltolcy.
EP
EP
(a) (b) Fig. 137-Dinar-nrrr.r illrulrrctirrg pirose slJ;/f irr rio~rble-t~rrrcti tr(rtr~forrtrcr. h ~ ~ l o rcjfa1 lv orratrce ottd ( h ) abovc rrsotrartce.
of El a s a function of frequency in Fig. 138 is readily identified a s the response curve of an F M dctector. Because the discriminator circuit shown in Fig. 135 uses a push-pdl configuration, the diotles conduct on alternate half-cycles of the signnl frequency and produce a plus-andminus output with respect to zero rather than with respect to El. The primary advantage of this arrangement is t h a t there is no output at resonance. JVhen a n F h l signal is applied to tlie input, t h e audio outn u t voltare varies above and belolv - . i s . I - ; , , I ~ ~ I I ~ I .i~~ ~ i ; f I , zero a s tlic instantaneolls frequcnc~ ~ ir~dorrble-trtrrell rrnrr.rjor.rrrcr at rcsorrorrcr. varies above and below resonance.
1 -
One disadvantage of the balanced phase-shift discriminator shown i n Fig. 135 is that i t detects amplitude modulation ( A M ) a s well a s frequency modulation ( F M ) in the if signal because the circuit is balanced only a t the center frequency. At frequencies off resonance, any variation in amplitude of the if signal is reproduced to some extent in the audio output. The ratio-detector circuit shown in Fig. 139 is a discriminator circuit which has the advantage of being relatively insensitive t o amplitude variations in the F M signal:In this circuit, E, i s added to E,/2 through
rr
Fig. 139-Rutio-derecror
circltir.

loaded Q, or Q,, may be expressed in various ways, for example: TUNED AMPLIFIERS Ic - - - -Rp Xr. I n radio-frequency (rf) and Qo - R~ - xc intermediate-frequency (if) anrplifiers, the bandwidth of frequencies where XI. is the inductive reactance ( = 2 r f L ) , X, is the capacitive reto be amplified is usually only a small percentage of t h e center fre- actance ( = 1/[2nfC]), and R, is the quency. Tuned amplifiers a r e used total impedance of the parallel resoin these applications to select the nant circuit (tank) a t resonance. The desired bandwidth of frequencies and Q varies inversely with the resistance to suppress unwanted frequencies. of the inductor Rs.The lower the reThe selectivity of the amplifier is sistance, the higher the Q and the obtained by means of tuned inter- greater the difference between the tank impedance a t frequencies off stage coupling networks. resonance compared t o the tank impedance a t the resonant frequency. Resonant-Circuit The Q of a tuned interstage couCharacteristics pling network also depends upon the The properties of tuned amplifiers impedances of the preceding and foldepend upon the characteristics of lowing stages. The output impedance resonant circuits. A simple pariillel of a transistor can be considered as resonant circuit (sometimes called a consisting of a resistallcc R. in par"tank" because it stores energy) is allel with a capacitance C,, a s shown shown in Fig. 140. F o r practical pur- in Fig. 141. Similarly, the.input imp o s ~ s the resonant frequency of such pedance can be considered a s consist, ing of a resistance R I in parallel a circuit may be consitlered indejlendent of thc resistance R, providcd with a capacitance Ct. Because +.he R is small compared t o the inductive OVTPUT OF INPUT OF PRECEDING COUPLING FOLLOWING reactance XI.. The resonant freTRbNSISTOR NETWORK TRANSISTOR quency f, is then given by

the coupling network. F o r example, if the required capacitance between terminals 1 and 2 of the coupling network is calculated to be 500 picofarads and the value of C, is 1 0 picofarads, a capacitor of 490 picofarads is used between terminals 1 and 2 so that the total capacitance is 500 picofarads. The same method is used to allow for the capacitance CI a t terminals 3 and 4. When a tuned resonant circuit in the primary winding of a transformer is coupled t o the nonresonant secondary winding of the transformer, a s shown in Fig. 142(a), t h e effect of the input impedance of the following stage on the Q of the tuned circuit can be determined by considering the values reflected (or referred) to the primary circuit by transformer action. The reflected resistance rl is equal to the resistance RI in the secondary circuit times t h e square of the effective turns ratio between the primary and secondary windings of the transformer T:
95
=r
to the primary of transformer TI). The bandwidth of a single-tuned transformer i s determined by t h e half-power points on the resonance curve (-3 dB o r 0.707 down from
-- -
(a
PRECEDING TRANSISTOR
(b)
FOLLOWING
TRANSISTOR
(C)
FOLLOWING TRbNSISTOR
F o r any given resonant frequency. the product of L and C is a constant; a t low frequencies LC is large; a t high frequencies it is small. The Q (selectivity) of a parallel resonant circuit alone is the ratio of the current in the tank (11,or Ic) to the current in the line (I). This un-
2 Fig.
where NI/Nz represents the electrical turns ratio between the primary winding and the secondary winding of T. If there is capacitance in t h e secondary circuit ( . , i t is reflected C) to the primary circuit as a capacitance C.,,, and is given by
141-Eq11i~~nl~~111 (111d ot~tprtf i~rprrfcircrrirs of Ira~rsislorscorr~~rcred n cou6)' pling rterwork. tuned circuit is shunted by both the output impedance of the preceding transistor and the input impedance of the following transistor, the effective selectivity of the circuit is the loaded Q (or QI,) based upon the total impedance of the coupled network, a s follows: total loadinp; on 1 lcoil a t resonance J QL = XL o r XC The loaded Q, o r Ql., is then calculated on the basis of the inductance L,., the total shunt resistance (R. plus r~ plus the tuned-circuit impedance Zt = Q,Xc = Q..XL), and the total capacitance (C, C.,) in the tuned circuit. Fig. 142(b) shows a coupling network which consists of a singletuned circuit using mutual inductive coupling. The capacitance C, includes t h e effects of both the output capacitance of the preceding transistor and the input capacitance of the following transistor (referred
The capacitances C,, and CI in Fig. Fig. 140-Si~~rplc prrrallel reso~rarrlcirc~tif. 141 are usually considered a s p a r t of
Fig. 142-Eqrrivalent circitits for rransfornier-colrplirtg networks: (a) liaving tuned pri~tlarywinding; (b) usi~zginductive couplirrg; (c) using tap or1 prinrary winding. the maximum). Under these conditions, the band pass a f is equal to the ratio of the center o r resonant frequency f , divided by the loaded (effective) Q of the circuit, a s follows: Af = f J Q , The inherent internal feedback in transistors can cause instability and oscillation a s the gain of a n amplifier stage is increased (i.e., a s the load and source impedances a r e increased from zero t o matched conditions). A t low radio frequencies, therefore, where the potential gain of transistors is high, i t is often desirable t o keep the transistor load impedance low. Relatively high capacitance values in the tuned collector circuit can then be avoided by use of a t a p on the primary winding of t h e coupling transformer, a s shown i n Fig. 142(c). A t higher frequencies, the gain potential of the transistor decreases, and impedance matching is permissible. However, lead inductance becomes significant a t higher

frequencies, particularly in the emitt e r circuit. All lead lengths should b e kcpt short, therefore, and especially the emitter lead, which not only degrades performance but is also a mutual coupling to the output circuit. capacitance, and the typical value of device capacitance can generally be neutralized. A t a given frequency, therefore, the niaximunl usable power gain M U G of a neutralized circuit depends on the transconductance g,,, and the amount of internal feedback c a ~ a c i t a n c e In unneutralized CI. circuits, however, both socltct and stray capacitances a r c involved in the determination of gain and must be included in the value of Cr. The ratio of g,,, to Cr should be high to provide high power gain. Fig. 146 shows typical curves of MAG and RlUG (for both the neutralized and the unneutralized case) for a lowlevel rf transistor used in a commonemitter circuit.
1
I
Receiver Tuner-Circuit Applicatio

of noise figure N F a s a function of frequency is also shown in Fig. 143. Circuit design factors f o r lowest noise figure include use of a lownoise transistor, choice of optimum bias current and source resistance, and use of low-loss input circuits. Optinlun~low-noise bias current f o r most low-level rf transistors is about 1 milliampere, or slightly higher in the uhf range. Optimum source resistance is a function of operating frequency and bias current for a given transistor. Although maximum theoretical power gain cannot be achived in practical circuits, the gain of MOS transistors at high frequencies closely approximates the theoretical limit except f o r some losses in t h e input and output matching circuits. Power gain is essential pendent of channel width, w ich is a determining factor in the size of nlOS transistors. F o r example, if the width of the transistor is reduced by one half (and the steadystate drain current is similarly reduced to maintain a constant current density in the device), power gain remains the same because the transconductance, the input conductance, and the output conductance are all reduced by one half. Consequently, the frequency capability of MOS transistors can be increased by a reduction in their size. Thc input circuit to the first stage of the amplifier should have a s little loss a s possible because such loss adds directly to the otherwise attainable noise figure. I n other words, if the loss a t the input to the first stage is 2 dB, the amplifier noise figure will be 2 dB higher than could be achieved with no loss a t the input. To minimize such loss, it is generally desirable t h a t the ratio of unloaded Q (Q,<) to loaded & (QL) of the input circuit be high and that the bias resistors be isolated from the input by chokes or tuned circuits. In practical rf-amplifier circuits using MOS transistors, the best possible noise figures a r e obtained when the input impedance of the transistor
is slightly mismatched to t h a t of
the source. With this technique, noise figures a s low a s 1.9 dB have been obtained. Dual-gate MOS transistors typically exhibit a noise figure of 3.5 dB in the vhf range and of 4.5 dB in the uhf range. I n high-frequency tuned amplifiers, in which the input impedance is typically low, mutual inductive coupling may be impractical because of the small number of turns in t h e secondary winding. I t is extremely difficult in practice to construct a fractional p a r t of a turn. I n such cases, capacitance coupling may be used, a s shown in Fig. 144. This arrangement, which is also called capacitive division, is similar to
Gain and Noise Figure

In the design of low-lcvel tuned rf amplifiers, careful consideration must be given to the transistor and circuit parameters which control circuit stability, a s well a s those which maintain adequate power gain. The power gain of an rf transistor must be sufficient to provide a signal t h a t will overcome the noise level of succeeding stages. I n addition, if the signals to be amplified a r e relatively weak, i t is important t h a t the transistor and its associated circuit provide low noise figure a t the operating frequency. In communication receivers, the noise figure of the rf stage determines the absolute sensitivity of the receiver and is, therefore, one of the most important characteristics of the device used in the rf stage. The relative power-gain capabilities of transistors a t high frequencies a r e indicated by their theoretical maximum frequency of oscillation f ,,,,,. A t this frequency, the unilateralized matched power gain, or maximum available gain RIA(;, is 0 dB. As shown in Fig. 143, the curve of MAG a s a function of frequency f o r a typical rf transistor rises approximately 6 dB per octave below f,,,,. Because most practical rf amplifiers are not individually unilateralized, the power gain t h a t can be obtained is somewhat lcss than the MAG because of internal fecdback in thc circuit. This fecdback is grgater in unncutralized circuits than in neutralized circuits, and therefore gain is lower when neutralization is not used. From a practical consideration, the feedback capacitance which must be considered is the total feedback capacitance bet~vcen collector and base, including 1.wth stray and soclcct capacitances. I n neutralized circuits, stray capacitances, socket
TRANSISTOR
TRANSISTOR
FREQUENCY
I
Fig. 144-Sii~gle-lurrcd corrpling network usirlg capacitivedivisiorl.
I I 1 1 1111
I I I
ILLIJ~
FREQUENCY --C
Fk. 143-Af~sirrrrrrrr oroilohlc gtri~r M A G ,

rrraxirrrrtrrl rrsable gnirr M U G , orrd rroise figrrrc N F os frrrrctiorrs o f jr-eqrrericy.
tapping down on a coil a t o r near resonance. Impedance transformation in this network is determined by the ratio between capacitors C1 and C,. C a p a c i t o r C , is n o r m a l l y much smaller than C,; thus the capacitive is reactance XC, normally much larger than Xn. Provided the input resistance of the following transistor is much greater than XI.,, the effective turns ratio from the top of t h e coil to the input of the following transistor is (C, C,)/C,. The total capacitance Ct across the inductance L is given by
The transistor requirements for high power gain and low noisc figure are essentially thc same. Published data f o r transistors intcndcd for lowlevel rf applications generally indicate a minimum power gain and 3 maximum noise f i ~ u r cin a circuit typical of the intended use. A curve
The resonant frequency f , is then given by

Double-tuncd interstage coul~ling netu~orlcs a r e often used in prcference to singlc-tunctl nctworl:~ to provitle flat.ter frcqucncg rc.sl)onse within the pass band, a sharper drop in response imnlediately adjacent to pass band, o r more the cntls of t l ~ e attenuation a t frequencies f a r removed from resonance. I n synchronous double-tuned networks, both the resonant circuit in the input of the coupling networlc and the resonant circuit in the output a r e tuned to the same rcsollant frequency. I n "stagger-tuncd" networlts, the two resonant circuits a r e tuned to slightly different resonant frequencies to provide a more rectangular band pass with sharper selectivity a t the ends of the pass band. Double-tuned o r stagger-tuned networks nlay use capacitive, inductive, l or n ~ u t u a inductance coupling, or any combination of the three. voltage drop across R, is applied, through the filter R2and C,a s reverse
AGC VOLTAGE

a s high a s the audio range, but can vary rapidly a t frequencies high enough to compensate f o r most changes in signal strength. There are two ways in which automatic gain control can be applied to a transistor. I n the reverse agc method shown in Fig. 145, agc action is obtained by decreasing the collector o r emitter current of the transistor, and thus its transconductance and gain. The use of forward agc provides improved cross-modulation characteristics and better signalhandling capability than reverse agc. F o r forward agc operation, however, the transistor used must be specially designed so t h a t transconductance decreases with increasing enlitter current. I n such transistors, the current-cutoff characteristics are designed t o be more remote than t h e typical sharp-cutoff characteristics of conventional transistors. (All transistors can be used with reverse agc, but only specially designed types with forward agc.) Reverse agc is simpler to use, and provides less bandpass shift and tilt with s i ~ n a l - s t r e n g t h variations. The input and output resistances of a transistor increase when reverse agc is applied, but the input and output capacitances a r e not appreciably changed. The change in the loading of tuned circuits is minimal, however, because considerable mismatch already exists and the additional mismatch caused by a g c h a s little effect. I n forward agc, however, the input and output resistances of the transistor a r e reduced when the collector o r emitter current is increased, and thus the tuned circuits a r e damped. In addition, the input and output cal~acitanceschange drastically, and alter the resonant frequency of the tuned circuits. In a practical circuit, the bantlpass shift and tilt caused by forward agc can be compensated t o a large cxtent by the use of passive coupling circuits. transistorized tuner circuits, is produced when a n undesired signal within the pass band of the receiver input circuit modulates the carrier of the desired signal. Such distortion occurs when third- and higherodd-order nonlinearities a r e present in a n rf-amplifier stage. I n general, the severity of cross-modulation is independent of both the semieonductor material and the construction of the transistor (provided gain and noise factor a r e not sacrificed). A t low frequencies, cross-modulation is also independent of the amplitude of the desired carrier, but varies a s the square of the amplitude of the interfering signal. To measure cross-modulation distortion, it is necessary to determine the amplitude of the undesired signal which transfers one per cent of its modulation to the desired signal. I n most cases, a value of 100 millivolts o r more over t h e complete agc range is considered good. The cross-modulation characteristics of MOS transistors a r e a s good a s those of bipolar transistors in the high-attenuation region, and a r e a s much a s ten times better in t h e lowattenuation region (when t h e incoming signal is weak). This low cross-nrodulation distortion should ultimately lead to extensive use of MOS transistors in t h e rf stages of all types of communications receivers. I n most rf circuits, the undesirable effects of cross-modulation can be minimized by good selectivity in the antenna and rf interstage coils. Minimum cross-modulation can best be achieved by use of the optimum circuit Q with respect to bandwidth and tracking considerations, which implies minimum loading of the tank circuits. I n rf circuits where selectivity is limited by the low unloaded Q's of the coils being used, improved crossmodulation can be obtained by mismatching the antenna circuit ( t h a t is, selecting the antenna primaryto-secondary t u r n s ratio such t h a t the reflected antenna impedance at
IF STAGE
::.::3 rgO"
DETEcTo;.
AGC DIODE AUDIO OUTPUT
IR2
bias on the preceding stages. When the signal strength a t the antenna increases, therefore, the signal ap$!ied to the agc diode increases, the voltage drop across R I increases, the reverse bias applied to the rf and if stages increases, and the r a i n of the Automatic Gain Control rf and if stages is dccreasetl. A s a Automatic gain control (agc) i s result, the increase in signal strength oftcn used in rf and if an~plifiers in a t the antenna does not produce a s AM radio and television receivers t o much increase in the output of the provide lower gain f o r strong s i ~ n a l s last if-amplifier stage a s i t mould and higher gain f o r weak s i p ~ a l s . without agc. (In radio receivers, this gain-comWhen the sisnal strength a t the pensntion network may also be called antenna decreases from a previous alltomatic volunie control o r avc.) steady value, the agc circuit acts in When the signal strength a t the an- the opposite direction, applying less tenna changes, the agc circuit modi- reverse bias and thus permitting the fies the receiver gain so t h a t the out- rf and if gain to increase. put of the last if-anlplifier stage The filter composed of C and R3 remains nearly constant and conse- prevents the agc voltage from varyquently maintains R nearly constant ing a t an audio frequency. This filter speaker volume o r picture contrast. is necessary brcause the voltage The agc circuit usullly reduces the drop across R, varies with the nlodurf and if gain for a s t r o n ~ signal by lation of the carrier being received. varyinr the bias on the rf-amplifier If agc voltnge were talten directly :tnd if-amplifier staxes wllen the sig- from Rr without filtering, the audio nal increases. A simple rcvcrsc agc variations in agc voltage ~vould vary circuit is shown in Fig. 145. On each the receiver gain so a s to smooth positive half-cycle of the signal volt- out the modulation of the carrier. a ~ rwhen the diode anode is positive To avoid this effect, the a g r volt, with respect to the cathode, the cliode a r e is taken from the capacitor C. passes current. Recause of the flow Because of the resistance R, in series of diode current tl~roughR,, there is with C, the capacitor can charge :I voltage drop across ItI which makes and discharge a t only a con1parathe upper end of t h e resistor nega- tively slow rate. The agc voltage tive with respect to ground. This therefore cannot vary a t f rcquencies
Cross-Modulation Distortion
Cross-niodulation, a n important consideration in the evaluation of

RCA Tr?~nsistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual
the base of the rf anlplificr is very with the desired carrier, can occur lo\\, compared to the input imped- in either the rf stage o r the mixer. BIOS field-effect transistors a r e csance). This technique is comlnonly A used in nutonlobile rcceivcrs, and pccially suitable f o r use in F 1 rfcauses a slight degradation in noise amplifier and mixer stages because f i ~ u l e . A t high frequencies, such of their inherently superior spuriousa s in television, where low source im- response rejection properties and pedances a r e dificult to obtain be- signal-handling capal~ilities. When spurious response is crecause of lead inductance or the i~npracticality of putting a t a p on ated in the rf amplifier, it m:ly be a coil having one o r two turns, a n removed by improved filtering I x unl>ppassct~ emitter resistor having tween the rf amplifier and the mixer. a lorn value of resistance (ex., 22 The output of a n MOS-transistor rf ohms) may be used to obtain the amplifier is low in harmonics. As a result, the need for a double-toned same effect. Cross-modulation may occur in rf intcrstage transfor~ncris reduced the nlixer or rf amplifier, or both. and acceptable performance can usuAccordingly, it is important to ana- ally be achieved with single-tuned lyre tlic cntire tuner a s well a s thc circuits in both the antenna and 1.f indivitlual stages. Cross-modulation interstage sections. The dynamic-range c:il,al)ility of is nlso a function of agc. A t senAIOS field-effect transistors is a l ~ p ~ l t sitivity conditions where the rf stage is opcratinr a t masilnum gain 25 times greater than that of biand the interfering s i ~ n a lis f a r polar transistors. In an actual tuner rcnlovetl from the dcsirctl sirnal, circuit, this large intrinsii. dyna~nic range i s reduced by a factor proporcross-modulation occurs primarily in the rf stage. As the desirecl s i ~ n n l tional to the squ:\re of the circuit level increases and a r c is applied source impcdanccs. The net result to the rf stagc, the rf transistor gain is a practical dynamic range for decleases and provides improved RIOS tuner circuits a l ~ o u tfive times cross-modulation. If the interfering t h a t f o r l)ipolnr types. s i ~ n a is closc to the dcsirctl sirnal, it l With IIIOS field-elrect transistol.~, signal a s contrasted \vith either I~il,olar is the rf gain a t the und~sirctl flequcncy which dctennincs \vhcthcr transistors or junction-gate fieldthe rf stage o r miser stage is the effect transistors, there is 110 loadprime contributor of cross-modula- ing of the input signal, nor drastic tion. F o r example, i t i s possible t h a t change of input capacitance even the rf stage gain (including selec- under extreme overdrive contlitions. In junction-gate field-effect trantivity of tuned circuits) nt the unsistors, a largc inconling signal can desired frequency i s greatcr than have sufficiently high positive swing unity. In this case, the unt1esi1-ed signal a t the mixer input is l a ~ y e r to drive the gate into conduction by than t h a t a t thc rf input; thus the a momentary forward 11i;ls; power contribution of the rniscr is apprc- is then drawn from the input signal just a s if a resistance were p1:iced cial)l~.Intermediate and hicli signal across the input circuit. In bipolar conditions may bc analyzetl similarly transistors, there is a gratlual change by considering rf agc. If adequate limiting is clnployed, of both input impcrlnnce nnd input cross-modulation docs not occur in cap:icitance as a function of large signal excursions. Thcsc changes are an F h I signal. Spurious-response clla~.acicristics undesirable hccausc they can result are an important considcration in in detuning of tuned circuits and the evaluation of transistorized FRI uridening of thc input selectivity tuner circuits. Like cross-modulation, curve. Fig. 146 shows the basic circuit spurious response, a n cmcct caused by the mixture of unwanted signals configuration f o r the "front-end"
Fig. 146-Circrril
diagrctrrr oJ FM rrrrrer rrsi~rfidrml-gore MOS rrnirsislors ir~/Ire r'f n~rrplifier arrd mixer stages.
stages of a n F M tuner that uses dual-gate-protected MOS field-effect transistors in both the rf-amplifier and mixer stages. A bipolar transistor is used in the local-oscillator stage. The detailed schematic diagram and functional description of a practical circuit of this type a r e given in the Circuits section a t the back of this Manual. Selection of appropriate source and load impedances for the rf stage should also taltc into consideration the fact that achievement of a low spurious response requires that the gate of the NOS transistor be tapped as f a r down on the antenna coil a s gain and noise considerations permit. This arrangement maltes possible optimum use of the available dynamic range of the MOS transistor. The dual-gate nIOS transistor is very attractive for use in mixer service because the two signals to
be mixed a r e applied to separate gate terminals. This arrangement is a n effective technique f o r reduction of oscillator radiation. In the circuit shown in Fig. 146, the signal frequency is applied to gate No. 1 of the mixer transistor and the localoscillator input to gate No. 2. Figs. 147 and 146 show F M tuner circuits t h a t use bipolar transistors only. The n-p-n silicon transistors used a r e characterized by very low feedback capacitance, low noise, and high useful power gain, and feature a terminal arrangement in which the base and emitter terminals a r e interchanged to provide maximum isolation between the base and collector terminals. Although this basing configuration does not appreciably change the measured device-feedback capacitance, it does allow 'reduction of the collector-tobase capacitance due t o external circuitry.

La1)oratory results indicate t h a t although tuners using thrcc tuned circuits (including the oscillator tank) perform extremely ~vcllwith rcrard to ~ a i n ,noisc, nnd rejection of ccrtain highcr-order sl,ut.ious responses, the addition of another tuncd circuit provides truly superior performance with regard to the attenuation of all spurious responses including image and the troublesome "half-if." Figs. 147 and 148 each show the schematic diagram of a four-coil tuner designed around bipolar transistors. The dc conditions of both circuits are identical. The rf-stage transistor operates in the commonemitter configuration a t a n emitter current of 1.5 milliamperes. This configuration offers the hichest stable gain a t FBI frequencies; the operating point specified was between chosen a s a con~pron~ise noise, gain, and spurious response rejection. The mixer transistor operates in a common-emitter configuration a t 1.5 milliamperes. The oscillator transistor operates in the common-collector configuration a t

Because the I H F (Institute of H i ~ hFidelity) sensitivity has developed into a n important requirement and because a low value of IHF sensitivity is determined in part by noise pcrform:ince, a circuit, Fia. 148, has been designed t h a t improves the noise performance and yet maintains a high degree of rejection of spurious responses. I t is Neither of the four-coil tuner circuits shown in Figs. 147 and 148 uses a 10.7-MHz if t r a p because the need f o r such a t r a p is eliminated with t h e use of the inductively tapped transformer. A choice of first if transformer is offered. One version employs a capacitance-tapped secondary, a s shown in Figs. 147 and 148; the
. approximately 25 milliamperes and provides approximately 28 n~illivolts of injection voltage to the mixer hase. The common-collector configuration was chosen because i t offers the grc!atest frccluency stal)ility with respect to changes in voltage and temperature. Also, if recommcndcd wiring practices a r e adhered to, the use of the common-.collector oscillator minimizes higher-order spurious responses. In Fig. 147, the antenna coil is double-tuned, and thus provides better selectivity characteristics ahead of the rf stage than a singletuned transformer under the same impedance-matching condition. By using coils with unloaded, mounted Q's of 100, sufficient selectivity is realized so t h a t a t signal levels up to 200 millivolts there a r e no spurious responses within the F M frequency band. One disadvantage of double-tuned transformers is the coupling loss associated with them. Noise performance is degraded from t h a t obtained when single tuning is enlployed in the antenna coil by exactly the coupling loss of the double-tuned coil.
Fig. 148-Four-coil FM troler with doubk-tuned rj transjormer.
*L_-Lp
B '
F ~ E 147-Fortr-coil .
4-
Fbf lltrlcr with dortble-tuned nntelttta tro~rsforrrrer.
felt that although high selectivity ahead of the rf stage is desirable, i t is not essential. Laboratory tests indicate t h a t the mixer is primarily responsible for spurious generation and that i t is more important to maintain low drive to the mixer base and to have adequate selectivity ahead of it. Because the over-all gain from antenna to mixer base must be kept low enough f o r spurious immunity, and sufficiently high (10 to 15 d B ) to mask mixer noise, i t is clear that all of t h e available maximum usable gain is not needed. A t a sacrifice of some gain, therefore, the selectivity characteristics of the double-tuned rf transformer can be improved by decreasing the coupling. I t is assumed t h a t if harmonics a r c generated in the rf stage, they will be adequately attenuated by the rf transformer. With a singletuncd antenna coil, circuit noise performance is improved for the reasons described.
other has a n inductively tapped secondary. Electrically, both transformers a r e identical. A limiter circuit is essentially a n if-amplifier stage designed t o provide clipping a t a desired signal level. Such circuits a r e used in F M receive r s to remove AM components from the if signal prior to F M detection. The limiter stage is normally the last stage prior to detection, and is similar to preceding if stages. A t low input rf signal levels, i t amplifies the if signal in t h e same manner a s preceding stages. A s the signal level increases, however, a point is reached a t which the limiter stage i s driven into saturation (i.e., the peak currents and voltages a r e limited by the supply voltage and load impedances and increases in signal produce very little increase in collector current). A t this point, t h e if signal is "clipped" (or flattened) and further increases in rf signal level produce no further output in if signal t o the detector.
104

battery is used to provide all t h e dc operating voltages f o r the transistor. Resistors RI, R3, and R, provide the necessary bias conditions. Resistor R2 is the emitter stabilizing resistor. The conlponents within the dotted lines comprise the transist o r amplifier. The collector shuntfeed arrangement prevents dc current flow through the tickler
Limiter stages may be designcd to provide clipping a t various inputsignal Icvels. A high-gain Fnl tuner is usually designed to limit a t very low rf input signal levels, ant1 possibly even on noise signals. Atlditionar A M rejection may be obtained by use of a ratio detector f o r the frequency discriminator.
amplifier powcr gain 1)ccomcs less t h a n u n i t y , oscillations become sl~iallerwith time (are "da~nped") until they cease to exist. In prartical oscillator circuits, powcr gains greater than unity a r c rcquirctl because the power output is divided between the load and thc fced1)ack network, a s shown in Fig. 149. The feedback power must be equal to the input power plus t h e losses in the OSCILLATION feedback network to sustain oscillaIlipolar and field-effect transistor tion. ( A number of the oscillator ciroscillator circuits are sirnilar in cuits shown in the following sections many respects to the tuned anlplifi- on LC Resonant Feedback Oscillaers discussed previously, except that tors and Crystal Oscillators employ a portion of the output power is re- bIOS field-effect transistors. Alturned to the input network in though only single-gate. types a r e phase with the starting power (re- shown in these circuits, the configugenerative o r positive fcedbarl<) to rations a r e equally applicable for use sustain oscillation. DC bins-volt:~ge with dual-gate 'devices. In such aprequirements f o r oscillators are plications, the dual-gate hlOS tra.nsimilar to those discussed for am- sistor. is connected a s shown in Fig. plifiers. 58 to provide pcrfornlance suhstanThe maximum operating frcqucncy tially equivalent t o t h a t provided by by the single-gate device.) of an oscillator circuit is lin~ited the frcqucncy capability of the transistor used. The maximbm frequency LC Resonant Feedback of oscillation of a transistor is deOSC~II~~O~S fined a s the freauency a t which the power gain is unity. Because some The frequency-detcsn~ining elcpower gain is required in an oscillator circuit to overcome losses in the mcnts of an oscillator circuit may feedback network, the operating consist of an inductance-capacitance frequency must be some value below (LC) network, a crystal, or a rcsistthe transistor maximum frequency ance-capacitance (RC) network. An LC tuned circuit may be placed in of oscillhtion. F o r sustained oscillation in a tran- either the base circuit or the collecsistor oscillator, the power gain of tor circuit of a com~non-emitter tranthc amplifier nctwoslc must 1)c cqual sistor oscillator. In the tuned-base to or greater than unity. When the oscillator shown in Fig. 150, one
A
Fig. 151-Tuned-collector oscillaror.
L
Fig.
-------
I50-Ttrned-base
oscillator.
. I
FEEDBAC
POWER
INPUT POWER
OUTPUT POWER
1 1 9 Fig. 149-Block tliograril of trrrtr~isfor oscillator sholvirrg divisiorr o/ olrfprrt power.
(primary) winding of transformer T. Feedback is accomplished by the mutual inductance between the transformer windings. The tuned circuit consisting of the secondary winding of transformer T and variable capacitor C, is t h e frequency-determining element of the oscillator. Variable capacitor Cl permits tuning through a range of frequencies. Capacitor G couples the oscillation signal to the base of the transistor, and also blocks dc. Capacitor C4 bypasses t h e ac signal around the emitter resistor R, and prevents degeneration. The output signal is coupled from the collector through coupling capacitor C3 to the load. A tuned-collector transistor oscillator is shown in Fig. 151. In this circuit, resistors RI and % establish the base bias. Resistor R, is the emitter stabilizing resistor. Capacitors C, and C, bypass ac around resistors R1 and R?, respectively. The
tuned circuit consists of the primary winding of transformer T and the variable capacitor Cs. Regeneration is accomplished by coupling the feedback signal from transformer winding 3-4 t o t h e tickler coil winding 1-2. The secondary winding of the transformer couples the signal outp u t to the load. Another form of LC resonant feedback oscillator is the Hartley oscillator. This oscillator makes use of split inductance to obtain feedback and may be either shunt o r series fed. In t h e shunt-fed circuit of Fig. 152, R1, Rz, and R. a r e the biasing resistors; the frequencydetermining network consists of
"E
OUTPUT
Fig.
152-Sl11tr1t-fcd Hartley
oscillator.

variable capacitor C, in series with circuit is dependent the windings of TI. The frequency of the t a p on the of the oscillator is varied by CI; C2 feedback results in is the dc blocking capacitor and C., nal voltage a t the is an ac bypass capacitor. The circuit inductance fullctions in the manner of a n auto transformer and provides the regenerative feed1)aclc signal obtained from the voltage induced 'in the lower half of the tmnsfornler winding and coupled through C, t o the transistor base. No dc current flows through the primary of T, because the collector is shunt fed through R?. In the series-fed Hartley circuit shown in Fig. 153, the base-emitter circuit is biased through R, and Rz; on the position coil. Too little a feedback s i p gate insuflicicnt
"D

RI develops the emitter input signal and also acts a s the emitter stabilizing resistor. Capacitors C1 and C, form a voltage divider; the voltage developed across CI is the feedback voltage. The frequency and t h e amount of feedback voltage can be controlled by adjustment of either or both capacitors. For minimum feedback loss, the ratio of the capacitive reactance between C, and CJ should be approximately equal t o the ratio between the output impedance and the input impedance of the transistor. F i a 156 shows the field-effect transistor in use in two forms of the Colpitts oscillator circuit. These circuits a r e more commonly used in vhf and uhf equipment than the Hartley circuits because of t h e mechanical difficulty involved in making the tapped coils required a t these frequencies by the Hartley circuits. Feedback is controlled in the Colpitts oscillator by the ratio of t h e capacitance of C' to C". Fig. 157, the gate-tickler-feedback oscillator circuit, and Fig. 158, the drain-tickler-feedback oscillator
to sustain oscillation; too nluch feed-. back causes the impedance between source and drain to become so low that t h e circuit becomes unstable. Output from these circuits can be obtained through inductive 'coupling t o the coil or through capacitive coupling to the gate. Another form of LC resonant feedback oscillator is the transistor version of the Colpitts oscillator, shown in Fig. 155. Regenerative feedback is obtained from the tuned circuit consisting of capacitors CI
Fig. 153-Series-fed Hartley oscillator..
~ V D,a,
" D '
(b)
Fig. 157-Gate-tickler-leedback oscillator circrtils.
circuit, have no particular advantages over the Hartley and Colpitts circuits except t h a t in some designs
the collector is biased t h r o a g l ~the upper half of the transformer mindings. Again, a s in the shunt-fed circuit, C1 provides an ac bypass. Feedback in the series-fed Hartley circuit is obtained from the lowerhalf of the transformer windil~g and is coupled through C, to the hase of the transistor. The center-tap of the transformer \ v i n d i ~ ~is maintained g a t ac ground potential by C:. F i r . 151 shows two arrangements of n H:~rtleyoscillator circuit using 310s field-effect transistors. Circuit ( a ) uses a bypassed source resistor to provide proper opc~,ating conditions; circuit (I)) uses a gate-leak resistor and biasing diode. The amount of feedback in cithcr
(bl
Fig. 158-Drain-tickler-feedback oscillator circuits.
and C, in parallel with the primary winding of thc transformer, and is applied to the enlitter of the transistor. Base bias is provided by & resistors F and R2.Resistor R, is the collector load resistor. Resistor
i t may be more economical to provide a tickler winding than the tapped coil o r capacitive divider required in . t h e Hartley o r Colpitts circuits, respectively. A Clapp oscillator is a modification of the Colpitts circuit shown in Fig. 155 in which a capacitor is added in series with the primary winding of the transformer to improve frequency stability. When the added Fb. I5G-Colpitts oscillator circuits rrsit~g capacitance is small compared to MOS transistors. the series capacitance of C, and C,,
108
RCA Trans;istor, Thyristor, & Diode M a n u a l

both thc crystal and cxtcrnally connected circuit elements. Increased frequency stability can I)c obtainctl in the turicd-collector and tuned-base oscillators discussed previously if a crystal is used in the feedback path. The oscillation frequency is then fixed by the crystal. At frequencies above and below the series resonant frequency of the crystal, the impedance of the crystal increases and t h e feedback is reduced. Thus, oscillation is prevented a t frequencies other than the series resonant frequency. The parallel mode of crystal rcsonance is used in the I'irrcc oscillator shown in Fig. 160. (If the c ~ y s t a l were replaced by its equivalent cirC4

The field-effect transistor also operates ~ v e l l in crystal oscillator c.irr.uits srlch ;IS thc Picrcc-typc oscillators shown in Fig. 161. Pierce oscillator a r e extremely popular because
109
the oscillator frequcncy is dclermined by the series LC conilination of the transformer primary and t h e addcd capacitor.
Crystal Oscillators
A quartz crystal is often used a s the fre q uency-determining element in a transistor oscillator circuit bccausc of its extremely high Q (narrow 1)andwidth) and good frequency stability over a given temperature rangc. A quartz crystal may be operatcd a s either a scries or parallel resonant circuit. As shown in Fig. 150, the clcctrical equivalcnt of the nieclianical vibrating characteristic of the crystal can be represented by a resistance R, an inductance L, and a capacitance C. in series. The lowest impedance of the crystal occurs a t tlie series resonant frequcncy of C, and L ; the resonant frequcncy of the circuit is then determined only by the mechanical vibrating characteristics of the crystal. The parallel capacitance C,, shown in Fig. 159 represents t h e elertrostatic capacitance between the crystal electrodes. A t frequencies above t h e
/:is. 161-Pierce-tjpc
crystal oscillrttor circrtils rtsi~rgM O S tra~~sistors.
Fig.
160-Pierce-type tra~rsistor crystal oscillator.
cuit, the functioning of the oscillator would be analogous to t h a t of the Colpitts oscillator shown in Fig. 155.) The resistances shown in Fig. 160 provide the proper bias and stabilizing conditions f o r the coninion-emitt e r circuit. Capacitor C, i s the Fig. 159-Eqiri~alort circrrir nl qltarrz emitter bypass capacitor. The recrystal. quired 180-degree phase inversion of scrics resonant frequcncy, the com- the feedback signal i s acconiplishcd bination of L and C. h a s thc cffect through the arrangement of the voltof a net inductance because the m- age-divider network C2 and Cx. The ductive reactance of L is greater connection between the capacitors is than the capacitive reactance of C.. grounded so t h a t the voltage tleThis net inductance forms a parallel veloped across C3 is applied betmcen rcsonant circuit with C,, antl any cir- base and ground antl a 180-degree c u i t capacitance across the crystal. The oscilphase reversal is obtai~letl. The impedance of the crystal is lating frequcncy of thc circuit is dehighest a t the parallel resonant f r e - termined by tlie crystal and the capacitors connected in parallel with quency; the resonant frequency of the circuit is then deternlincd by it.
of their si~nplicity and minimum number of components. A t frequencies below 2 MHz, a capacitive voltage divider may be required across thc crystal. The connection between the voltage-divider capacitors must be grounded so t h a t t h e voltage developed across the capacitors is reversed in phase by 180 degrees. I t is frequently desirable to opera t e crystals in communications equipment a t their harmonic o r overtone frequencies; Fig. 162 shows two circuits designed f o r this purpose. Additional feedback is obtained f o r the overtone crystal by the use of a capacitive divider a s the tuned-circuit bypass. Most third-overtone crystals operate satisfactorily \vithout this addit,ional feedback, but the extra feedback i s required for the 5th and 7th harn~onics. The tuned circuit in Figs. 1G2(a) and 1G2(b) is not fully bypassed and produces a voltage t h a t aids oscillation. The crystal in both circuits is connected to the junction of the capacitors C,,' and C.,"; t h e ratio of these capacitors should be approxinlately 1:3. The circuit of Fig. 1G3 operates well with low-frequency quartz bars. The crystal is located in the feedback circuit between the sources of
Fi.q. 162-Crystal oscillator circuits per~ i ~ i ~ tope ratio^^ at overtone or harmonic i~lg jreqrte~rcies.
lbl
t h e two field-effect transistors and operates in t h e series mode. Capacitor C? is normally used f o r precise adjustment of t h e frequency of the
VD
Fig. 163-Low-jreqllency crystal oscillator M circuit ~tsitlg O S transistors.
110
RCA Tranisistor, Thyristor, & Diode M a n u a l

cations transmitters, frequency multiplication i s often used to raise the frequency of the developed rf signal. In a radio or television rcceiver, the oscillating and mixing functions a r e performed by a nonlinear device such a s a diode or a transistor. A s shown in the diagram of Fig. 165,
INTERMEDIATE-
Receiver Tuner-Circuit Applications AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL

An :iutomatic frequency control (afc) circuit is often used to provide automatic correction of the oscillat o r frequency of a superheterodyne receiver when, f o r any reason, i t drifts from the frequency which produces the proper if center frequency. This correction is made by adjustment of the frequency of the oscillator. Such a circuit automatically compensates f o r slight changes-in rf carrier or oscillator frequency, a s well a s f o r inaccurate manual o r push-button tuning. An afc system requires two sections: a frequency detector and a variable reactance. The detector section may be essentially the same a s the F M detector illustrated in Fig. 120. In the afc system, however, the output i s a dc control voltage, the magnitude of which i s proportional to the amount of frequency shift. This dc control voltage is used t o control the bias on a transistor o r diode which con~prisest h e variable reactance. Automatic frequency control i s also used in television receivers t o keep the horizontal oscillator in step with the horizontal-scanning frequency a t the transmitter. A widely used horizontal afc circuit i s shown in Fig. 166. This circuit, which i s often referred t o a s a balancedphase-dcteetor or phase-discriminator circuit, is usually employed t o control the frequency of t h e horizon-
111
oscillator; a reduction in tile cnpacitance increases the frequency slightly.
RC Feedback Oscillators
A resistance-capacitance ( R C ) network is sometimes used in place of an inductance-capacitance net\vork in a transistor oscillator. In the phaseshift oscillator shown in Fig. 164, the ILC network consists of three sections (C,K,, C2R2,and CJKI), each of which contributes a phase shift of 60 tlegrees a t the frequency of oscillation. Because the capacitive reactance of the network increases or decreases a t other frequencies, the 180-degree phase shift required for the common-emitter oscillator occurs only a t one frequency; thus, the output frequency of the oscillator is fixed. Phase-shift oscillators may be
e
OSCILLATOR
Fig. 164-Trartsirtor RC plinre-s11iJf oscillator.
made variable over particular frequency ranges by the use of ganged variable cnpacitors or resistors in the RC networks. Three or more sections must be used in the phaseshifting networks to reduce feedback losses. The use of more sections contributes to increased stability.
FREQUENCY CONVERSION
Transistors can be used in various types of circuits to change the frequency of a n incoming signal. In radio and television receivers, frequency conversion is used to change the frequency of the rf signal to a n intermediate frequency. In communi-
two voltages of different frequencies, the rf signal voltage and the voltage' generated by the oscillator, a r e applied to the input of the mixer. These voltages "beat," o r heterodyne, within the mixer transistor to produce a current having, in addition to the frequencies of the input voltages, numerous sum and difference frequencies. The output circuit of the mixer stage is providcd with a tuned circuit which i s adjusted to select only one beat frequency, i.e., the frequency equal to the difference between the signal frequency and the oscillator frequency. The selected output frequency is known a s the intermediate frequency, or if. The output frequency of the mixer transistor is kept constant f o r all values of signal frequency by tuning of the oscillator circuit. I n AM broadcast-band receivers, t h e oscillator and mixer functions a r e often accon~plishedby use of a single transistor called a n "autodyne converter". In FM receivers, stable oscillator operation is more readily obtained when a separate transistor is used f o r the oscillator function. In such a circuit, the oscillator voltage is applied to the niixer by inductive coupling, capacitive coupling, or a combination of the two.
tal-oscillator circuit. The detector diodes supply a dc control voltage t o the horizontal-oscillator circuit which counteracts changes in i t s operating frequency. The magnitude and polarity of t h e control voltages a r e determined by phase relationships in the afc circuit. The horizontal sync pulses obtained from t h e sync-separator circuit a r e fed through a phase-inverter or phase-splitter circuit to t h e two diode detectors. Because of t h e action of t h e phase-inverter circuit, the signals applied to the two diode units a r e equal in amplitude b u t 180 degrees out of phase. A reference sawtooth voltage obtained f r o m t h e horizontal output circuit i s also applied simultaneously to both units. The diodes a r e biased so t h a t conduction takes place only during t h e tips of the sync pulses. Any change in the oscillator frequency alters the phase relationship betwen t h e reference sawtooth and the incoming horizontal sync pulses, and t h u s causes one of t h e diodes to conduct more heavily t h a n the other so t h a t a correction signal is produced. The system remains unbalanced a t all times, therefore, because moment a r y changes in oscillator frequency a r e instantaneously corrected by the action of this control voltage. The network between t h e diodes and the horizontal-oscillator circuit i s essentially a low-pass filter which prevents the horizontal sync pulses f r o m affecting the horizontal-oscillat o r performance.
"
FROM PHASE
INVERTER^ 0-I(
REFERENCEVOLTAGE FROM HORIZONTAL OUTPUT CIRCUIT
--,,
DC CORRECTION VOLTAGE TO -HORIZONTAL OSCILLATOR
AN'
or phase-discrir~~inator circuit for horizontal afc.
F i g . 166-Balatrccd-phase-deteclor
Low-Frequency Amplification
nus st also take steps to assure reliable operation of the audio amplificr under varying conditions of signal level, frequency, ambient temperature, load impedance, line voltage, and other factors which may subject the tra ns istors to either transietlt or steady-state high stress levels. L ~ w - ~ o s t low-power audio , systenls (such a s those used in mobile and TV output stages), in which high operating emciency is not all important consideration, usually employ a single-ended, class A, transformer-coupled output stage such a s t h a t shown in Fig. 167.
113
low-level output transducers such as microphones, hearing-aid and phonograph piclrup devices, and recorderreproducer heads.
tranTIIE amplifying action of a ways sistor can be uscd in various in electronic circuits, depending on the ~ ~ c s u l desired. The four recogls ~lizctl classes of amplifier service can be defined for transistor circuits a s follows: A class 11 amplificr is an amplifier in which the basc bias and alter~~ating signal a r c such t h a t collector currcnt in a transistor flows continuously during the con~plctcelectrical cycle of the signal, and even l when no s i ~ n a is present. A class AIj aniplilier is an amplifier in which the Imse bias and alternating signal a r c such t h a t collector current in a transistor flows f o r nppreciahly more than half but less than the entire electrical cycle. 11 class 1% an111lifieris an amplifier In ~vhichthe base is biased to ap. proximately collector-curre11 cutoff, t so that collector current is npprosiniately zero when no signal is applied, arid so t h a t collector currcnt in a transistor flows for approximately one-half of each cycle when a n alternating signal is applied. A class C a n ~ l ~ l i l i isr a n amplifier e in which the basc is biased t o such n degree that the collcclor current in a transistor is zero when no signal is applied, and so tllnt collector currcnt in a tmnsistor flows for appreciably less tlinn onc~-halfof each cycle when a n alternntii~gsignal is applied. For ratlio-frequency ( r f ) nn~plifiers which operate into sclcctive tuned circuits, such :IS Lhc Tuned Arnplificrs discussed in the section on Recciver Tuner-Circuit Apn1ic.ntioris, 01. f o r other rnnl~1ifiei.s in which distortion is not a I)I iinc
factor, any of the above classes of amplification may be used \vith cither a single transistor or a pushpull stage. For audio-frequency ( a f ) amplifiers in which distortion is an important factor, single transistors can be usctl only in class A amplifiers. For class AB or class 13 autlioamplifier service, a l~alancctl nmplifier stage using two transistors is required. A push-pull stage cm1 d s . ~ be used in class A audio amplifiers to obtain reduced distortion and greater power output. Class C amplitiers cannot be used for audio o r A M applications.
AUDIO AMPLIFIERS
Audio amplifier circuits are uscd in radio ant1 television receivers, public address systems, sound recorders ant1 reproilucers, and similar applications to amplify signals in the frequency range from 20 to 20,000 Hz. Each transistor in an audio amplifier can be consideretl a s either a currcnt amplifier or a power amplifier. The type of circuit configuration selected is dictated by the requirements of the given application. T11c output power to be supplied, the required se~rsitivity and frequency response, and the maxin~uni distortion limits, together with the capal,ilities and lin~itations availof able devices, a r e the niain criteria uscd to determine the circuit that will ~,rovidethe desired performance most efficiently and econon~ically. I n addition to the consideration that must bc given to the ncl~ieve111ent of pcrforinanc:e objectives and the selcctio~iof the optintwn c:i~,cl.lit configuration, the circuit desi!:ner
Noise Figure--One of the important characteristics of a lowlevel amplifier circuit is its signalto-noise ratio, o r noise figure. The input circuit of a n amplifier inherently contains some thermal noise contributed by the resistive elements in the input device. All resistors generate a predictable quantity of noise Power a s a result of thermal activity. This power is about 160 dB below one watt f o r a bandwidth of' 10 kHz. When an input signal is amplified, therefore, the thermal noise generated in the input circuit is also amplified. If the ratio of signal INPUT power to noise power (S/N) is the Oj same in the output circuit as in t h e UTPIJT input circuit, the amplifier is considered to be "noiseless" and i s said to have a noise figure of unity, or zero dB. In practical circuits. however. the ratio i f signal power to noise pbwer is inevitably impaired during amplification a s a result of t h e generation of additional noise in the circuit elements. A measure of the degree of Fix. 167-Typicnl low-power a~idio-a111pli- impairment is called the noise figure fier circlcit. ( N F ) of t h e amplifier, and is exThe input to a n audio amplifier pressed a s t h e ratio of signal power is a low-power-level audio signal to noise power a t the input (Sl/NI) from the phonograph o r magnetictape picltup head or, in a radio re- divided by the ratio of signal power to noise power a t the output (So/No), ceiver, from the detector stage a s indicated in Fig. 129. This signal a s follows: is usually amplified through a preamplifier stage, one or more low-level (pre-driver o r driver) audio stages, The noise figure in dB is equal to and a n audio power amplifier. The system may also include frequency- ten times t h e logarithm of this selective circuits which act a s equal- power ratio. F o r example, a n ampliization nctworlts and/or tone con- fier with a I-dB noise figure decreases the signal-to-noise ratio by trols. a factor of 1.26, a 3-dB noise figure by a factor of 2, a 10-dB noise figure Low-Level Audio Stages by a factor of 10, and a 20-dB noise Si~npleclass A amplifier circuits figure by a factor of 100. are norn~ullyused in low-level audio In audio amplifiers, i t is desirable and stages such a s ~~renmplifiers that the noise figure be kept low. I n drivers. Prealnplifiers usually follow general, the lowest valoe of N F is
114

can I)e recordcd on a p11onogral)h record or on magnetic tape depend on several factors, including tlie composition, niechanical characteristics, and speed of the rccord or tapc, and the electrical and mcchanical characteristics of the recording equipment. To achieve wide frequency and dynamic range, manufacturers of con~niercialrecordings use equipn~cnt which introduces a nonuniform relationship between atnplitude and frcqucncy. This rclationship i s known a s a "recording characteristic". To assure proper reproduction of a high-fidelity record in^, therefore, some part of the reproducing system nlust have a frequency-response characteristic which is the inverse of the recordinr characteristic. Most manufacturers of high-fidelity recordings usc the RIAA characteristic for discs :tnd " the NARTB characteristic for magnetic tape. The siniplest type of equalization network is shown in Fig. 1 0 . Because the capacitor C is effectively an open circuit a t low frequencies, thc low frequencies must be passed through the resistor R and a r e attenuated. The capacitor has a lower reactance st high frequencies. how-
put current, and can be applied to either the input voltage or the input current. A negative feedback signal proportional t o t h e output current raises the output impedance of t h e amplifier; negative feedback proportional to the output voltage reduces the output impedance. A negative feedback signal applied to the input current decreases the input impedance; negative feedback applied to t h e input voltage increases the input impedance. Opposite effects a r e produced by positive feedback. A simple negative o r inverse feedback network which provides highfrequency boost is shown in Fig. 170.
obtained by usc of an e n ~ i t t c rcurrent of less than one milliampere and a colIector voltage of less than two volts for a signal-source resistance bctwecn 300 and 3000 ohms. If the input impedance of the transistor is matched to the in~pedance the sigof nal source, the lowest value of N F t h a t can bc attained is 3 dB. Gcncrally, the best noise figure is oblainetl by use of a transistor input impedance approxinlately 1.5 timcs the source impedance. However, this condition is often not realizable in practice because lnnny transducers a r e reactive rather than resistive. I n addition, other requ'ircments such a s circuit rain, signal-handling capability, and reliability may not permit opti~i~ization r noise. fo In the simple low-level amplifier s t a r e shown in Fig.. 168, resistor R I
be reproduced and on t h e pickup devices used. All commercial pickup devices provide very low power levels to a transistor preamplifier stage. A ceramic high-fidelity phonograph pickup is usually designed to provide proper compensation f o r t h e RIAA recording characteristic when the pickup i s operated into the load resistance specified b y its manufacturer. Usually, a "matching" resist o r is inserted in series with the.input of tlie preamplifier transistor. However, this arrangement produces a fairly small signal current which must then be amplified. If t h e matching resistor is not used, equalization is required, but some improvement can be obtained in dynamic range and gain. A magnetic high-fidelity phonograph pickup, on t h e other hand, usually has a n essentially flat frequency-response characteristic. Because a pickup of this type merely reproduces the recording characteristic, i t must be followed by a n equalizer network, a s well a s by a preamplifier having sufficient gain to satisfy the input requirements of the tone-control amplifier and/or power amplifier. Many designs include both the equalizing and amplifying circuits in a s i n ~ l e unit. A high-fidelity magnetic-tape pickup head, like a magnetic phonograph oped across the load resistor R=. The pickup, reproduces t h e recording collector voltage and the emittcr curcharacteristic. This type of pickup rent a r c kept relativclg low to retluce STAGE STAGE device, therefore, must also be Iolthe noise figure. If the load in~pcdance across the capacitor C= is low riK,]69-Sirlrp/c~ RC ~ r c q l l c l t c l - c ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ lolvcd by a n equalizing network and ~ ~ preamplifier to provide equalization compared to R., very little \,oltage snriorr rrcrn~ork. for the NARTB characteristic. swing results on the collector. ThereFeedback networks niay also be fore, ac feedback through R I (loe? not receive ncgligil)le attenuation. ~ 1 1 ~ s used for frequency compensation and cause much reduction in gain. ' the network ef(ectively "l~oosls" the for retluction of distortion. Basically, high frequencies. This type of equiiliEtlualization-In many cnscs, lo\\a feetlhack network returns a porIrvel amplifier stages used :IS prc- . zation is called "attenuative." tion of the output signal to the input amplifiers inclutle solne typo of Some typical prca~llplificr stages circuit of an amplifier. The feedback frctl~rcncy-conlpe~~sotion ~retn.orlc to are shown in the Circuits section. signal niay be returned in phase with enhance either the low-frequcncy or Thc location of the frcqucncy-comthe input sirnal (positive or retlic high-frequency components of pensation network o r "equalizer" in generative feedback) or 180 degrees the input signal. The frequency the reproducing systcni depends on out of phase with the input signal range and dynamic rango':' wllicli thc types of recordings which are to (negative, inverse, or degenerative * T h e d y n a m i c rnnfic or a n n n ~ p l i f i c r is n m r n s u r v of its s i c n : ~ l - h ; ~ n # l l i nrnlrnbilits. T l ~ e c dynnn>ic r:>ngc cxprcsscs i n d l \ tllc m t i n of t h e m n x i m u m u:;:i\)lc ( I I I ~ I I L Is~i ~ n : l l I L . c ~ P ~ : I I I Y fectlbacl~).I n either case, the feedn s f o r n distortion of nbout 10 per crnf 1 t o tllp r n i n i l n ~ ~ l us;lLle o u t l ~ u t i p n n l (ccnr.r:~lls f o r back can bc made proportional to a siannl-to-n'sisc ~ n t i o nbuut 20 rll31. A rlynnmic r n n m of 4 0 clLI is uslinlly accrptnblc: n I,T v n l ~ ~ c 70 $113 in rxceptional flbr nny nutlio e s ~ t e m . of either the output voltage or the out-
Fig.
STAGE
170-Negative-feedback frequencycor~~pct~sation network.
This network provides equalization comparable to that obtained with Fig. 1G9,but is more suitable f o r low-level amplifier stanes because i t does not require the first amplifier stage t o provide high-level low frequencies. I n addition, the inverse feedback improves the distortion characteristics of the amplifier. Input Impedance-As mentioned previously, i t is undesirable t o use a high-resistance signal source for a transistor audio amplifier because the extreme impedance mismatch results in high noise figure. High source resistance cannot be avoided, however, if an input device such a s a ceramic pickup is used. In such cases, the use of negative feedback to raise the input impedance of the amplifier circuit (to avoid mismatch loss) is no solution because feedback cannot improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the amplifier. A more practical method is to increase the input impedance somewhat by operating the transistor a t the lowest practical current level and by using a transistor which has a high forward current-transfer ratio.
116

reactance of Cs a t the highest audio frequency.
A
Yolurne nrtd Tone ControlsSomc preamplifier or lo\\.-levcl audio n~lipliliercircuits inclutle v m i ahlr resistors or pott~ntio~nctel~s which function a s volume or tone contl.ols. Such circuits shoultl be tlcsigl~ctl to minimize tllc flow of dc currc!nts t h r o u ~ l ithese controls so thnt little 01. 110 uoisc nfill I)c devc1opc.d 1, thc s movable contact during the life of the circuit. 'Jolumc! controls and tllrir associatcd circuits should pcrmit variation of gain from zero t o maximunl, ant1 should attcnuntc all frrqucvlc,irs equally for all positions of the varial)le arm of the control. Several cxalnplcs of volun~e cont1.01~ 311d totic controls a r e shown in the Circuits srction. A tonc control is a variable filtcr ( o r one in which a t lcast one element is adjustable) by means of \vhich the user may vary the frequency response of a n amplifier to suit his own taste. I n radio reccivcrs and home a~ilplifiers,the tonc control usually consists of a rcsistancc-capncitn~lcc ~ictworlc which the resistance is the in varinblc clc~nent. The simplest form of tonc conlrol is a "trel)lc cut" networlc such a s t h a t sl~own in Fig. 171. As JI, is ~natlesmaller, the capacitor C? 1)s.])nsscs ~ n o r cof the high audio frcquencics; t.herefore, the output of t h c nctwork is dccreascd by an amount dependent upon the value of R,. The rcsistancc of R , should be very largc in comparison to the
7
BASS CUT
117
R z
~ i , p . /73--~irrrp/i/ieri ,rpr.esrrrrntior~s o f boss-corrtrol circrrit crt rstrettle e r ~ d s f poo tcr~tiortrctcr.
The tone-control network shown in Fig. 172 has two stages with completely separate bass and treble controls. Fig. 173 sllo\\~s simplified rcprcscntations of t h e bass control whcri the potentiometer is turned t o its extreme variations (labeled COOST and CUT). A t vcry high frequencies, C, ant1 C2 a r e cffcctively short circuits and the network becomes the s i ~ n p l ev o l t a ~ ctlividcr It, and R,. In the bass-boost position, It., is inserted in series with R2 so t h a t there is lcss attenuation to vcry low frequencies than to very high frequencies. Therefore, the bass is said to be "boosted". In the bass-cut position, R. is inserted in series with Rl so t h a t there is more attenuation to very low frcqucncics.
TREBLE
Fig. 174 shows extreme positions of the treble control. R; is generally much larger than R, o r Ra and m a y be treated a s a n onen circuit in t h e extrcmc positions. i n both the boost and cut positions, very low frequencies a r e controlled by the voltage divider Ri and Ra. In the boost position,
TREBLE BOOST
"
corporates negative feedback, t h e tone control must be inserted in a p a r t of the amplifier which is external t o the feedback loop, or must be made a p a r t of the feedback network. The over-all gain of a well designed tonecontrol network should be approximately unity. The system dynamic range should be adequate f o r all frequencies anticipated with the tone controls in a n y position. The highfrequency gain should not be materiall y affected a s the bass control is varied, nor should the low-frequency gain be sensitive to the treble control.
Driver and Output Stages

Driver stages in audio amplifiers a r e located innnediately before t h e power-output stage. When a singleentled class A output stage is used, the driver stage is similar to a preamplifier stage. When a push-pull output stage in which both transistors a r e the same type (n-p-n o r p-n-p) is used, however, the audio driver must provide two output signals, each 180 degrees out of phase with the other. This phase requirement can be met by use of a tappedsecondary transformer between a single-ended driver stage and t h e output stage, a s shown in Fig. 175.
TREBLE CUT
Fir. 174--Sitrrpli/icd reprcserltafiorrs o f trcblc-cotrtrol circrrit ot cxtrctrre crrds o f porcrrtiotrreler.
1
,
BASS
,
B+
CUT
1
I
R , is bypassed by the high frequencies and the voltage-divider point D is placed closer to C. In t h e cut position, Its is bypassed and there i s greater attenuation of t h e high frequencies. The frequencies a t which boost and cut occur in the circuit of Fig. 172 a r e controlled by the values of C,, C?, C,, and Cr. Both the output impedance of the driving stage (generally R 1 . , ) and the loading of the driven stage affect the response curves and must be considered. This tone-control circuit, like the one in Fig. 171, is attenuative. Feedback tone controls may also be employed. The location of a tone-control network is of co~~sidcrable importance. I n a typical preamplifier, i t may be in the collector circuit of the final low-level stagc or in the input circuit of the first stage. If the amplifier in-
Fip. 175- Driver stage for plrsll-prtll olttp ~ t tcirclrir.
The transformer T, provides t h e required out-of-phase input signals for the two transistors Q , and Qr in the push-pull output stage. Transistor audio power amplifiers may be class A single-ended stages,
118
values for TIshould be 20 ohms to 3.2 ohms. The total input power to the circuit of Fig. 176 is equal to the voltage required across the secondary winding of the driver transformer T, times the current. The driver signal current is equal to the base current (10 milliamperes peak, o r 7 milliamperes rnm). The peak ac signal voltage is nearly equal to the sum of the base-to-emitter voltage across the transistor (0.4 volt a s determined above), plus the voltage across RE (0.G volt), plus the peak ac signal voltane across R, (10 milliamperes times 12 ohms, o r 0.12 volt). The input voltage, therefore, i s about one volt peak, o r 0.7 volt rms. Thus, the total a c input power required. to produce a n output of 4 watts is 0.7 volt times 7 millialnperes, o r 5 milliwatts, and the input impedance is 0.7 volt divided by 7 milliamperes, or 100 ohms. H i g h e r power o u t p u t c a n b e achieved with less distortion in class A service by the use of a push-pull amplifier. One of the disadvantages of a transistor class A amplifier (single-ended o r push-pull), however, is t h a t collector current flows a t all times. As a result, transistor dissipation is highest when no ac signal is present. This dissipation can be greatly reduced by use of class B push-pull operation. When two transistors a r e connected in class B push-pull, one transistor amplifies half of the signal, and t h e other transistor anlnlifies the other half. These half-sknals are then combined in the output circuit to restore t h e original waveform in a n amplified state. ~ Ideally, transistors used in class B ~ ~ ~ ~ push-pull service should be biased to collector cutoff so t h a t no power is dissipated under zero-signal conditions. A t low signal inputs, however, the resulting signal would be distorted, a s shown in Fig. 177, because of the low forward currenttransfer ratio of the transistor a t very low currents. This type of dis-
119
tortion, called cross-over distortion, can be suppressed by the use of a bias voltage which permits a small collector current flow a t zero signal level. Any residual distortion can be further reduced by the use of negative feedback.
OUTPUT COLLECTOR CURRENT
or class A, class AB, or class B push-pull stages. A simple class A single-ended power amplifier is shown in Fig. 176. Conlponent v:~lucs which will provide the desired power output can be calculated from the
to the 0.6-ampere collector current.) The current through resistor Ra should be about 10 to 20 per cent of the collector current; a typical value i s 15 per cent of 0 5 , o r 90 milliamperes. The voltage from base to ground is equal t o the base-to-emitter voltTO SPEAKER age (determined from the transistor transfer-characteristics curves f o r the tlesired collector or emitter current; normally about 0.4 volt f o r a germanium power transistor opernting a t a n emitter current of 600 milliamperes) plus the emitter-to-ground voltage (0.G volt a s described above), o r one volt. The voltage across Rz, transistor characteristics and the therefore, is 14.5 minus 1, o r 13.5 supply voltage. For example, a n out- volts. The value of RI m u s t equal put of four watts may be desired 13.5 divided by 90, o r about 150 ohms. Because the voltage drop across from a circuit operating with a supply voltage of 14.5 volts (this volt- the secondary winding of the driver age is normally available in auto- transformer TI is negligible, the vole: mobiles which have a 12-volt ignition age drop across R, is one volt. The system). If losses a r e assumed to he current throughmR,equals the curnegligible, the power output (Po) rent through R, (90 milliamperes) is equal to t h e peak collector volt- minus the base current. If the dc age (e,) times the peak collector forward current-transfer ratio (beta) current (i.), each divided by the of the transistor selected has a typisquare root of two to obtain rms cal value of 60, the base current values. The peak collector current equals t h e collector current of 600 can then be determined a s follows: milliamperes divided by 60, or 10 milliamperes. The current through R1 is then 90 minus 10, o r 80 milliamperes, and the value of R, is 1 volt divided by 80 milliamperes, or about 12 ohms. The transformer requirements a r e - 4 (2) li x (2)"? determined from the a c voltages and 14.5 currents in t h e circuit. The peak collector voltage swing that can be = 0.55, or approximately used before distortion occurs as a 0.6 ampere. result of clipping of the output voltIn class A service, the dc collector about age iscurrent 13 volts. The peak coland the peak swing l ec t or swing available before a r e about the samecurrent cutoff occurs is the dc curlector voltage and current a r e 14.5- r e n t of milliamperes. ~ h "its and ampere, the collector load impedance s h o ~ ~ l d The the re- be 13 volts divided by 600 rnillisistor R E in Fig. 176 usually ranges amperes, or about 20 ohms, and the Om3 a output transformer T should be de, 0.6 volt can be assumed. The value a 20-0hm primary of RK must equal the O.G-volt drop divided by the 0.6-amnere emitter impedance to the desired speaker imcurrent, or one ohm. he emitter pedance. If a 3.2-ohm speaker is current is assumed to be nearly equal used, f o r example, the impedance
Fig., 177-Waveforms showing cause of cross-over distortion.
A typical class B push-pull audio amplifier is shown in Fig. 178. Resistors RE,and Rn a r e the emitter stabilizing resistors. Resistors R, and R, form a voltage-divider network which provides the bias for the transistors. The base-emitter circuit is biased near collector cutoff so t h a t
Fig. 178-C1o.r~ B prtsl~-~rrll altdio-ar,lplifier circuit.
&
'2
-11
"cc
120

transistors slightly above cutofr undcr no-signal conditions ant1 thus minimizes cross-over distortion. The cniilter resistors R , , antl I<,, hell) to compcnsatc for ditfcrenccs 1)ctwecn trarisistors and f o r the elfccts of anl1)icnt-ten~pcraturevariations. T h e secondary windings of any shoultl be class B driver t r a ~ ~ s f o r m c r bililar-wound (i.e., wo~untl together) t o obtain t i g h t e r coupling and thereby minimize leakage inductance. Othcrwisc, "ringing" may occur in the cross-over region a s a rcsult of the cnergy storetl in the leakage inductance. Decause junction transistors can be made in both p-n-p and n-p-n typcs, they can bc uscd in contl)lementary-symmetry circuits to obtain all the atlvantages of conventional push-pull amplifiers plus direct coupling. The arrows in Fig. 180 indicate the dircction of electron current flow in the terminal leads of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors. When these
p- n- p
circuits of the transistors. In the circuits of Figs. 179 and 181, essentially no steady-state current flows through the load rcsistor Rr.. Therefore, the voice coil of a loudspeaker can be connected directly in place of RI. without excessive speaker cone distortion. The true complementary amplifier, shown in Fig. 182, is the simplest of all complementary circuits. I t s features include a single One way to avoid the high cost of power p-n-p transistors is to employ a quasi-complementary circuit such a s t h a t shown in Fig. 183. In this type of circuit, a low-current
vcry littlc collector powcr is tlissipatcd undcr no-signal conditions. The charactcristics of t h c hias nctworlc must ltc vcry carefully clloscn so t h a t the bias voltage will be just s u f l i c i c ~ ~ t minimize cross-over tlisto tortion a t low signal Icvcls. J3ecausc t h e collector current, collector disslpation, and clc operating point of a transistor vary with ambient ten]perature, a tempcraturc-sensitive rcsistor (such a s a tl~erniistor) or a bias-compensating diode may be used in the biasing netmorlc to minimize the effect of temperature variations. The advnntages of class R pushpull operation can be obtained without the need f o r an output transformer by use of a circuit such a s t h a t shown in Fig. 179. In this circuit, the secondary wintlings of the driver transformer T, a r c pliasctl so t h a t a negative signal from basc t o cmittcr of o11c transistor is accompanied by a positive signal from
.,
CLASS
Jm
=VCC
p 3
Fig. 183-Quasi-cor~rple,t1c~aryarriplificr.
Fig. I82-Tr~ce-con~plorrerltary atirplifier.
Fig. 180-Electt-otr-crrrrrrlr arrd rr-p-11 tr-artsistors. it1 1,-tr-I> floiv
R ~ 2'4
Fig. 179-Sirrgle-etrtled
class B cir-crril.
two transistors a r e connected in a single stage, a s shown in Fig. 181, t h e steady-state electron current path in the output circuit is conlpleted through the collector-emitter
base to emitter of thc other transistor. When a negative signal is applied to the base of transistor (la, f o r example, Q , draws currcnt. This c u r r e n t must flow t h r o u ~ h the load because t h e accompanying positive signal on t h e base of t m n nal polarity S Qz off. transistor r sistor Q2 C L I ~reverses, When thc s iQ, is c u t od, \vliile Q: conducts cui-rent. The resistive dividers R,R, and R,R, provide a dc bias which liccps the
l G q y
C -
-=- Vccl
~ l g .181- Basic cot~rplcllletl~nrl-s~lll~trc~rry CI~CI(I~.
=+ C C ~ V
driver transistor, a single diode for bias, antl the application of turn-off drive to the output devices. Because i t requires a class A driver and both p-n-p and n-p-n output devices and has high standby current, the truecomplementary design i s seldom used f o r power-output levels in excess of 25 w a t t s rms. The class A driver stage shown in Fig. 182 requires t h e use of a large heat sink. The p-n-p power device in the complementary output stage is more expensive and has lower safe-area ratings than i t s n-p-n equivalent. Because control of base diffusion is more difficult in p-n-1) devices, these types a r e generally 25-per-cent costlier than comparable n-p-n types.
p-n-p transistor is directly coupled t o a high-current n-p-n transistor t o simulate a high-current transistor, a s shown in Fig. 184. The advantages of quasi-complenlentary amplifiers include improved safe a r e a f o r the n-p-n outp u t transistor, lower cost, and t h e use of class B drivers. The major disadvantages a r e the need f o r two driver transistors and two bias diodes, and the absence of turn-off drive to the output transistors. Because t h e advantages f a r outweigh t h e disadvantages f o r high-power amplifiers, quasi-complementary circuits a r e generally used a t power levels above 25 w a t t s rms. The highfrequency response of such circuits can be improved by use of bleeder resistors in the base circuits of t h e output transistors.
122

not vary more than 1 dB over the entire audio spectrum. General practice i s to design the amplifier so t h a t its frequency response is flat within 1 dB from a frequency well below the lowest to be reproduced to one well above the upper limit of the audible region. IIarmonic distortion and intermodulation distortion p r o d u r e changes in program material which may have adverse effects on the quality of the reproduced sound. Harmonic distortion causes a change in t h e character of a n individual tone by the introduction of harmonics which were not originally present in the program material. F o r highfidelity reproduction, total harmonic distortion (expressed a s a percenta g e of the output power) should not be greater than about 0.5 per cent, a t the desired listening level. Intermodulation distortion is a change in t h e waveform of a n individual tone a s a result of interaction with another tone present a t the same time in the program material. This type of distortion not only alters the character of the modulated tone, but may also result in the generation of spurious signals at frequencies equal to the sum and difference of the interacting frequencies. Intermodulation distortion should be less than 2 per cent a t the desired listening level. I n general, any amplifier which has low intermodulation distortion will have very low harmonic distortion. The mnxinrum power output which a high-fidelity amplifier should deliver depends upon a complex relation of several factors, including the size and acoustical characteristics of t h e listening area, the desired listening level, and the eficiency of the loudspeaker system. The noise level and maximum output power determine the range of volu~ne amplifier is able to reprothe duce, i-e., the difference (usually expressed in dB) between the loudest and softest sounds in program material. Because the greatest volunle range utilized in electrical program
material a t the present time i s about 60 dB, the noise level of a highfidelity amplifier should be a t least 60 dB below the signal level at the desired listening level. The design of audio equipment f o r direct operation from the a c power line normally requires the use of either a power transformer o r a large voltage-dropping resistor to reduce the 120-volt ac line voltage to a level that is appropriate f o r transistors. Both of these techniques have disadvantages: The use of a transformer adds cost t o the system. The use of a dropping resistor places restrictions on t h e final packaging of the instrument because t h e resistor must dissipate power. I n addition, lowvolta~e supplies a r e usually more expensive to filter t h a n high-voltage supplies. The use of high-voltage silicon transistors eliminates the need f o r either a power transformer or a highpower voltage-dropping resistor, and permits the use of economical eircuits and components in line-operated audio equipment. Several ac/dc circuits using these high-voltage transistors a r e shown in the Circuits section. The basic class A audio output stage shown in Fig. 185 is essentially of the same design a s the class A amplifier discussed previously. Because the supply voltage is much higher, however, the currents a r e ahout one-tenth a s high and the impedances about 100 times a s high. The use of a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR) a s a damping resistor across the primary winding of the output transformer in Fig. 185 protects the output circuit against the destructive effects of transient voltages t h a t can occur under abnormal conditions. If the VDR were not used, the peak collector voltage under transient conditions could be a s high as five to ten times the supply voltage, o r f a r in excess of the breakdown-voltage rating f o r the transistor. Because the resistance of t h e VDR varies directly with voltage, its use limits the transient voltage to safe levels b u t does not degrade overall circuit performance.
In both true-complement:~ry and quasi-con~plementary circuits, the output devices do not need. to be well matched f o r beta. These circuits are essentially voltage amplifiers used in a n emitter-follolver configuration t h a t has a voltage gain of nearly unity which varies only sli~htly with transistor beta. In the higher-power quasi-complementary amplifier, the effect of beta is even less important because a Darlingtonconnected stage is used. The basic requirement is t h a t a minimum current gain be maintained from mininlum to maxitnun~drive.
EFFECTIVE EMITTER
Fig. 185-Basic audio-output stage for lineoperated equipment.
Fig. 186 shows another effective method for protection against transient voltages. I n this arrangement,
DRIVER
(O)
EFFECTIVE COLLECTOR
EFFECTIVE.
EMITTER
Fig. 186-Alternate mefhod for proleclion against transient vobages.
(b)
EFFECTIVE COLLECTOR
Several high-fidelity anlpliflcrs a t e shown in the Circuits section. The performance capabilities of such amplifiers are usually given in terms of frequency response, total harmonic distortion, maximurll power output, and noise level. To provide highfidelity reproduction of audio proKranl material, a n alnplificr should have a frequency response which does
the output transformer is replaced b y a center-tapped transformer and a silicon rectifier t h a t h a s a peakreverse-voltage rating of 300 t o 400 volts. The peak voltage across t h e output is thus limited to a value which does not exceed twice the magnitude of the supply voltage. A s t h e collector voltage approaches a value equal to twice t h e supply voltage, t h e voltage a t the diode end of the transformer becomes sufficiently negative to forward-bias the diode and t h u s clamp t h e collector voltage. T h e required transformer primary impedance is generally about 10,000 ohms center-tapped; in addition, it i s recommended t h a t a bifilar winding be used to minimize leakage inductance. Because the arrangement
124
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual Low-Frequency Amplification

When the input signal is positive, the output current increases and 01)posite voltage polarities a r e established across rcsisto~,s R, and It,. Thus, two output signals a r e producctl which a r e 180 dcgrccs out of phase with each other. This circuit provides the 180-dcgrce phase relationship only when each load is resistive and constant throughout the entire signal swing. I t is not suitable a s a driver stagc f o r a class B output stage. . : Chopl~cr amplifiers consist of three basic sections. The first section converts the low-level input signal into ac a ~l~otlulated signal, t h e second scction amplifies this a c signal, and the third section demodulates t h e amplified signal. The first section of a chopper amplifier is funtlamentally a continu-.,.. ously operated ON-OFF switch. Ideally, this switch would have zero'' ON resistance, infinite O F F resistance, zero shunt capacitance, and zero switching time. I t would also require no driving power and have infinite life. I n actual practice, i t i s possible to achieve satisfactory performance with a switch t h a t does not have these ideal characteristics. The two basic circuit configurations f o r chopping a r e the series chopper and the shunt chopper. The shunt chopper i s the more popular of the two because it can be capacitivcly coupled to a n a c amplifier without the need fol. either a choke or a transfornier. The series chopper has t h e disadvantage t h a t i t requires a dc return path f o r the input current. This path can be provided hy a n additional resistor a t the expense of over-all circuit efficiency. The basic series chopper circuit usinn a n nlOS tl-ansistor is shown in Fig. 189. This circuit has the characteristics of a simple L-pad attenuator in which t h e transistor is tlie variable series resistor. I n the t h a t the voltage VL across t h e load approaches the value of the dc input voltage VG. In t h e O F F condition, t h e dc return resistance RS must be small compared t o r d ( 0 F F ) . Because of these restrictions, the series chopper is seldom used except when the fixed resistance RS can be made variable by replacing i t with a shunt chopper arranged t o be O F F when t h e series chopper i s ON, and vice versa. Fig. 190 shows a shunt chopper circuit using a n MOS transistor. In
shown in Fig. 186 providcs more reliable protection against transients than t h a t of Fig. 185, a higher supply voltage and a higher transfonncr i~npedancecan I)e uscd. I t sliould be noted t h a t special prccautions a r e required in thc construction of circuits f o r line-voltage opcrntion. Because these circuits a operate a t h i ~ l i c and dc voltages, special rare niust be exercised to assure that no metallic p a r t of tlie chassis or output transformer is exposed to touch, accitlcntal or otherwise. The circuits should be installed in non-metallic cahincts, or should he properly insulated from metallic cnl)incts. Insulated ltnobs sliould bc usctl f o r potentiometer shafts and switches. A phase inverter is a type of class A alnplifier usct] when tlVo out-ofa r e requiretl. split-load phase-inverter stage shown in F ~ E 187, the output current of . transistor Q , both the
DC AMPLIFIERS
are nonnally used in transistor circuits t o amplify small dc or very-lowfrequency ac signals; tliey can ampl i f y a zero hertz. The upper frequency limit of such a n anlplifier niay range" , from a few hundred hertz in general-purpose electrolneter applications to several rnerrahertz in other applications. In general, dc ampliPHASE fiers a r e used t o amplify the output of transducers which produce quantitative information relative to heat, vibration, pressure, speed, and distance. Other applications include the output stages of series-type and shunt-type regulating circuits, cliopper-type circuits, difrerential alnplifiers, and pulse amplifiers. Dircct-coupled amplifiers a r e also used in chopper-type circuits t o amplify low-level dc signals, a s illucollector load resistor R, ant1 tlie strated by the block diagranl in Fig. emitter load resistor R,. When the 188. k h e dc signal niodulatcs an ac input signal is negative, thc de- carrikr wave, usually a square wave, creased output current ca1isc.s tlie and the modulated wave is then amcollector side of resistor R, to be- plified to a convenient level. The come more positive and thc e ~ i i i t t c r series of amplified pulses can then side of resistor R3 t o become more be detected and integrated into the negative with respect to ground. desired dc output signal.
CHOPPER
INTEGRATOR
INPUT
k r@q!ou
Fig. 190-Basic sltrrnf copper circltif rrsirrg an M O S frarlsisror.
AC CARRIER
Fig.
189-n(tsic set-ic.s clroppcr circrtif rrsir~gor1 MOS 11-ansisfor.
Fig. 188- Block rlirrgro~~r l r o ~ ~ ~ iooiorr of "c1topl)cr" cir-rrrir s tr,~
ON condition, the value of the dc return resistance Rs must be large compared to the load resistance RL to minimize resistive losses; Rr., in turn, nus st be large compared to the intrinsic drain resistance r d ( O N ) so
this circuit, the intrinsic drain resistance rd of the transistor must be small compared to t h e load resistance RI. in the ON condition, b u t niust be large compared to the fixed series resistance RD in the O F F condition. The requirement f o r rd(0N) t o have a very small value is minimized if RL i s t h e high input impedance of a n MOS transistor amplifier stage. Because of their high ON-to-OFF resistance ratio, negligible gate-leakage currents, and low feedthrough capacitance, MOS transistors considerably improve t h e level of solid-state chopper per-, formance. Differential amplifiers can be used t o provide voltage regulation, or to compensate f o r fluctuations in currerit due to signal, component, o r temperature variations. Typical differential-amplifier circuits, such a s those shown in Fig. 191, may also include an output stage which supplies current to tlie load resistor R, and the necessary number of directcoupled cascaded stages t o provide t h e required amount of gain f o r
126

the amplified signal to restore i t to the original dc form. The necessary modulation may be .accomplished by a number of different techniques, including electrically actuated mechanical switches, electronic switches, photo-optical switches, magnetic modulators, and diode bridge modulators. Input devices which function a s switches a r e generally referred t o a s "choppers" because, as described above, they divide the input signal into segments in the form of square waves or pulses having a n amplitude proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. Single-ended dc amplifiers which do not employ "choppers" have a continuous ohmic current path between the input and the output a s the result of direct coupling of all, stages (i.e., the omission of all capacitive or inductive forms of coupling). I n this configuration, the steady-state voltage a t the output of one stage appears a t the input of the next stage. In a typical cascade arrangement using MOS field-effect transistors, the signal progresses from the drain of the first unit to the gate of the next and so on to the last stage, a s shown in Fig. 102. In this circuit configuration, the source terminal is generally placed a t a potential equal to o r greater than the drain-to-source voltage of the preceding stage. In the arrangement of F~E. 192, the gate i s a t a net zero voltage or is reverse-biased relative t o the source. Although MOS transistors a r e not optimized for direct-coupled applications, they can he used in such circuits because they have low gate leakage current (typically fractions of a picoampere), total input capacitance of about 5 picofarads, and an appreciable value of forward transconductance. In addition, tight production control liniits the spread of drain current between individual transistors to a variation of approximately two to one for a high degree of interchangeability.
127
a given condition of line-voltage or load-current regulation. The source V1t is reference-voltage placed in one of t h e cascaded stages in such a manner t h a t a n error or difference signal between VR and some portion of the output voltage V n is developed and amplified. Some form of temperature compensation is usually included to insure stability of t h e direct-coupled amplifier.
Fix. 192-DC n~nplifiercircltit in wShich n-clilnrr~iel deplerio~r-type MOS transistors are direct-corrpled by ctse of dc level shifting.
MOS-transistor dc anlplifiers nlay take several difrerent forms, including single-ended input to singleended output, differential input to singlc-ended output, and difrerential input to differential output. Normally dc amplifiers require direct coupling of all stages (no coupling capacitors). In sonie vcrsions of dc amplifiers, te this requirement is c i r c u n ~ v e ~ ~ byd conversion of the low- o r zcro-frequency input signal into a modulated ac signal, atl~plificationof this sinnal by means of capacitor-coupled stages, and then demodulation of
F o r a fixed value of supply voltage, there are only three ways to increase the stage voltage gain A in R single-ended a n ~ ~ l i f i e c ) use of (7 a transistor having a higher ratio of gate-to-drain forward transconductance gr, to drain current In; (2) use of a higher value of load resistance It,. (if R,, is less than the commonsource output resistance r,.); and (3) use of a transistor having a higher value of r... The load resistance 121. can only be increased t o the noint where the ~ r o d u c tof ID and 'R,. is equal t o approximatel$ one-half the supply voltage. In general, the ratio of transconductance to drain current increases as drain current is decreased by negative gate bias. A s a result, the stage voltage gain may be increased and power consun~ptiondecreased a t the same time. The increased voltage gain of a n hIOS transistor a t reduced values of drain current may be acconlpanied by a relatively large drift in the operating point if there a r e wide excursions in ambient temperature. Many field-effect transistors have a point on their fol-ward-transfer characteristic which is relatively insensitive to temperature variations. If this point does not coincide with the operating point which provides the desired voltage gain, a design compromise is required. As shown in Fig. 193, the zero-temperaturecoefficient point may be identified by
measurement of the forward-transf e r characteristic a t different ambient t e m ~ e r a t u r e s .
GATE- SOURCE TO-
VOLTAGE-V
Fig. 193-Forward-trcmsfer clraracterirtics of MOS transistor at 25'C and -30'C.
VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED ATTEN UATORS

Because t h e drain current-voltage characteristic of MOS transistors remains linear a t low drain-to-source voltages, these devices can be used a s low-distortion voltage-controlled attenuators. The principal advantages of MOS transistors in this application are negligible gate-power requirements and large dynamic range. Fig. 194 shows drain resistance a s a function of gate-to-source voltage f o r , a typical n-channel depletiontype insulated-gate transistor. Transistors having higher pinch-off voltages accept correspondingly greater peak signal-voltage swings before w a v e - s h a ~ edistortion occurs.

Iiowever, the I~ighcr-pinch-off-voltage tra~lsistorsrequire higher gatevoltage cxcursions to cover the resistance range from minimum to This circuit i s a simple L-pad configuration in which the transistor serves a s the variable-resistive element in the low side of the attenuator. The maximum attenuation obtainable i s generally between 60 and 70 dB; minimum attenuation is 1 to 2 dB. This circuit must be followed by a high-impedance load such as a common-source amplifier stage.
r----
of MOS field-effect transistors as linear attenuators: ( a ) The gate(s) must be adequately decoupled to prevent the introduction of unwanted signals. ( b ) The transistor attenuator must be inserted a t a point in the system where the signal level is a s high as tho transistor can accept without excessive distortion. ( c ) I n a c systems, the direct-current flow through the transistor must be minimized by the use of suitable blocltin~capacitors. (d) I n ac systems, proper layout must be used to minimize s t r a y shunt capacitance. (e) I n ac systems, the effects of the capacitive elements of t h e transistor must be considered. frequency limits of the amplifier a r e approached. The need f o r such compensation is evident when many identical stages of amplification a r e employed. If ten cascaded stages a r e used, a variation of 0.3 dB per stage results in a total variation of 3 dB. I n a n uncompensated amplifier, this total variation occurs two octaves ( a frequency ratio of four) prior to t h e half-power point. Because two octaves a r e lost from both the high and low frequencies, the bandwidth of ten cascaded uncompensated amplifier stages is only one-sixteenth t h a t of a single amplifier stage. Fig. 198 shows t h e amplitude response characteristics of various numbers of identical uncompensated amplifiers. I n general, the output of a n amplifier may be represented by a current generator iUut and a load resistance RL, a s shown in Fig. 199(a). Because t h e signal current is shunted by various capacitances a t high frequencies, a s shown in Fig. 199(b), there is a loss in gain a t these frequencies. If a n inductor L is placed in series with the load resistor RL, a s shown in Fig. 199(c), a low-Q circuit is formed which somewhat suppresses t h e ca-
.0
GATE-TO-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VGSI-V
Fig. 194-Draitr resislnrrce as a frrrrc/iott of gore volrnge for typical n-chantrel deplcliorr-rypc MOS rrafrsislor.
maximu~n.A typical n-channel n10S transistor produces total harmonic distortion of less than two per cent in a 100-millivolt 400-Hz sine wave. Fiz. 195 sl~oms attenuator circuit an using an BIOS transistor and the output signal of the circuit a s a function of gate-to-source voltage.
CONTROL VG
WIDE-BAND (VIDEO) AM PLlFlERS

I n television camera chains a s well a s in ac voltmeters and vertical an~plifiers f o r oscilloscopes, i t is necessary for a transistor circuit to amplify signals ranging from very low frequencies (several hertz) to high frequencies (tens of megahertz) with a minimum of frequency and time-delay distortion. In response to
Fig. 196-Attcrlrtalor circrri! irr ~thiclrMOS trarrsistor scrtles as i?nrinble-reristive elclticnr irr low side.
The circuit shown in Fig. 197 is the inverse of that in Fig. 19G; i.e., tho t.ransistor serves ns t h e variableresistive element in the high side of the attenuator. Blaxinlum attenuntion in this circuit is also between 60 and 70 dB; mininlum attenuation is between 1 and G dB. This circuit is
GATE VOLTAGE-V
Fig. IPS-Orrrprtl sigrral as a jrcrtc~iotr o f gnrc voltage for MOS rrartsisror irz circtril sllolvrl.
Figs. 196 and 197 show two possible attenuator circuit configurations which usc MOS transistors a s voltage-variable resistors. The circuit in Fig. 196 is desirable f o r use at I ~ i g h signal levels bccausc a t such lcvcls the thermal noise of thc one~negohmseries resistor docs not degrade the si~nal-to-noise ratio of t!~e system to an objectionable dcgrec.
Fig. 197-Atrot~caror circrri! irr ~rlriclrAfOS rrarrsistor servcs as rcrriahle-resistive clernetrt it! /rig11side.
- -
Fig. 198-Airlplitrrdc
response characteris!ics of vnriorcs r~unlbers( N ) o f iderrrtcal uncortrper?saredamplifiers.
usually followed by a low-impedance load such a s a con~mon-emitter bipolar transistor amplifier stage. The following dcsign considerat i o ~ ~rse important f o r effective use a
these demands, circuit compensation techniques have been developed to minimize the amplitude and timedelay variation a s the upper o r lower
pacitive loading. This method of gain compensation, called shunt peaking, can be very effective for improving high-frequency response. Fig. 199
of sliunt and series peaking is employed, t h e ultimate capability i s about 4 MHz. The frequency response of a wide. band a~ilpliiicris inllucnced greatly by variations in component values clue to temperature efiects, variation of transistor parameters with volta g e and current (normal large-signal excursions), changes of s t r a y capacitance due to relocated lead wires, or other variations. A change of 20 per cent in a n y of the critical parameters can cause a change of 0.7 dB in gain per stage over t h e last half-octave of the response f o r the most simple case of shunt peaking. A s tlie bandwidth is extended by more complex pealcing, a circuit becomes substantially more critical. (Measurement probes generally alter circuit performance because of their capacitance; this effect should be considered during frequency-response measurenients.) In the design of wideband amplifiers using many stages of amplification, i t is necessary to consider timedelay variations a s well a s amplitude variation. When feedback capacitance is a major contributor to response limitation, the more complex compensating netmorlts niay produce severe ringing or even sustained oscillation. If feedbaclc capacitance i s treated a s input capacitance produced by the hliller effect, the added input capacitance C ' caused by t h e , feedback capacitor Cf is given by
131
FREQUENCY-Hz
~)colterlar~rplifiers.
Fig. 199-Eqrti~~~lctlr circrri~scr~rtl /r.cqrrrrrcy rcsporr5e of rtrrcorrrperrscrrt~d nrrtl slrrrtrf-
shows the frequency response for the circuits shown in Figs. 1 9 9 ( a ) , ( b ) , and ( c ) . If the inductor 1, shown in Fig. 199(c) is made self-resonant approximately one octave nl~ovethe 3-dB frequency of the circuit of Fig. 199(11), the amplifier response i s extended by about another 30 per cent. If tlie s t r a y capacitance C shown in Fig. 199(b) is hrolccn into two parts C' and C" and a n inductor L, is placed b e t ~ ~ e cthem, a heavily n damped form of series resonance may be e~iiployetl for furtllcr improve~nent.This form of compensation, called series p r a l i i ~ ~ g . slio\vn is in Fig. 200(a). If C' and C:" a r e
within a factor of two of each other, series peaking produces a n appreciable improvement in frequency response a s compared to sliunt pcaliing. A more complex form of compensation embodying I)otli self-resonant sllunt pealcing antl series peaking is shown in Fig. 200(b). The e r e c t s of various I~igh-frequency compensation systems can be tlcmonstratetl hy consitlcration of an amplifier consisting of three itlentical stages. If each of tlie three s t a ~ e s is down 3 dB a t 1 hII-Iz, antl if n total ~ a i variation of plus 1 t l I 3 and n minus 3 d B is allo\vetl, the bantlwidth of the anlplifier is 0.5 nIHz without compensntion. Sllurlt peal<in^ raises the I)nntlwitlth to 1.3 hIIIz. Self-resonant sliunt pealting raises it to 1.5 RIIlz. An infinitely co11ll)lic:ltetl system could raise it to 2 ilIIIz. If the distribution of cal)acitance p ~ r r n i t s it, series penliirlg alonc c:ln p~.ovidr a I~andnridthof nl)out f l l l l z , \rliilc a combination of sliunt atid scrics pcaltina call provitle a l):ln(l~vitlthof approximntcly 2.8 hIIIz. If the capacitance is gcrfectly tlistributed. and if an infinitely complex networlc
The resistors R1 merely provide a high-impedance bias path for the collectors of t h e transistors. The ac collector current of each transistor normally flows almost exclusively into 'the relatively low impedance ofrered by t h e base of the next stage through the coupling capacitor C1. The resistive network R1and R, provides a stable dc bias f o r the transistor base. The mid-frequency gain of each stage i s approximately equal to the common-emitter current-transfer ratio (beta) of t h e transistor if the component values a r e properly chosen. The high-frequency response is limited primarily by the transist o r gain-bandwidth product f ~ the , transistor feedback capacitance, and sonletimes the s t r a y capacitance. The low-frequency response is limited primarily by t h e value of the coupling capacitor C1. Fig. 201(b) illustrates the use of high-frequency shunt peaking and low-frequency peaking a t t h e expense of stage gain in t h e three stages of t h e wideband amplifier t o extend the high- and low-frequency response. The emitter resistors Re a r e made a s small a s possible, yet large enough to mask the variation of transconductance, and thus volta g e gain, a s a function of signalcurrent variation. F o r very small ratios of peak a c collector current t o dc collector current, this variation i s not substantial. The resistors Re also partially mask t h e effect of t h e intrinsic base-lead resistance rb'. The base-bias resistors R, of Fig. 201(a) a r e split into two resistors R, and R, in Fig. 2 0 l ( b ) , with R, well where VG is the input-to-output bypassed. The mid-frequency gain is voltage gain. The gain VG, however, has a phase angle t h a t varies with then reduced to a value approximatfrequency. The phase angle is 180 ing Rb divided by Ro. A t this point, degrees a t low frequencies, but niay however, the high-frequency response lead or lag this value a t high fre- is increased by the same factor. quencies; the magnitude of VG then L,and also varies. In t h e design of very Shunt peaking is provided by wideband alilplifiers (20 MHz o r Cn f o r additional high-f requency more), t h e phase of t h e transcon- improvement. When the reactance of the bypass ductance g,,, must be considered. . capacitor C3is large compared to R, Fig. 201(a) shows three stages of the low-frequency gain is increased n multistage wideband amplifier.
132

gain caused by C,. When the reactance of Cs approaches R,, however, t h e low-frequency peaking is no longer effective.
because the resistor no longer heavily shunts the transistor input. Selection of the proper value f o r C3 exactly offsets the loss of low-frequency
RF Power Amplification
and Generation
significant in~provements R in the design powertechnology for and high-frequency transistors
E C EN T
Fig. 201-(a) Ur~conlpe~rsated ( b ) cor?rperrsatcd versiorls o f tlrrec stages of n r~rrrlriand sragc nfidcbarld ar~rplifier.
have resulted in the increasingly widespread application of transistors in the an~plification and generation of rf power. Previously, cost considerations and performance limitations restricted t h e use of highfrequency power transistors t o only a limited nunlber of special circuits in which small size and light weight were the overriding requirements. As a result of the progress t h a t has been made in design and pfocessing, today, high-frequency transistors a r e often used in place of low- and medium-power tubes in many new equipment designs f o r operation a t frequencies up to 2000 MHz. I n addition t o small size and light weight, other unique circuit advantages, such a s greater reliability and significant increases in over-all circuit efficiency and bxnd~vidthcapability, have made possible this penetration of transistors into a very great nunlber of different high-frequency applications.
of the emitter and base peripheries, the emitter-to-collector spacing (i.e.; base width), the length of the collector-base junction, and parasitic inductances and resistive losses in the transistor package significantly affect power output, frequency response, thermal resistance, stability, and other important performance characteristics. -4
Power Output
FEATURES OF RF POWER TRANSISTORS

The performance of a n rf power transistor i s critically dependent on t h e structure and geometry of the device. Such factors a s the length
In early transistors, power outputs were in the milliwatt region, and increased power capability could be achieved only a t the expense of frequency response. The power output of a transistor is limited by the current-handling capability and dissipation of the device. The maximum dc input power t o a transistor i s largely determined by the currenthandling ability because the dc operating voltages of power transistors have been fairly well standardized a t either 28 volts f o r military systems or 12.6 volts f o r mobile applications. The current-handling ability of a n y transistor is proportional to t h e length of the edge of the emitter, i.e., the emitter periphery. The base current results in a voltage drop t h a t causes the portion of the emitter most remote from the base contact t o be least forward-biased. Little o r

no current, therefore, is injected from this region. This condition results even when the emitter strip is exceedingly narrow. In present transistors, the emitter is only 10,000 angstronls wide, hut the emitter rurrent is still limited by the total length of the emitter edge. The current-handling capability is approximately 1 milliampere per mil of emitter length; a transistor required to handle a current of up to 1 ampere, therefore, should have a n emitter periphery of 1 inch. narrow rectangles to maximize the spreading of the heat in the silicon, which is a reasonably good conductor of heat (about 20 per cent of the conductivity of copper). I n addition, power transistors a r e usually mounted on berylliun~oxide to provide further spreading of the heat and electrical insulation of the devices from the chassis. Use of these techniques allows transistor dissipation of about 10" w a t t s per square centimeter.
RF Power Amplification and Generation
JEDEC
RF Power-Transistor Packages Frequency Response The package is an integral part of an rf power transistor. A transistor The frequency response of a tranpackage designed for use in rf power sistor is inversely proportional to applications Should have good therthe square of the emitter-to-collector mal properties and low parasitic rgspacing and to the capacitance of the transistor. F o r a given hase actance. Parasitic inductances and resistive losses of the package sigwidth, therefore, the power-output/ nificantly affect circuit perfornlance frequency capability is detevmined l)y the length of emitter periphery characteristics, such a s power gain, bandwidth, and stability. The most t h a t can be concentrated into a given critical parasitics a r e the emitterarea. One figure of merit of a power-transistor design is the ratio and base-lead inductanccs.. Fig. 202 of emitter periphery to base area. shows several popular coniinercially The 2N3375 transistor has a ratio available rf power-transistor packof 0.82 mil of enlitter edge per ages, and Table I1 indicates the parsquare ]nil of base area and can asitic inductances of each type. The produce 4 watts of output power a t TO-GO and TO-39 packages were 400 MHz. The 2N5921 transistor in first used f o r devices such a s the which the ratio of emitter periphery 2N3375 and the 2N38FG. The I~ase to base area is increased to 3.1 mils and emitter parasitic inductances of per square niil can produce 6 \v:~tts these packages a r e in the order of of output power a t 2 C H a . The 3 nanohenries; this value of intluct2N5921 pellet uses 180 emitters only ance corresponds to a reactance of 20,000 angstroms wicle, and has a 7.5 ohms a t 400 MHz. If the emitter base width of approxi~nately 1200 is grounded internally to a TO-60 package ( a s in the 2N501F), the angstroms and a n over-all length of emitter lead inductance ran be re40 mils. . < duced to 0.G nanohenry. He~,n~etically sealed, low-inductance radial-lead pacltages, such a s the IIF-19 package introduced by RCA, employ ceramicThermal Resistance to-metal seals and have good rf perThe thermal resistance of a tran- formance characteristics. The parsistor is proportional to the length asitic inductances can be reduced of the collector-base junction, i.e., further by use of a hermetically the base periphery. F o r this reason sealed coaxial package, such a s the the base regions (the heat-genera- HF-11, used f o r the 2N5470. This tion nrea) of modern power tranpackage has parasitic inductances sistors a r e made in the form of long, in order of 0.1 nanohenry.
10-39
JEDEC TO-60
HF-12 Molded-Silicone Plastic Package (Isolated Electrodes)
HF-11
Coaxial Package
HF-19
Hermetic Strip-Line Type Ceramic-to-Metal Package (Isolated Electrodes)
HF-21
Coaxial Package
Studless HF-19 Package
Fifi. 202-Cor~rti~ercially available rf power-fratisisror packages.
Table 11-Summary of Packaged-Transistor Inductances Inductance (nH) I'nckage Emitter Base TO-39 (2N386G) 3 3 TO-GO (isolated emitter) (2N3375) 3 3 TO-60 (ground emitter) (2N5016) 0.6 2 Hermetic Strip-line (2N5919) 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.1 Coaxial case (2N5470)
136
I
..
,
, . ,, . I
." RCA
'-
Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual
by use of only a slight amount of forward bias in the transistor stage. In this class of service, care must be I n thc design of silicon-transistor taken to avoid thermal runaway. In a class C transistor stage, the rf power :tniplifiers for use in tr;uis~ n i t t i n gsystems, several fundamen- collector conduction angle is less tal factors nus st be consitlered. As than 180 degrees. The gain of the with any rf power amplific~., thc class C stage is less than that of a class of operation has an important class A or class B stage, but is bearing on the power output, lincar- entirely usable. In addition, in the ity, and operating efficiency. The class C stage, standl~ydrain is virmodulation requirements of transis- tually zero, and circuit efficiency is tor sf power amplifiers differ slight- the highest of the three classes. Bely from those f o r tube amplifiers. cause of the high effic.iency, low The matching characteristics of in- collector dissipation, and negligible put and output terminations signi- standby drain, class C operation is ficantly affect power output and fre- the most con~nionlyused mode in rf quency stability and, therefore, a r e power transistor applica t'lons. F o r class C operation, t h e baseparticularly important considerations in the design of either tran- to-cmittcr junction of the transistor sistor or vacuum-tube po\xrer anlpli- must be reverse-biased so that thc fiers. The selection of the proper collector quiescent current is zero tr:unsistor for a given circuit appli- during zero-signal conditions. Fig..' cation is also a major consideration, 203 shows four methods t h a t may and thc circuit dcsigner must realize be used to reverse-bias a transistor the significance of the various t ~ n n - stage. Fig. 203(a) shows the use of a dc sistor parameters to makc a valid supply to establish the reverse bias. evaluation of different types. This method, although effective, requires a separate supply, which may Class of Operation not bc available o r may bc difficult The class of operation of an rf to obtain in many applications. I11 amplifier is determined by t h e circuit addition, the bypass elements repet,forinance required in the given quired for the separate sup1)ly inapplications. Class A power ampli- crease the circuit conlplcxity. fiers a r e uscd when extremely good Figs. 203(b) and 203 (c) show linearity is recluircd. Although powcr methods in which revcrse bias is degain in this class of service is con- veloped by the flow of dc base cursiderably higher than t h a t in class r e n t through a resistance. In the B o r class C service, the operating case shown in Fig. 203(b), bias is efficiency of a class A power am- developed across the basc spreading plilier is usually only about 25 per resistance. The magnitude of this cent. Moreover, the standby drain biqs is small and uncontrollable beand thernial dissipation of a class cause of the variation in r,,~,' among A stage arc high, and care must be , different transistors. A better apexercised to assure thermal stal~ility.I proach, shown in Fig. 2 0 3 ( c ) , is to In a])plications, such a s single-side--'. develop the bias across an external band transmitters, that require good resistor Rn. Although the bias level linearity, class I3 push-pull opera- is predictable and repeatnble, the tion is usually employed hecause the size of RII must be carefully choscn transistor dissipation and staiidl~y to avoid reduction of the collectordrain a r c usually much s~nnllcr:ind to-cmittcr breakdown voltage. The best reverse-bias method is operating cficiency is higher. Class B operation is characterized by a illustrated in Fig. 203(d). In this collector conduction angle of 180 method, self-bias is developed across degrees. This conduction is obtained a n emitter resistor RE. Because no
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RF POWER AMPLIFIERS
J -(c)
(dl
Fig. 203-Mctltods for obtairlirlg clnss C reverse bias: (a) b.v rise o f fixed dc supply V,I~,; ( b ) by rrsc of dc base crtrrorr rlrrorcgl~the base spreading resistarrce r,,,,'; (c) by art rrsc of tic base crtrrerzr rl~rorr.~h cxtcrrtal base resistarrce Rn; (d) by use of self bias cic~.elopedacross a), errlitter resistor RE:.
external base resistance i s added, the collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage is not affected. An additional advantage of this approach is that stage current nlay be monitored by ~neasurement of the voltage drop across Rlr. This technique is very helpful in balancing the shared power in parallelcd stages. The bias resistor RI: niust Be bypassed to provide a very-low-impedance rf path to ground a t the operating frequency to prevent degeneration of stage gain. In practice, emitter bypassing is difficult and frequently requires the use, of a few capacitors in paralel to reduce the series inductance in the capacitor leads and body. Alternatively, the lead-inductance problem nlay be solved by formation of a self-resonant series circuit between the capacitor and its leads a t the operating frequency. This method is extremely effective, but may restrict stage bandwidth.
Modulation (AM, FM, SSB)

Amplitude modulation of the collector supply of a transistor output stage does not result in full modulation. During down-modulation, a portion of the rf drive feeds through the transistor. Better modulation characteristics can be obtained by modulation of the supply to a t least the last two stages in the transmitter chain. On t h e downward modulation swing, drive from the preceding modulated stages is reduced, and less feed-through power in t h e output results. Flattening of t h e rf output during up-modulation i s reduced because of the increased drive from the modulated lower-level stages. The modulated stages must be operated a t half their normal voltage levels to avoid high collector-voltage swings that may exceed transistor collector-to-emitter breakdown ratings. R F stability of the modulated stages should be checked f o r t h e

The design of rf power-amplifier entire cxcursion of the modulating signal. circuits involves the determination Amplitude modulation of transis- of dynamic input and load itnpedtor transmitters may also I)e ob- ances. Before the input circuit is tained by modulation of the lo~ver- designcd, the input i~npedance t the a level stages and operation of the emitter-to-base terminals of the higher-level stages in a linear mode. packaged transistor must be known The lower efliciencies and higher a t the drive-power frequency. Reheat dissipation of the linear stages fore the output circuit is designed, override any advantages t h a t a r e the load impedance prescnted to the derived fro111the reduced audio-drive collector terminal must be ltnown a t requirements; a s a result, this ap- the fundamental frequency. These proach is not econo~nically~ ~ r a c t i c a l . dynamic impedances a r e difficult to Frequency modulation involves a calculate a t nlicrowave frequencies shift of carrier frequency o ~ d y . because transistor paralneters such C a n i c r deviations a r c usually vcry a s St, and S:? vary considerably unsmall ant1 prcscnt no problcnls in der largc-signal operation and also amplifier bantl\vidth. For ex:unll~lc, change with the power level. Snlallmaximunl carrier deviations in the signal equations that might serve a s 50-hINx and 150-MHz mol)ile 1)ands useful guides for transistor design are only 5 ItIIz. Because therc is no cannot be applied rigorously to largeamplitude variation, class C rf transignal circuits. Because large-signal . sistor stages have no p~~oblems han- representation of rf power transisdling frequency madula t '1011. tors has not yet been developed, Single-sideband (SSR) modulation transistor dynamic impedances are r e q u ~ r e s that all stages after the best determined experimentally with modulator opcrate in a lincnr mode slotted-line o r vector voltmeter nleato avoid intermodulatio~l-distorLion s u r c ~ nn t techniques. products near thc carricr frequency. The systcnl used for dctcrminaIn many SSB applications, channel 1 tion of transistor i m ~ e d a n c e sunder spacing is close, and cxcessivc dis- &operating conditions s shown in Fig. ' tortion results in adjacent-ch:rnncl 204. This system consists of a interference. Distortion is effectivcly well-padded power signal generator, reduced by class B operation of the a directional coupler (or reflecto~nerf stages, with close attention to t e r ) f o r monitoring the input rebiasing the transistor base-to-emit- flected power, an input triple-stub t e r junction in a near-linear region. tuner, an input low-i~npedance line section, the transistor holder (or Characterization of Large-Signal test jig), a n output line section, RF Power Transistors a bias tee, an output triple-stub The vxlucs of large-signal transis- tuner, another directional coupler tor parameters, such a s the S and for monitoring the output waveform Y paramctcrs, a r e different fl.0111 or frequency, and an output powcr those of small-signal transistors hc- metcr. For a given frequency and incause (1) the values of transistor put power level, the input ant1 output ])nrameters change with po\ver lev- -tuners are adjusted f o r maximu111 els, and ( 2 ) the harmonic-frequency I)o\ver output and nlinimum input rec~onlpot~cnts that exist in a large- flccted power. Once the system has signal rf power amplifier must bc considered in addition to the funtla- been properly tuncd, the iml)etlance mental-frcqucncy sinusoidal coml)o- across terminals 1-1 (with the tranncnt in a sniall-signal amplifier. R F sistor disconnected) is mcasurcd a t po~vcr-trat~sistor characterislics are the same frequency in a slotted-line t~ormallysl~ccifietl a given circuit set-up or with the vector voltnleter. for in x specific application. The conjugate of this impedance is
GENERATOR
p +] LCOUPLER
I I
PAD
DIRECT.
TRIPLE-
STUB
TUNER
POWER
22
LINE SECTION 102 BlAS
TRIPLESTUB TUNER
TEE
DIRECT. COUPLER
POWER METER
Fig. 204-Set-lip for rrieasitrerrlent of rf trartsistor dyr~arnicirrtpedat~ces.
r-
the dynamic input impedance of the transistor. Similarly, the impedance across terminals 2-2 (with the transistor disconnected) is the collectorload impedance presented to the transistor collector. Such measurements a r e performed a t each frequency and power level. I t should be noted t h a t the circuit arrangement of Fig. 204 is also useful f o r testing the performance of the transistor. Thus, power output, power gain, and efficiency a r e readily d e t e r m i n e d 9
RF Ampiifier Circuit Design

When the dynamic input impedance and the load impedance of a packaged transistor have been established, either from direct measurements a s described previously, o r from the manufacturer's data, the input and output matching circuits can be properly designed. Output-Circuit Design-When the dc sul)ply voltage and power output are specified, the circuit designer must determine the load for the collector circuit [RI. = (VrE)V2P,,]. Because an rf power amplifier is usually designed to amplify a specific frequency or band of frequencies, tuncd circuits a r e nornlally used as coupling networks. The choice of the output tuned circuit must be made with due regard to proper load
matching and good tuned-circuit efficiency. As a result of the large dynamic voltage and current swings in a class C rf power amplifier, the collector current contains a large amount of harmonics. This effect is caused primarily by the nonlinearity in t h e transfer characteristics of the transistor. The tuned coupling networks selected must offer a relatively high impedance to these harmonic currents and a low impedance to t h e fundamental current. Class C rf power amplifiers a r e reverse-biased beyond collector-current cutoff; harmonic currents a r e generated in the collector which a r e comparable in amplitude to the fundamental component. However, if the impedance of the tuned circuit is sufficiently high a t the harmonic frequencies, the amplitude of the harmonic currents is reduced and the contribution of these harmonic currents to the average current flowing in' the collector is minimized. The collector power dissipation is therefore reduced, and the collector-circuit output efficiency is increased. Figs. 205 and 206 illustrate t h e use of parallel tuned circuits to couple the load to the collector circuit. The collector electrode of the transistor i s tapped down on the output coil. Capacitor CI provides tuning
140
f o r tlic f u n d a m e n t a l frequency, :1nd cap:lcitor C1 provides load m a t c h i n g of Rl, t o t h e tuned circuit. T h e t ransf o r m e d 11,. across t h e e n t i r e t u ~ r r t l circuit is s t c p l ~ c ddown t o m : ~ t c ht h e collector by tlie p r o p e r t u r n s r : ~ t i o of~ d u c t a n c eI,, i s If t h e value of and i i tlic coil L,. chosen propclrly t h e t h e 1)ortion of t h e output-coil inductancc l)ct\vcen t h e collector a n d arourid is s ~ ~ f l i c ~ i c n higli. tlic h a r tlv k o n i c portion of t11eco11ict"r c u ~ . r c n t in tlie tuned circuit is sniall. T h e r e fo1.e. t h e contribution of t h e hnrmonic c u r r e n t t o t h e dc component of cui.rcnt in t h e circuit is n~iniinizcd. Tlie use of a tapped-do\vn colinection of t h e collector t o t h e coil maint n i n s t h e londed Q of t h e circuit and nlinimizes variation in t h e 1);uitlwidth of t h e o u t p u t cii.cuit with c h a n g e s in t h e o u t l ~ u ca1)acitnncc of t t l ~ ct~.nnsistoi.. Altliol~gh t h e circuits sllo\vn i l l F i n s . 206 : ~ n d206 provitlc coul~liiig of t h c lonil t o t h e collcctot. cii.cuit wit11 r o o d hnrmonic-cu~,.cntsul)l~l.cssion, t h e tunetl-circuit 1 1 e t ~ o 1 . l i ~ 11avc a scrio'us limit:~tion a t very liigli fieclurncies. Recause of t h e poor coeflicicnt of coupling in coils a t v e ~ y
&
FOR
(1) R~ = (2) XLl = (31
141
xcl =
+
N ~ R
+Vce
FOR Rl< R2
(b)
RATIO
(0)
N : I TURN
(FOR CLASS C I
N ~ R ~ O L [I-
RL
Fi.?. 206-Trrrrcd-circrrit orrlprrt corr~~lirrn rrrc~tlrorl orrtl tic.\i,<r~r c,c/rrrrtiorr.s i r r 11.Iric11 0rrtl)rrt tc> rill, Io(l1i i , ~ Ollr(rirl(~(1 jrorrr (1 crrprrcitii~e ~'olrcr~c' tli~,iiicr-.
RFC
+ Vce
FOR N : 1 TURN RATIO (11 Rc = vce2 ---(FOR CLASS C)
2 Po
Rc' (2) XLl = OL
-% - QL
high f~,equcncies,t h e t a p position is usually established empirically so t h a t proper collector loading is achieved. Fig. 207 sho\vs sevcr:ll suitable o u t p u t coul,liiig ntxt\\orlts t h a t provide t h e requircd collector loading and also supl)rcss t h e circulation of collector harmonic currents. These n e t w o r k s a r e n o t dcpendent upon coupling coeficicnt f o r load-inlpcdance transforniation. T h e collector o u t p u t capacitance f o r t h e n e t w o r k s shown in F i g . 207 i s included in tlic design equations. Tlie collector o u t p u t c a l ~ a c i t a n c e of a t r a n s i s t o r v a r i e s considcral)ly with t h e l a r g e dynamic s w i n g of tlie collector-to-enlitter voltage ant1 is dependent upon both t h e collcctor sull'ply voltage a n d tlic po\vcr o u t p u t . Input-Circuit 1)csign-The input ci~.cuit of i i ~ o s t t r a n s i s t o r s c:u~ I)e rcpresentcd by a resistor r~.,.' scin ries with a c:~p:~citorC,,,. T h e i n p u t network m u s t t u n e o u t t h e capacitance CI,, and provide a purely rcsistive load t o t h e collector of t h e d r i v e r stage. Fig. 208 shows several nctworlts capable of coupling tlic base
"CE
(dl
- - - - V~~ FILTER CUTOFF
LET C 2 ~ " 2 COUTiR~'R2; f1'LOW FREO. CUTOFFif2:HI-FREO. (1) ( f ~ -2 a CIo R ~= ~ f ) ( 2 ) L2'LIK
R~ lrIf2-f1)
Fig. 207-Addirior~al
rronsistor orctprrt-cocrpling ~~etworks ir~clrtdir~g transistor outpuf capacitar~ce.
RCA Transistor Manual

to the output of thc driver stage and tuning out the input capacitance CI,,. In the event t h a t the transistor uscud has a n intluctivc input, the reactance X,., is made equal to zero, and the base inductance is included a s part of inductor LI f o r networks such a s t h a t shown in Fig. 208(a) and is included a s p a r t of La for networks of the type shown in Fig. 208 ( c ). In Fig. 208 ( a ) , the input circuit is formed by the T network consisting of CI, C.., nnd LI. If the value of the inductance L, is chosen so t h a t its reactance is much greater than t h a t of CI,,,series tuning of the baseto-emitter circuit is obtained by LI and the parallel combination of C? and (C, + C , , ) .Capacitors CI and C, 1)l.ovide the impedance matching of the resultant input resistance r1.2 to the collector of the driving stage. Fig. 208(b) shows a T network in which the location of L, and C2 is chosen so t h a t the reactance of the capacitor is much greater than khat of CI,; C1 can then be used to step. up r~.,,'to a n appropriate value across L,. The resultant parallel resistance across L, is transformed t o the required collector load value by capacitors C, and C,,. Parallel resonance of the circuit is obtained by L I and the parallel conlbination (CI + C..) and C-. The circuits shown in Fir. 208(a\ and 208(b) reitlire the coiiector' of the driving transistor to be shuntfvd b y a high-impedance rf choke. Fig. 208(c) shows a coupling network t h a t eliminates the need for i this a ~ l l ~ lIn ~ . circuit, the collector of the driving transistor is parallel tuned, and the base-to-emitter junction of the output transistor is series tuned. Fig. 200 shows several other forms of coupling networks t h a t can he used in rf power-a~nplifier designs. Line-section ~ n a t c h i n gnetworks111 most micro~vave circuit applications, cithcr air-line, strip-line, or lumped-elelne~~t circuit arrangements a r c used; some useful circuit design tcchniqucs a r e discussed below. Eighth-wave line sections: One of the properties of a n cighth-wave sec-
143
tion is t h a t i t h a s a real input impedance when i t is terminated in a reactive impedance having a magnitude equal to Z,,. Therefore, f o r a n eighth-wave line section, ZI. i s real if the following condition is met:
FOR XLI >>Xci:
RI > R 2 ' r b b 1
where R1. and XI. a r e the real and imaginary p a r t s of the colllplex impedance ZI.. The real impedance Zt. can be determined from a Smith chart of t h e following relation:
Eighth-wave transformers a r e use-
f u l f o r microwave power transistor

matching, a s shown in Fig. 210, because the small complex impedances of these devices can be matched directly, without the need for tuningout mechanisms. In a typical poweramplifier circuit, the device input impedance R + jX ohms is the terminating impedance Z,, of the eighthwave line section. If the characteristic impedance of the line Z,U is made equal to t h e magnitude of ZI., then the input impedance ZEof this line is a real impedance. Matching to the o u t ~ u ti s a c c o n ~ ~ l i s h eid a n similar manner. The real impedance of an eighthwave section of uniform line is t h u s predetermined by the complex t e rminating impedance. Therefore, i t i s necessary to use additional transformations in cascade to match to a real impedance which is different from this predetermined real impedance. Quarter-wave line sections: Quarter-wave lines a r e also useful a s impedance transformers between r e a l impedances. If quarter-wave transformers are used to match a real impedance to an active device, a s shown in Fig. 211, the reactive component of the complex impedance (the admittance) of the active device must be tuned out. For example, in the input circuit of a power-transist o r amplifier circuit, the quarter-
FOR XC,>>
XC;: RI >R2' rbb'
+VCE
"
FOR R > R p ; R 2 = r b b 0 ;X L ~ " X ~ ~

wavc t r a n s f o r ~ n c r lnatchcs the resistive component of the complex admittance of the device. An external capacitance C., or a stub provides the necessary susceptance needed to cancel the reactive component of the device. In the output portion of the circuit, a stub or a lumped element a t the collector is used to bring the ilnpedance to a real value and then to a quarter-wave line t h a t goes to the actual load. Direct transformation between the transistor (complex i~npedance)and a given source or load (real resistance) i s also possible. The characteristic impedance Z,, and l e n- t h I r of the transnlission line required to provide direct transformation from a pure resistance Rt to a n irnnedance z,-= R, jX, can be determined by use of the following equations:
145
VCC
i 211-Qttarter-wave trartsforr,lers for ~ . rJ po~ver-rrarrsisror arrrplifiers.
MOBILE RADIO
In t h e United States, three frequency bands have been assigned t o two-way mobile radio communications by the Federal Communications Commission. These frequency bands a r e 25 to 50 MHz, 148 t o 174 MHz, and 450 to 470 MHz. .The low-frequency band f o r overseas mobile con~lnunicationsis 66 to 88 MHz. Frequency modulation (FM) i s practiced in mobile radio communications in the United States and most overseas countries. The modulation is achieved by phase-modulation of the oscillator frecluencies (usually the 12th or 18th'subkultiple of t h e operating frequency). In vhf bands, the frequency deviation is e 5 ltHz and channel spacing is 25 kHz. In uhf bands, a t present, the modulation deviation is 2 1 5 kHz and channel spacing i s 50 kHz. In t h e United Kingdom, AM a s well a s F M is used in mobile con~munications. Typical mobile-transmitter poweroutput levels in the United States a r e 50 watts in the 50-MHz band, 30 w a t t s in the 174-MHz band, and 25 w a t t s in the 470-MHz band. Some of the transmitters used in t h e United States have power-output ratings a s high a s 100 watts. Overseas, power-output requirements a r e
If the impedance Z2 is a resistance (i.e., X, = O),the expression f o r Z. reduces to the quarter-wave transformer equation, and 1 = A/4.
1:
Fig. 209-Orlrer.
sltitnblc rf-rrrrr~~liJi~~r ~.urrldir~,q rrer1~~or1i.s rrrasirrrrrrrr polr*rr trnrl~Jer. for
Fig. ?IO-Eigl~r/r-~rn~.c trn,~sforr~ter a irl typict11 rf / > o ~ t ~ ~ , r - ( r r r ~ / ) l icirc~tit. Jii~r
146
much more moderate; t h e m o s t comwhen driven f r o m t h e t h r e e- s t a g e m o n power-output levels a r e in t h e amplifier chain shown in F i g . 2 2 0 ( a ) . Fig. 213 s h o w s a 25-watt, 175-BIHz 10-\~:1ttrange. All-solid-state mobile t r a n s m i t t e r s amplifier chain t h a t uses 2N5995 a n d 2N5996 stripline-package t r a n c a n be divided into two 1)asic types: t r a n s m i t t e r s t h a t o p e r a t e f r o m 24- sistors. F i g . 214 shows a 6-watt, 470to-28-volt collector supply voltages, MIIZ amplifier chain t h a t ernl)loys obtained f r o m dc-to-dc convcrtcrs, 2N2914 a n d 2N2915 transistors. T h e requirements of r f power and transmitters that operate tiir~ctl y f r o m t h e 12-volt electrical s y s t e m t r a n s i s t o r s operated in n~ol?ile-radio applications a r e extremely severe. of a vet~icle. Both t y p e s h a v e atlvantagcs a n d T h e t r a n s i s t o r s lllust withstand t h e load-mismatch conditions created by disadvantages. T h e advaritagcs of 24- t o 28-volt operation inclutle h i ~ h - objects n e a r t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g a nt e n n a o r b y a break in t h e t r a n sel. poxver g a i n s p e r s t a g e , good t r a n sient suppression, a n d f a i r l y simple mission line a n y w h e r e between zero c u r r e n t a n d voltage limiting. T h e a n d one-half wavelength. U n d e r such disadvantages a r e t h e additional cost conditions, t h e t r a n s i s t o r s m u s t of dc-to-dc converters a n d t h e some- handle n o t only t h e increased dissipation, b u t also sudden e n e r n y w h a t higher power consumption a n d s u r g e s t h a t c a n destroy the111 in increased size of t h e radio. Ilircct j u s t R f e w microseconds. T h e de- ,, operation f r o m a 12-volt systetn pel.m i t s savings in cost a n d size, a s well velopnlent of t r a n s m i t t e r s t h a t a r e a s higher efliciency. Because 12-volt i ~ n m u n e t o these f a i l u r e s i s a reoperation produces less ~ a i n p e r s u l t of a joint effort hetween s t a g e , however, additional rf s t a g e s solid-state-device and mobile-radio a r e often needed. T r a n s i e n t supl)res- nlanufacturers. T o avoid excessive sion a n d voltage a n d c u r r e n t limiting junction t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e equipa r e also s o m e w h a t m o r e difficult. m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r m u s t select Recause of t h e t w o discrete volt- t r a n s i s t o r s of sufliciently low t h e r m a l afic r a n g e s used f o r mobile ratlios, resistance. If a t r a n s i s t o r laclts t h e t r a n s i s t o r m u s t be designed spc- enough dissipation c a p a l ~ i l i t y , t w o cifically f o r e i t h e r 24-to-28-volt 01)should he used- even t h o u g h one eration o r 12-volt operation. Devices could deliver t h e required rf o u t p u t designed f o r 24-to-28-volt o p e ~ . a t i o n power. T h e use of a d e q u ; ~ t c l ysized have su1)stantially h i g h e r collectorh e a t s i n k s i s essential to protect I~rcaltdownvoltages. I n addition, all devices operated under high-ambientelements a r e usually isolated f r o m 1enil)eraturc conditions. Cur.rent t h e case t o p e r m i t access t o t h e limiting should also be employed t o ctnitter. prevent excessive rise in junction F i g . 2 1 2 ( a ) shows a 175-RIIIz a m - t e m p e r a t u r e under m i s n ~ a t c h e dload conditions. A s a n added p ~ ~ e c a u t i o n , plilier chain t h a t o p e r a t e s directly f r o m a 12-volt dc supply. A n ampli- a t h e r m o s t a t can be mounted or) t h e fier chain of t h i s t y p e can deliver 12 h e a t sink t o reduce t h e t r a n s m i t t e r power in t h e event t h a t t h e t c m p e r a w a t t s of outl)ut power with a n i n p u t of 125 milli\vntts a n d h a s a n over-all . t u r e becomes excessive. elficiency of GO p e r cent. T h e chain T h e protection of t h e devices f r o m consists of t h r e e cascaded s t a g e s "instantaneous" failure is m o r e dift h a t provide power o u t p u t s of 1. 4, ficult because t h e t i m e response of anrl 12 w a t t s , respectively. F o r npc u r r e n t o r voltage limitcrs is n o t ~ ) l i c a t i o n ssuch a s base s t a t i o n s in f a s t enough. Fig. 215 sho\\,s a circuit which higher o u t p u t power l e \ ~ e l sa1.e which h a s a suficiently f a s t I,csponse iequired, t h r e e overlay power t r a n - time t o protect t h e power t r a n s i s t o r s sisto1.s can be operated in ~ , a r a l l e la s f r o m "instantaneot~s" f a i l u r e s t h a t shown in Fig. 2 1 2 ( b ) . 111 t h i s a r - r e s u l t f r o m mismatched-load condirmigcnient, t h e t r a n s i s t o r s can sup- tions. T h e circuit o p e r ; ~ t c s on t h e ply a s much :IS 35 w a t t s a t 175 illIIz 1)rinciple of reflected power. U n d e r
RCA 4020,2
RCA 40282
Fig. 212- 175-MHz trarlsisfor power arnplificr: (a) 3-stage brput a~nplifier;(b) ourpur stage.
149
~i~~~~ system ~
~
ur
,f o r low i
distortion, l ~ and emitter bal~ ~ last resistance f o r stability and de. generation. In high-powei amplifiers, transistor junctions experience wide excursions in temperature and a means must be provided to sense the collector-junction temperature so t h a t a n external circuit can be used to provide bias compensation t o prevent a n excessive shift in operating point and to avoid catastrophic device failure a s a result of thermal runaway.
~
Fir. ?l5-Loncl-rrrisr~ra/cIt profecriorl circlrit.

, '.7 ..I
~dvantagesof SSB Transmission
,' ",
&- - c'c?-
i'!
Fig. 213-Tlrrc~c-s1rr,rc, '5-1t.flll, 175-MHz ar~rplifirrcl~airr.
.i ., ,., .,
amplifier has a degenerative effect on the rf amplifier. With the reduction in the gain of the gain-controlled rf amplifier, the drive to the power amplifier is decreased to safe levels. Once the load mismatch is removed, the s y s t e ~ n returns instantaneously to normal operating fonditioqs.
...
'
. ,,;%,., . , ,,- f . ? . ,? SING LE-s IDEBAND ! , / c n , TRANSMITTERS ' :"""'

,
>.> .A
f
F
matchcd load conditions, there is no output from the VSWIL detector. The control amplifier is saturated, ant1 the gain-controlled rf amplifier operates a t maximnn~ gain. The po\ver amplifier, thercforc, is opcratcd a t maximum power output. If a mismatch occurs, a negative volt-
Z L - 5 0 OHMS
age from the VSIVR bridge brings the control amplifier out of saturation, which, in turn, reduces the gain in the gain-controlled rf amplifier. Gain is reduced because the base of the rf amplifier becomes ,nore negative with respect to the emitter, and because the unsaturated control
The increase in comnlunication traWc, especially in the hf and vhf ranges, necessitates more effective use of the frequency spectrum so that more channels can he assigned to a given spectrum. I t has been shown that one of the more eficient methods of communication is through the use of single-sideband (SSB) techniques. In the past, the powera~nplifier stages of an SSB transmitter invariably employed tubes because of the lack of suitable highfrequency power transistors. Recent transistor developments, however, have made i t feasible and practical to design and construct all-solidstate single-sideband equipment for both portable and vehicular applications. Unlilte most co~n~nercially available rf power transistors, which a r e normally designed pri~narily for class C oper:ltion, an SSl3 transistor is designed for linear applications :1nd shoultl have a flat beta curve
Single-sideband communication systems have many advantages over AM and F M systems. In reliability of transmission as well a s power conservation a r e of prime concern, SSB transmitters a r e usually e m p l o y e g T h e main advantages of SSB operation include reduced power consumption f o r effective transmission, reduced channel width t o permit more transmitters to be operated within a range, and improved ratio. In a modulated AM transmitter, twothirds of the total power delivered by the power amplifier i s a t the carrier frequency, and contributes nothing to the transmission of intelligence. The remaining third of the total radiated power is distributed equally between the two sidebands. Because both sidebands a r e identical in intelligence content, the transmission of one sideband would be sufficient. In AM, therefore, only onesixth of the total rf power is fully utilized. In an SSB system, no power is transmitted in the suppressed sideband, and power in the carrier is greatly reduced or eliminated; a s a result, the dc power requirement is substantially reduced. In other f o r the same dc input power, t h peak useful output power of a n SSB transmitter, in which the carrier i s completely suppressed i s theoretically six times t h a t of a conventional AM transmitter.
I\:
::
150
Another advantage of SSB trans- tude under pealc power condition, the mission is t h a t elimination of one average powcr of one tone of a twosideband reduces the channel width tone signal is one-fourth the singlercquired for transmission to 011c-1i:llf . frequency power. For two tones, cont h a t required f o r Ahl transmission. / versely, the PEP rating of a singleTheoretically, therefore, two S S B - sideband system is two times t h e transniitters can he operated within average power rating. a frequency spectrum t h a t is normally required f o r one ARI trans- b f = I TO 2 K H Z ~nitter. 111 a single-sideband system, the a signal-to-noise power ratio i s eight r tinirs a s g r e a t a s t h a t of a fully a nlodulated double-sideband system I2 FREQUENCY f o r the same peak power.

products to t h e test signals f , and f,. All such products a r e either in the difference-frequency region or in the harmonic regions of thc original frequencies. Tuned circuits or filters following the nonlinear elements can effectively remove all products generated by the evenorder conlponents of curvature. Therefore, the second-order component t h a t produces the second harmonic does not produce any distortion in a narrow-band SSB linear amplifier. This factor explains why class AB and class B rf amplifiers can be used a s linear amplifiers in SSB equipment even through the collector-current pulses contain large amounts of second-harmonic current. In a wideband linear application, however, it is possible f o r harmonics of the operating frequency to occur within the pass band of the output circuit. Biasing the output transistor further into class AB can greatly reduce the undesired harmonics. Operation of two transistors in the push-pull configuration can also result in cancellation of even harmnics in the output. up to the PEP rating of the amplifier. A typical presentation of IM distortion f o r a 40675 transistor a t various output-power levels is shown in Fig. 218.
Transistor Requirements
l-Jl._I
f~
Linearity Test
F o r _ _ a ~ i - a ~ ~ ~ l i f f i e rhe linear, a to relationship must exist such t h a t the o u t l ~ u t voltage is directly proportional t o the input voltage f o r all s i ~ n a amplitudes. Because a singlel frequency signal in a perfectly linear single-sidcband system remains unchanged a t all points in the sign:ll path, the signal cannot be distinguished from a cw signal-or from a n unmodulated carrier of an A M transmitter. To measure the linearity of a n amplifier, i t is necessnr y to use a signal t h a t varies in amplitude. In the method cotilmonly used to measure nonlinear distortion, two sine-wave voltages of different frequencies a r e applied to the anil)lifier input simultaneously, and thc s u ~ n , difference, and various conlhination frequencies t h a t a r e produced by nonlinearities of the amplifier a r e observed. A frequency difference of 1 to 2 ltIIz is used widely for this purpose.,'A typicla two-tone signal without distortion. a s displayed on a spectrum analyzer, is shown in Fig. Zl(i.)The resultant signal envelope varies'corltinunusly between zeio and niaximuln a t an audio-frequency rnte. li'l~llen the signals a r e in ph;lse, tlie peak of the two-frequency envelope is limited by the voltage and current ratings of the transistor to tlie smile power rating a s t h a t for t h e single-frequency case. Because the amplitude of each two-tone frequcncy is equal to one-half thc cw ampli-
Fig. 216-Freqrcerrcy spectrctru for a Iypicnl tw.o-torrc si,q~rol ~virhorrt disrorriorr.
?,
Intermodulation Distortion
Nonlinearities in a n amplifier generate intermodulation (IM) distortion. The important I M products are those close to thc desired output frequency, which occur within the pass band and cannot be filtered out by normal tuned circuits. If f t and fl a r e the two desired output signals, third-order IRI products take the form of 2fl - f, and 2f2 - f,. The matching third-order terms a r e 2fl f 2 and 2f, 4- f,, but these m a t c h i n ~terms correspond to frequencies near the third h:umonic output of the amplifier and a r e ~reatly attenuated by tuned circuits. I t is important to note t h a t only odd-order distortion products appear near the fundamental frequency. The frequency spectrum shown in Fig. 217 illustrates the frequency relationship of some tlistortion
.,
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCIES
THIRD-ORDER DISTORTION
Most high-frequency power transistors a r e designed f o r class C operation. Forward biasing of such devices f o r class AB operation places them in a region where second breakdown may occur. The susceptibility of a transistor to second breakdown is frequency-dependent. Experimental results indicate t h a t the higher the frequency response_ : of a transisby, the-more se-verg-the second-breakdown limitation be-' comes. F o r a n rf power transistor, the second-breakdown energy level a t high voltage (greater than 20 volts) becomes a small fraction of its rated maximum power dissipation. This behavior is one of the reasons t h a t vacuum tubes have traditionally been used in singlesideband applications. A power transistor designed especially f o r use a s a linear amplifier is required to perform satisfactorily when forward-biased f o r class AB operation, a s well a s t o exhibit the desired high-frequency response. The ability of the transistor to with20 s t a n q o n d breakdown is improved y subdividing t h e emitter 30 into many small sites and resistively ballasting the individual sites. The RCA 2N5070 and 40675 transis400 20 40 60 80 100 tors a r e designed specifically f o r PEAK ENVELOPE POWER OUTPUT-W linear-amplifier service in SSB applications. Current-limiting resistors a r e placed in series with each emitFiq. 218-Tj,picol irrterrrtodrrlorion di.rtor- t e r site between the metalizing and iior~ill R C A - 4 / 7 5 nurrsixtor nt voriorrs the emitter-to-base junction.
orttprrt polrver levels.
FREOUENCY
Fig. 217-Frcqricrrcy spcctrrrur slron~irtg 111efreqrrerrcy rclotiorrslri~t o f .corrre di.rtor-tioft prodrrcfs to two rc.rr si.q~rolsf , N I I fn. ~
The signal-to-distortion ratio (in dB) is the ratio of the amplitude of one test frequency to t h e amplitude of the strongest distortion product. A signal-to-distortio~l specification of -30 dB means t h a t no distortion product will exceed this value f o r a two-tone signal level
Bias Control
Operation of the transistor in a class AB amplifier to improve linearity requires the use of a positive base voltage f o r a n n-p-n silicon transistor. The magnitude of t h e positive voltage m u s t be large enough to bias the transistor t o a
152
RCA Tranisistor, Tliyristor, & Diode Manual
point slightly beyond t h e tl~rcshold of collector-current conductiori. The class AD l ~ i a s condition n i r ~ s t be ~naintainedover a wide t c n ~ l i c r a t m e i,alife to prevcnt an increase in itlling current to the level a t which the transistor can bc dcstroycd a s n result of tlicrnial runn\v;l;\- : 11d 1 to niininiize distortion t h a t results . from a shift in the quiescent point. I t is p a ~ ~ t i c u l a r ldillicult to mainy tain the bins current of a transistor high-powcr class AB mnlrlifier a t a constant level. A s tlie drive incrcaseq, the dissipation increases and tlie junction temperature ~ i s c s . If the conventional biasing technique is employed ( a n ac-bypassed eniitter resistor and a constant rolta g e supply to tlie base), the vnrying emitter current t h a t results from the varyine drive chnnecs the voltage drop across the emitter rcsistor and causes t h e I ~ i a sto shift with drive. If a constant-current base-bias supply is used, the drive po\ver is rectified and tlie bias point is changcd. The prol)leni of maintaing n st:ihle rluic,sccnt current is caused I)y a rcduction in thc V,,,; of the transistor when the temperature rises. The I~asc-to-emitter voltage d c n ~ c n s e sa t a rate of approximately 2 millivolts per "C lnise in ten~per:iture. Unless this condition i s colnpcnsntcd f o r (i.e., bias voltage made to vary according to the V I ~ E decre:ise), the tr:lnsistor is destroyed by the tllernlal ebects. Bias-point control f o r t h e 40675 SSB transistor i s accomplishetl 11y use of a diode placed next to tlie transistor pellet in t h e same pnrlrage. The cathode of the diotle is connected internally to the emitter lead. The anode of t h e diode is connected to a fourth tern~inal, a s shown in Fig. 219. The diode is fern-ard-1,iased between 1 to 5 niilliamperes to provide a formartl-volta x e drop t h a t i s temperaturc-sensitive. A t such a low c u r ~ < e n tthe , diode operates in the low-conductnnce region where it does not provide the stiff voltage necessary f o r the transistor bias. In this case. the
Fi,?. 219-Pnckrrfe ortrlirre for tile RCA 40675 SSR trartsirror slrotc'irr,y irrterrr~rlpackage diode rrserf jor rrorrsistor biaspoirtr co~rrrol.
t
BIAS CONTROL AMPLIFIER
RFC
I
I I
I
LOW-CONDUCTANCE COMPENSATING DIODE
-I-+28 V
Fig. 220Block diagrarrr of 30-MHz amplifier that uses a low-cot~ductartce diode for
diode acts merely a s a thermonieter; a n external amplifier must he used f o r current amplification. Compcnsation is achieved because t h e diode has approximately the same temperature coeficient f o r its forwardvoltage drop a s does tlie baseenlitter junction of the transistor. Good tracking is obtained by n ~ o u n t ing tlic diode and transistor pellets in the same case in very close proxiinity to minimize any thcrnmal time lag. Tenlperature coeflicicnt depends, to a large extent, upon the opcrating current. If the diode current can be adjusted so t h a t it is approximately equal to tlie base current, good compensation can be achieved. The bloclc diagram of a current nmplifier t h a t uses a lowcontluctance diode is shown in Fig. 220. The schematic diagram of the cur- r e n t (bias-control) anlplificr is shown in Fig. 221. The current nnlplifier eniploys a dc differential amplifier. The output voltage i s the bias source f o r the power transistor. The use of a differential amplifier makes the entire amplifier relatively insensitive to temperature variations. Two additional s t a g e s a r e used f o r current aniplification with ncgative fectlback f o r stability.
retIlpera1ure cor?rpertsalion.
T TRANSISTOR BASE O TO ANODE OF DIODE
I Fig. 221-Birrs-cortrr-ol stages for lirrear 30-MHz ar~rplificr with lerriperarrtre-corrtpensafir~g circrlir.
Transistor collector-bias current can be adjusted by varying the potentiometer connected in series with the temperature-compensating diode. The diode current established by R,,,,. determines the degree of compensation. Overcom-
pensation occurs when diode current i s greater than the base current. Fig. 222(a) shows collector quiescent current, intially biased a t 10 milliamperes, a s a function of case temperature. With compensation, t h e transistor i s thermally stable even
154
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Mariual

uscful in sucli app1ir:~tion. This t r a n sistor is specified f o r SSB applications without t e m p e r a t u r e compensation a s follows: Frequency = 30 MHz P,, (PEP) a t 28 V = 25 W Power Gain = 13 dB (min.) Collector Efficiency = 40 r/o (min.)
155
f o r case t r ~ n p c ~ . : ~ t ra~sr ch i ~ l i :IS t o g c t l ~ c rwith a dccrcnsc in collcc150C. \\Tithout co~iipcnsntion, Iio\v- t o r eliicicncy, c a n be a t t r i l ~ u t e dt o a ever, t h e t r a n s i s t o r t e n d s toward ~ i s e rf s a t u r a t i o n voltage a n d a in tlier~iinlruri:r\v:iy a t a cnsc ternl)c5~.:~-drcreasc in t r a n s i s t o r l x t a : ~ thigh t u r e of approximately 75C. temperature. Despite t h e e x t r a circuit nccdcd to achieve t e m p e ~ . a t u r estal)ilization, t h e approach provides a practical d solution f o r acliievcment of reliablc opcration of a class AB anll)lifier I00 ovcr a wide t e m p e r a t u r e range. T h e LT rz use of a small diode a s a tcrnpcra2 so ture-sensing element offers t h e folw 60 lowing advantages: ( a ) Diode a n d t r a n s i s t o r pellets .I= 40 g need not be niatched f o r f o r w a r d 0 voltage drop. I 20 (11) T r a n s i s t o r quiescent c u r r c n t Z W U can be either overcompensated o r ' 2 0 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 undercompensated a g a i n s t changes 3 CASE TEMPERATURE-'C in t e m p e r a t u r e by variation of t h e 0 (0) diode current. ( c ) A diode idling c u r r e n t a s low a s 1 to 5 milliamperes can I)c used. ( d ) C u r r e n t of less t h a n 50 millianlperes a t 28 volts is needed to opei.ate t h e e x t e r n a l compensating circuit.
Fig. 223 shows a 2-to-30-MHz wideband linear amplifier t h a t uses o t h e r t y p e s of RCA r f transistors. A t 5 w a t t s (PEP) output, I M distortion products a r e more t h a n 40 dB below one tone of a two-tone signal. P o w e r g a i n is g r e a t e r t h a n 40 dB. Fig. 224 shows a 150-watt 2-to30-MHz push-pull amplifier t h a t
Typical Linear Amplifier

The common-emitter configuration should be used f o r t h e powey amplifier because of i t s stability a n d high power gain. T u n i n g is less critical, a n d t h e amplifier is less sensitive to variations in p a r a m e t e r s a m o n g transistors. T h e class A B mode is used to obtain low i n t e r ~ n o d u l a t i o n distortion. N e i t h c r resistive loading nor neutralization is used t o iniprove linearity because of t h e resulting drastic reduction in power g a i n ; f u r t h e r m o r e , neutralization is difficult f o r l a r g e signals because p a r a m e t e r s such a s outl)ut capacitance and o u t p u t and i n p u t impctlances v a r y nonlinearly over t h e limits of signal swing. In low-power linear amplifiers, t h e use of temperature-conll)ensali n g circuits is sometimes not nccess a r y provided t h a t the t r a n s i s t o r o u t p u t power is less t h a n 50 p e r cent of i t s n l a x i n ~ u mcm power r a t ing. The RCA-2N5070 t r a n s i s t o r i s
CASE TEMPERATURE -OC
I-
(b)
Fig. 223- 2-to-30-MHz lirrear power atnplifier.

RCA
Fig. 222-Prrjor~rrorrcc cl~nrncterislics /or. rlrc 30-AlHi otr~pli/ier: a ) c o l l ~ ~ c t o r ( crrrrcrrt or o frrrrcliorr o f cose lerrrperatrrre 11.illi crfld ~~~itlrortt rorrpernrrrre corrrpc~rrsatiori; ( h ) orrtprrt pou,cr arid irrter~rrodrrlotio~~ distorrinrl ns o jrrrrclior~ 01 cose rerrrpernrrtrc.
50-OHM
Because both i n p u t and o u t p u t a r e isolated t h r o u g h rf choltes, the e x t e r n a l circuit provides conlpensation ~ v i t h o u td e g r a d i n g t h e rf pcrformance of t h e p o x e r amplifier. F i g . 222(b) shows t h a t no apprcc i a l ~ l edecrease in o u t p u t power nor much incrcase in t h e third-order IRT distortion occurs with increasing case t e m p e r a t u r e u p t o T I = 130C. T h e slight decrease in distortion,
BIAS
v c ~ ~V 8 2
Fig. 224-2-to-30-AfHz,
130-watt (PEP) push-pull littear arriplifier.
' 156
!
R F Power Amplification and Generation

only to specific military applications, they a r e representative of the general design techniques used in all military vhf and uhf radio equipment.
157
uses a pair of 40675 transistors. Typical performance curves f o r this amplifier a r e shown in Fig. 225.
sets minimum requirements on radio performance which a r e based on the maximuln authorized altitudes for the plane, whcthcr paying passcngers a r e carried, and on the RUa thorization for instrument flying. The F A A gives a desirable TSO certification to radio equipment t h a t satisfies thcir standards of airworthiness. The FCC checlcs aircraft-radio transmitter designs for interference and other electrical characteristics ( a s i t does all transmitters). Additional requirements a r e specified f o r radios intended for use by scheduled airlines by a corporation supported by the airlines themselves. I L w FREQUENCY -MHz Fig. 226 shows a broadband ali~plifier t h a t can supply 15 watts- of Fig. 225-Tjpicol pcrfornmrrcc crrrves f o r carrier power f o r aircraft transntrrpli{icr show~r irr fig. 224. mitters,
J
Sonobuoy Transmitters
A sonobuoy is a floating submarine-detecting device t h a t incorporates a n underwater sound detector (hydrophone). The audio signals 'eceived a r e converted to a frequency-modulated rf signal which is transmitted to patrolling aircraft o r surface vessels. The buoy is battery-operated and is designed to have a very limited active life. Typical requirements f o r the rftransnlitter section of the sonobuoy a r e a s follows: Frequency = 165 MHz Supply Voltage = 8 to 15 volts CW Output = 0.25 to 1.5 watts Over-all Eficiency = 50 per cent Harmonic Output = 40 dB down from carrier Figure 227 shows the circuit configuration of a n experimental sonoI)uoy transmitter designed to prodltce a power output of 2 watts a t l(i0 MHz. Only three stages, including the crystal-controlled oscillator
OSCILLATOR- QUADRUPLER
AIRCRAFT RADIO
I
The aircraft radios discussed in this ser:tion a r e of the type used for communication between the pilot and t l ~ eairport tower. The transmitter opcrates in an AM mode on specific chnrincls between 118 and 1313 nIHz. Radios of this type a r e rrgulatecl by both the FCC and the FAA (Federal Aeronautics Adniinistration). The FCC assigns frequencies t o airports and places some requirements on the transmitters, particularly a s regards spurious radiation and interference. The FAA
VHF AND UHF MILITARY RADIO

Military radios, which operate i n the vhf and uhf ranges, vary greatly in requirements. Telemetering devices may operate with a s little output a s 0.25 watt, while communication systems may require outputs of 50 watts and more. Dlodulation mny be AM, FRI, PM (pulsc modulation), o r 1JCR.I (pulse-code niodulation). Equipment may be dcsigned for fixed, mobile, airborne, or even space applications. Althougll the circuits described in this section apply
section, a r e required. Efficiency is greater than 50 per cent (overall) with a battery supply of 12 to 15 volts. The 2N3866 or 2N4427 transistor can be used in a class A oscillatorquadrupler circuit which is capable of delivering 40 milliwatts of rf power at 80 MHz. Narrow-band frequency modulation is accomplished by "pulling" of the crystal oscillator. The crystal is operated in i t s fundamental mode at 20 MHz. The oscillator is broadly tuned to 20 MHz in the emitter circuit and is sharply tuned to 80 MHz in the collector circuit. The supply voltage to the oscillator section is regulated a t 12 volts by means of a Zener diode. Spectrum-analyzer tests indicate t h a t this stage is highly stable even though rather high operating levels a r e used. The oscillator-quadrupler section is followed by a 2N3553 class C doubler stage. This stage delivers a power output of 250 milliwatts a t 160 MHz from a 12- to 15-volt supply. The over-all output of the sonobuoy can be adjusted by varying the emitter resistance of this stage. The final power output is developed by a n RCA-2N2711 transistor which operates a s a straight-through class C amplifier at 160 MHz. A p i
DOUBLER
Fi& 226-Anrpli1rcdr-r1to~Itrl~1ed broodbrtrrrl r~r~rplifier r 118-to-136-AfHz opcrctrio~l. fo
Fig. 227-2-1t~otI (rJ power otctprcf) sottobrroy frar~srrriffer.
158

Sonobuoy circuits, in general, must be reliable, simple, and low in cost. The three-stage transmitter circuit shown in Fig. 227 is intended to be representative of the general design techniques used in these systems. IIowever, four-stage sonobuoy transmitter systems a r e also in common use a t the present time. Typically, a four-stage arrangement consists of a n oscillator-tripler stage, a second tripler stage, a buffer stage. and a final amplifier stage. Most present-day sonobuoy applications require CW power output between 0.25 and 0.5 watt.

AUOIO INPUT
network matches this output to the 50-ohm line. The spurious output (measured directly a t the output port) is more than 35 d B down from t h e carrier. This suppression is achieved l,y means of series resonant t r a p circuits between stages and the use of the pi network in the output. hlany sonobuoy systems require power outputs in the range of only 0.25 to 0.5 watt, preferably with a supply voltage of 8 to 12 volts. The 2N4427 transistor is suitable for use a s the doubler and also the final output device in such low-power applications. Fig. 228 shows a diagram of a n output stage which uses the 2N4427 a s a straight-through 175MHz class C amplifier. This circuit can deliver output power of more than 500 milliwatts with a supply voltage of 10 volts and a drive power of GO milliwatts.
POUT=300
mW (CARRIER)
Air-Rescue Beacon
The air-rescue beacon is intended to aid rescue teams in locating airplane crew members forced down on land o r a t sea. The beacons a r e amplitude-modulated or continuoustone line-of-sight transmitters. They a r e battery-operated and . small enough to be included in survival gear. Typical requirements f o r rescue beacons a r e a s follows: Frequency = 243 MHz (fixed) Power Output = 300 milliwatts (carrier) Efficiency = greater than 50 per cent Supply Voltage = 6 to 12 volts Modulation = AM, up t o '100 per cent The 2N4427 transistor is especially suited for this service. A general circuit for the driver and output stages is shown in Fig. 229. Collector modulation, a s well a s some driver modulation, is used to achieve good down-modulation of the final amplifier. Conventional transformerCoupled modulation is used; however, a separate power supply and resistor network in the driver circuit a r e provided to adjust the modulation level of this stage independently of the output stage. The rf-amplifier design is conventional; pi- and T-matching networks a r e used; simpler circuits (e.g.,
"
Fig. 229- Driver and output stage for a 243-MHz beacon fransrt~iifer.
device-resonated tapped coils), however, could be used. The T-matching network a t the driver input is used to match the amplifier to a 50-ohm source for test purposes. A 10-to-20milliwatt input signal is needed to develop a 300-to-400-milliwatt carrier output level.
Broadband Power Amalifier

R F power transistors a r e often used in broadband amplifier circuits for comniercial and military applications. Transistor transmitters are superior to tube transmittem a i t h respect to broadband capability, reliability, size, and weight. The aircraft communication bands of 116 to 152 MHz (discusscd in previous section) and 225 to 400 MIIz a r e of interest for both military and commcrciill al)plications. Another area of interest is ECRI (electronic counter-measures equipment) applications. Transistors suitable for 1)roadband analications must be capable of pro;iding both the required
F i g . 228--05-\cart 175-MHz sot~ohltoy 1-1 ~ O I I ' E t t f p l ~ tstage. o~
'
F o r the lower power-output requirement a t low supply voltages, the oscillator-quadrupler stage should use lower-power transistors such a s the 2N1491 o r 2N914. Only 10 to 15 milliwatts of fourth harmonic power is required in this case. The bias-network resistors ( R r and Ra) should be adjusted for reliable oscillator starting conditions a t these lower supply voltages.
power output within t h e entire frequency range of interest and constant gain within the pass band. The bandwith of a transistor power amplifier i s limited by the following three factors: (1) intrinsic transistor structure, (2) transistor parasitics, and (3) external circuits such as input and output circuits. Transistor Structure+The parameters which determine the bandwidth of a transistor structure are t h e emitter-to-collector transit time, the collector depletion-layer capacitance, and the base-spreading resistance. The emitter-to-collector transit time, which represents the sum of the emitter capacitance charging delay, the base transit time, and the collector depletion-layer transit time, affects the over-all time of response t o an input signal. The emitter-tocollector transit time i s inversely proportional to t h e gain-bandwidth product f~ of the transistor. A high f~ is essential for broadband operation; in addition, a constant f T with

current level is required for largeof Fig. 230(a) from f l to fr.. External signal operation. The ratio of the feedback is then applied to control f~ to the product of the base-spread- the input drive and flatten the power ing resistance and the collector de- output over a broad frequency band. pletion-layer capacitance (rl,C,.)c o w rises the gain function of a transistor. Under conjugate-inatclied input and output conditions, the power gain, which is equal to f.r/8;f2r~oC,, falls off a t a rate of 6 dB per octave. In a pow-el- amplifier, the power gnin is usually decieased by less than G dB per octave, a s shown in I'ig. 230(a), hecause the load resistance FREQUENCY HI, presented to the collector is not equal to the output resistance of the transistor but is dictated by the required power output and the collector voltage swiug. The curve in Fig. 230(a) indicates t h a t one approach to achieving n broadl)and transistor amplifier is to optimize the matching a t the higher end of the freclucncy band and to introduce mis~natcli in the input or output, o r both, a t the lower end of the band so that a constant power output i s obtained from ft to f,; this latter approach is shown in Fia. 230(b). The power output that can be obtained with a transistor broadband a~nplifieris comparable lo that measured a t the high end of the Fig. 2 3 0 - 4 0 ) Or~lprrtpolcwr as a f~rrirtiorr band in a narrowband amplifier; efliciency and power gain a r e slightly of jreqrrer~cy iri art nrrrplijicr arirh corrlower than in a narrowband anipli- jtr,qa/e-rrtatchcd irrprrt artd orrcprrt corrditiorrs; (6) a rrtetlrod of correctirr.~rlir deficr because the load and source imcrease irl power gain-shosvr irt (a). pedance cannot be ideally matchcd to the transistor over a broad freParasitic Limitation- Evcry disquency band. The disadvantage of crete transistor contains parasitic this approach to producing a broad- elements which inipose further limiband t r a n ~ i s t o ramplifier is the ye- tations on bandwidth. The most sultant lelntivrly high input VSWR critical parasitics arc the emittera t the low rnd of the band. lcad inductance L, and the base inA more sophisticatcd approach to ductance L I , . Thcsc parasitic inachieving bro:tdband l~erfornianceis 'ductances range from 0.1 to 3 to considcr the transistor structurc. nanohcnries in conime~cially availthe transistor parasitic elements, able rf power transistors. In the and the external circuits ac part of simple equivalent c i r c ~ ~ of a comit the over-all Iinnd-l~ass s t r u c t ~ u in mon-emtter transisto1 input circuit c, wliich the input and output cirrl~its a t high frequency show~l Fig. 231, in are couplcd togethcr by thc transise the i ~ ~ d u c t a n r LI,, represents the toi. f c c d l ~ n r krapncit:~ncc.T1.k I - q m - st1111 or the base palasitic inductance bined structure ~.cprod~lccs the and the rcfccted emitter 1)al.nsitic lio\vcr-outpnt or ] ) o n ~ ~ . - g a ic111.v~ inductance; I t ! , , is the dynn~nicillput n

resistance. The real part of t h e impedance, R,,, is inversely proportional to the collector area and the power-output capability of the device; i.e., the higher the power output, the lower the value of Ron. A low ratio of the reactance of LI. to R,,is important as the first step in broadband amplifier design. Unless the reactance of LI. is appreciably lower than the input resistance Rot,, the reactance must be tuned out and thus the bandwidth limited.
161
0
F;. ~ -
E ~ ~ ~ i ~ r I i ~c I i I o I l t l rf polver ~rarwistor.
External Circuits- For a broadhand amplifier circuit to deliver constant power output over t h e frequency range of interest, a proper
collector load must be maintained to provide the necessary voltage and current swings. I n addition, the input matching network must be capable of transforming the low input impedance of the transistor to a relatively high source impedance. Suitable output circuits f o r broadband amplifiers includes constant-K low-pass filters, Chebyshev filters (both transmission-line and lumpedconstant types), baluns, and tapered lines. Fig. 232(a) shows a conventional constant-K low-pass filter. The in7 put impedance Zll is substantially constant a t frequencies below the cutoff frequency U. = (LrCr)'". A cons t a n t collector load resistance can be obtained if the shunt arm (1-1) of Cn is split into two capacitances, a s shown in Fie. 232(b). P a r t of the . . capacitance represents the output capacitance of the transistor, Co; the other p a r t has a value which makes the total capacitance equal t o CK. Further improvement of bandwidth can be obtained by t h e cascading of more sections.
F i ~ r 232-A corn~eritiorralcorutar~t-Klowpass lilfer (a), a rrrerhod of obrair~inga constarit . collector lood resisrarrce (b).a short-step rtricrostrip irlrpedance rransformer (c), a lumped eqrtivalenr Cliebysl~rv impedance Irarisformer (d).
162

pass filter. If the cutoff frequency , = 1/(L,,C)Ih i s high compared t o the frequency of interest (f. in Fig. 230), the total conlhilled input impedance of the transistor input and t h e capacitance C is approximately R I , , / ( l - ), '" and is constant if The remaining step in broadband transistor power amplifier design is the design of a network to provide the necessary impedance transfornlation over t h e entire frequency band. Circuits suitable f o r the input include multisection constant-K filters, Chebyshev filters, and tapered lines. A more sop}~isticated approach t o obtaining a broadband transformation in the input is to t r e a t t h e parasitic inductance L I n of Fig. 233 a s part of the transformation netw o rk. For example, LI,, can be con- ,, sitlered a s one a r m of the Chehyshev low-pass filter of Fig. 232(d). F o r a given bandpass characteristic, the number of sections increases with . the value of LI.. Again, therefore, low package parasitic inductance is inl~ortant(,"/,,.')<<
Fig. 232(c) shows a short-step niicrostrip impedance transformer which consists of short lengths of . relatively high-impedance t r a n s ~ n i s sion line alternating with short lengths of relatively low-impedance transmission line. The sections of transn~ission line a r e all of the same length Af16). A constant load resistance can be maintained across the collector-emitter terminals over a wide frequency band if the circuit is designed to include a Chebyshev transmission characteristic. Fig. 232(d) shows a lumped-element Chel)ysliev impedance transformer which consists of a ladder network of series inductances and shunt capacitances. Transmission-line as well a s strip-line baluns with diflerent stepdoJr.n ratios (4 to 1, 9 to 1, and 16 t~ 1 ) can also he used in the output to provide the broadl~andimpedance transformation. Olle dificulty encountered in broadband transistor-power-allIp]ifier design involves the attainment of the desired bandwitlth in a n input circuit which provides the required impedance transformation from the extremely low input impedance of a transistor to a relatively high source inipcdance. The design of the input circuit dcpends on the approach chosen: optimization of the match a t the high end only, or the use of transistor parasitic elcmcnts a s p a r t of a low-pass structurc. A sunple \vay of optimizing the match a t t h e high end is t o introduce a capacitance between the base and the emitter terminals of the transistor to tune out the reactive p a r t of t h e parallel equivalent input in?pedance of the transistor. The networks in Fig. 233 show t h a t the lower the inductance L,, or QI,,, the less frequency-sensitive is the equivalent parallel resistance R,,. The networks shown provide a first step-up transformation for the real part of the input impedance of the is contransistor. w h e n a nected to the network of Fig. 233(a), the circuit has the same f o n n a s a half-section of a constant-K low-
JI
I
1.
Fig. 234-225-ro-400-MHz
broadband artrplifier rrsirrg ZN5919.
I
a n RCA 2N5919 transistor in conjunction with a Chebyshev input and butput. Fig. 235 shows typical perfonnance curves f o r this circuit. With a n input of 4 watts, the circuit is capable of a minimum power output of 15 watts with a variation of 1.5 dB from 225 to 400 MHz; t h e collector efficiency is greater t h a n 70 per cent.
MICROWAVE POWER AMPLIFIERS

The power-output and frequency capabilities of rf power transistors have been increased many-fold during recent years so t h a t the frequency spectrum over which these devices can provide useful power output now extends well into the microwave regjon. In comparisons of transistor performances. eain and efficiencv., a s ~. well a s power output and frequency, a r e important considerations. The use of more than one low-gain t r a nsistor to obtain t h e same gain a s one high-gain transistor results in reduced collector efficiency. F o r example, Fig. 236 illustrates t h e use of two transistors which have t h e same power output, but different gain and collector efficiency. The high-gain unit shown in Fig. 236(a) is capable of delivering a n output of 10 watts a t 1 GHz with a gain of 10 dB and a collector efficiency of 50 Der cent. The low-gain unit shown in Fig. 236(b) i s also capable of 10 watts output a t 1 GHZ, but with a gain of only 5 dB and a collector efficiency of only 30 per cent.
- - -
I
Xin' ~ L i n
pincXin/Rin (a)
i I
I 1
at
COLLECTOR SUPPLY VOLTAGE (Vccb 2 8 V
X~~.X~~[I+I/(Q~~I~]
(bl
I
I
5025
O W
Re [yBE]
'
l/Rin(l +pin2) (w/w012 - 1
>
C
xin [
(cl
I ~ I / ( O ~ ~ ) ~ ]
i1
I
INPUT, VSWR
*
225
3 Q
Z-
2.1 1.1
Fig. 233-Ne~!rorks der~rorrsrrnri~rr:rlre eflccf OI i)rducfnrrce Lln. Qln 011 c(/rrib)alerrr parallel resismt~ce R,,,.
250 275 300 325 350 375 400 FREQUENCY ( f )-MHz
Fig. 235-Typicnl
hrondbarld perforr,rorrce
Fig. 234 shows a 225-to-400MHz broadband amplifier t h a t uses
of rlre 225-ro-400-MHz arrrplifier circrrit
sho~vtr ir~Fig. 234.

As shown in Fig. 236, two low-gain transistors a r e required to provide t,hc samc performance a s one I i i ~ h gain, high-efliciency unit. Besides using an additional transistor, the system of Fig. 236(b) requires twice a s much dc power a s t h a t of Fig. "(;(a); the additional 5 dB of gain required to match the high-gain transistor can I)e achieved only a t the expense of 24 watts of dc power. w a t t a t 1 GHz with a 28-volt power supply. The transistor enlitter is directly grounded to t h e ground plane of the strip-line circuit board. The input circuit consists of capacitors CI and C2 and the parasitic lead inductance of the 2N5108 transistor.
50 n OUTPUT

50 t l
RFC
-4-
NOTE:
RFC IS 3 TURNS N0.32 WIRE, 1/16" ID X 3/16" LONG
+"CC
20 WATTS
PIN'
l WATT
la)
Po =
t
TRANSISTOR I
I0 W T S AT
COAXIAL OUTPUT
' & - F F } I
pdcl ' 10.5 W T S AT
WATTS
Pdc2'
33.5 WATTS
I0 WATTS COAXIAL INPUT 'ORON CONNECTOR i SLEEVE
Fig. 237- I-GHz power a~rr/)li/irr ~rsirr!: 2 N5 108 ~rrtrzsis~or.

lGz H
l
Gz H
MATERIAL: CENTER CONDUCTOR-COPPER OUTER CONDUCTOR FOR INPUT AND OUTPUT-BRASS CONHEX 50-045-0000 SEALECTRO CORE. OR EOUIV.
The output circuit uses a capacitively loaded 50-ohm section of stripTOTAL Po line which is resonant a t the operTOTAL COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY = ating frequency. The amplifier powpdcl +pdc2 er gain is in the order of 6 dB; collector efficiency i s about 35 per cent. The RCA-2N5921 coaxial transisFi.p. 23(j-Corrrporisor~ o f orre o~rrl f ~ v o - t o r is designed for operation a t high rmrrsitor s).sterrrs ivitll tlre strrrre power L-band o r low S-band frequencies. orrt~1rrr hrtr d i f l r r o r ~ ~nirr orrd collecror Fig. 238(a) shows a coaxial-line ameficicr~cies. plifier circuit which can provide 6 watts of output power a t 2 GHz From the practical point of view, with a 28-volt power supply. I n this the system of Fig. 236(b) is more circuit, the coaxial transistor i s coml>lex, and the higher dissipation placed in series with the center conof the output transistor is undcsir- ductors of the coaxial lines, and the able. base is properly grounded to sepThc 2N510R transistor can IIC used a r a t e the input and output cavities. in t h e comnion-emitter amplificr The input line L,, in conjunction nlode a t 1,-band frequencies. A typ- with capacitance Cl and CL', transical circuit configulation capable of forms the complex input impedance operation in the 1-to-1.5-GHz range to 50 ohms of real resistance. is sIio\vn in Fig. 237. This circuit The transistor output load impedcan provide a n output power of 1 ance required f o r a 6-watt output
TOTAL Po= P I N(PGI.PG2)
1 2
I n
40 I I -
1 0
5"
z
O
5
LL
e
2
1.2
1.4 1.6 18 . 2 FREQUENCY (t)-GHz
2.2
24
Fig. 238-.4 coaxial-line arrlplifier circrrfl that can provide 6 worts o f ortrprir power at 2 G H z w,ith a 28-volt supply: ( 0 ) circrtit diograr~r;( h ) the Irard~oarereqrtired for rhe circltir in (a); (c) rf power orttprtt as a jlrrrction of freqrterlcy f o r the 2N5921 Irarrsistor.
i s 2.5 -I- j2.4 ohms a t 2 GBz; t h e combination of a 7.8-ohm line L 2 (1-inch long) and capacitors C and 7 C,, provides the transformation from 50 ohms to this value. The hardware required in the circuit of Fig. 238(a) is shown in Fig. 238(b). A heat sink i s provided by pressing the flange of the transistor to t h e outside conductor of the cavities. Additional heat flow is obtained through the use of a boron nitride cylinder which makes direct contact between the coaxial-line conductors over the entire length of t h e cavity. This arrangement improves heat conduction and thus is more suitable f o r high-power microwave. transistors. In addition, the boron nitride, which has electrical and thermal properties comparable to aluminum oxide, i s readily machineable and nontoxic. As a result of the use of the boron-nitride cylinder, coaxial-line lengths a r e substantially reduced. When operated a t 28 volts, t h e circuit of Fig. 238(a) can deliver cw power output of 6 watts a t a gain of 7 dB; collector efficiency i s greater than 45 per cent. Because of the excellent input and output circuit isolation (within the 2N5921 transistor a s well a s in this coaxial circuit design), t h e common-base circuit configuration shown in Fig. 238 i s extremely stable. Fig. 238(c) shows the power output a s a function of frequency of a 2N5921 transistor a t 28 volts. It has been established t h a t a well-designed coaxial transistor packa g e (such a s the 2N5921) generally outperforms other transistor packages (including strip-line packages) a t microwave frequencies. This performance can be related t o t h e low values of the parasitic elements and the excellent isolation between t h e input and output circuits which is possible in the coaxial configuration. Coaxial transistors can also be used in microstrip o r strip-line amplifier circuits which have thermal and electrical performance equal t o t h a t of t h e coaxial-line circuits.
166

collector stud to the metal block; the block also serves a s both a heat sink and a ground. The diameters of the holes through the metal block and the cylinder of beryllium oxide (or boron nitride) a r e determined by the desired characteristic impedance of the short coaxial-line section which is formed by this mounting technique. The beryllium oxide and boron nitride have excellent heat conductivity and low electrical losses and thus provide satisfactory heat dissipation from the coaxial transistor without adversely affecting the rf performance. The arrangement shown in Fig. 239(a) is suitable for use in microstrip, strip-line, and lumped-element circuits. The output circuit can be constructed on the top portion of the metal bloclc and the input circuit on the bottom portion. This a r - a rangement provides excellent isobtion between the input and ,output circuits. For example, Fig. 239(b) shows the construction of the microstrip-line circuit. The output circuit is constructed of standard microstrip line mounted on the top surface of the metal block. The input circuit is constructed of another microstrip line placed directly over the bottom surface of the metal block. A strip-line circuit can be formed by placing. another strip of dielectric material and round plane above the conductor strips of Fig. In the microstrip amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 240, a 2N5921 transistor is mounted in a 0.350-inch-ID hole in a 0.210-inch-thick aluminum block. The base flange is mounted flush to one surface of this block. The collector section, however, is mounted through the hole in the 'block; a boron-nitride sleeve in the hole serves a s an additional heat sink for the transistor. The input and output lines a r e thin (5-mil) copper strips that a r e taped down on 5-mil Dupont H-Film,*

which serves a s the dielectric medium of the nlicrostrip circuit. The circuits a r e fixed-tuned a t about 2 GHz. The ceramic capacitors CI and C (used f o r dc isolation a t the input . and output ports) a r e slightly inductive a t 2 GHz. The electrical performance of the circuit is equal to t h a t of the coaxial-cavity circuit shown in Fig. 238.
167
Fig. 239(a) shows the circuit mounting arrangement of the 2N5921 coaxial transistor. The transistor is mounted vertically in a llole through a metal block. The cross-sectional view of the metal block can also be seen in Fig. 239(a). The bottom side of the metal block is counterbored so that the base flange of the transistor can be placed flush with the metal 1)lock. The hole throug-11 the metal block has a soniewhat larger diameter than that of the ceramic portion of the transistor which separates the base flange and the collector stud. A cylinder of beryllium oxide o r boron nitride is press-fit between the transistor and the metal block to provide an additional heat-conducting path from the
COLLECTOR TERMINAL
I
!
II
I
RFc
wRFc
with a gain of 6 dB. The collector efficiency is 43 per cent, and the 3-dB bandwidth i s 12 per cent. The performance of this microstrip-line amplifier is equivalent to that of a cavity o r coaxial-line amplifier circuit. A similar 1.5-GHz amplifier is shown in Fig. 241(b). The output circuit of this amplifier is constructed on 1132-inch Teflon fiberglass board which is mounted on one surface of a n aluminum block. The input line is constructed on the opposite side of the aluminum block; the block serves a s the ground plane of the line. The input line is formed by mounting a 5-mil copper sheet over a 5-mil dielectric sheet (DuPont H-film) which is placed directly over
Z SHORT SECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE FORMED BY COLLECTOR STUD SURROUNDING METAL B A R (CHASSISI
MITTER
(a)
INE
ET)
I
F g 241(a) shows the configurai. tion for a 2-GHz alnplifier t h a t uses the same layout a s t h a t shown in Fig. 239. The metal block is aluminum. The input and output circuits are constructed on 1132-inch Teflon* fiberglass board which i s mounted atop the aluminum so t h a t the input and output lines a r e on opposite sides of the aluminum block. When operated a t 28 volts with a typical 2N5470 transistor in the circuit, the 2-GHz amplifier can deliver a power output of 1.2 watts
~
INPUT(EMITTER) LINE (COPPER SHEET)
I b)
I
i
Fi,r. 239-fn) Circrtir rtrorrrtri~~g nvvorrperlrcsrlr of rlrr RCA-?N5921 coo.~iol trnrrsisror, nrrd fhl n ~rlicroslrip-lirre circrrit r~lnkirr~ of the arrc~riga~rrrrrr ((1). rtse irr
* Registered trademark, Dupont

DeNemours & Co.
* Kegistercd
trademark. Dupont
DeNemours & Co.
Fig. 241- (a) A 2- GHz, arrd Ib) a 1.5-GHz striplit~e at~rplifier usirrg t l ~ etype 2N5470 rransistor.
168
RCA Traillsistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

transistor configuration is not too .tvell defined in these oscillator circuits, the device can be grounded in high-frequency operation a t the collector, the base, or the emitter without affecting its performance.

TYPE
169
thc nlunlinum bloclr surface. This amplifier circuit, when operated a t 28 volts with a typical 2N5470 transistor included, can providc output power of 1.5 watts with a gain of 8.5 d B and a collector efficiency of 50 per ccnt.
MICROWAVE POWER GENERATION

Microwave power can he gene]-ated
by operation of a power tlansistor
7 ' ~
F
9
a s a fundalnental-frequency oscillator o r a s an amplifier incorporated with a low-po~ver,crystal-controllecl multiplier chain. Both modes of operation a r e important in n~icrowave applications. Fundan~erital-frequency oscillators are now widely used in local oscillators and sonde oscillators, and for backward-wave oscillator (BWO) replacement. Fundamental-Frequency Oscillators
power output of this circuit is typically 0.3 watt; t h e efficiency is in t h e order of 1 G p e r cent. The collector is grounded and power output is taken from the base circuit. All leads in the circuit must be kept a s short a s possible for highest frequency response. Capacitor C, forms a part of the feedback loop of the circuit, which is basically a Hartley arrangement because L, and the parastic inductances of C, make u p a tapped inductor in the feedback loop. Capacitor C is used for tuning while n capacitor Cs is used f o r maintaining output match with tuning.
lo
COLPITTS
( b ) HARTLEY
"cc
Fig. 243-1.68-GHz j~mdanrental-jreq~certcy oscillafiotz usit~g 2NSIO8 rratrrisror. a
LC
) CLAPP
4
-"cc
+kc
RI
c4
R3
(I T
Transistors capable of power amplification are also suitable for pow- Fig. 242-Basic transisfor oscillaror cire r oscillation. The most important cuits: (a) Colpirts, (6) Ifarrley, attd p a r t of every oscillator is a n elefc) Clapp. ment of amplificntion. I t is then necessary only to provide a path that fecds back a p a r t of the power outL-Band Oscillators- Fig. 243 sho~vs put to the input in the proper phase the circuit configuration of a 1.68and a source of dc powcr. The rnaxi- CIIz fundamental-frequency oscillanium frcqucncy of oscillation, which tor which uses the 2N5108 transistor. is related to f,,, in a small-signal This transistor is pacltaged in sr TOtransistor, is usually difficult to dc30 case, and its collector is grounclcd fine in a niicromave power transistor to the ground plane of a 1116-inch Tebecaose of the added parasitic ele- flon-fiberglass microstripline board. mcnts. The circuit-design for an os- Power output is talten from the Imse cillator circuit is similar to that disthrough a 0.75-inch section of 50cussed previously f o r amplifier cir- ohm microstripline and the capacicuits. tor network composed of C, and C.. Fig. 242 shows Colpitts,. Rartley, Power output greater than 0.3 w a t t 2nd Clapp transistor oscillators suit- can be obtained a t 1.08 GHz with able for use in nlicrowave applica- the 2N5108 transistor. Transistor tions. The inductances and the ca- -efficiency is 20 per cent a t a supply pncitnnces of the oscillntor shown in voltage of 25 volts. Fig. 242(a) can sometimes be conThe basic oscillator circuit shown sidered a s the parasitic clcments in Fig. 243 is useful over thc range of the pacltage. Such parasitic of 1 to 2 G H z with only slight modielements can he used to form a fications in the length of the transtransistor oscillator capable of op- mission line L,. F o r example, a n ineration a t microvave frequencies crease of line length to 0.80 inch provided the f rcquency of oscilla- optimizes the circuit for operation tion can be controlled. Although the a t 1.6 GHz. Output power of 400
milliwatts (with a 24-volt supply) can be expected a t this frequency. In another interesting modification of the 0.80-inch line, operation is optimized at 1.25 GHz when capacitor Ce is moved to the dotted position. This modification results in a n improved output transformation network wliich can develop better than 800 milliwatts of output power a t 1.25 GHz with the 24-volt supply. S-Rand Oscillators- Although the 2N5470 coaxial transistor is designed for stable operation in the commonbase amplifier mode a t 2.3 GHz, i t can also deliver a Power output of 0.3 watt a t 2.3 GHz a s an oscillator. In this device, t h e very low values of the parasitic elements a r e used to simplify circuit requirements; f o r example, lumped-constant, S-band circuits can be designed around this unit. However, because of the low feedback capacitances of the unit, exte nal feedback loops a r e needed f o r sustained oscillation a t S-band frequencies. Fig. 244 shows a sinlple lumpedconstant circuit using t h e 2N5470 transistor. The circuit is tunable over the range of 1 8 to 2.3 GHz. . A t 2 GHz with a 24-volt supply, the
c31pQ
<1
Fig. 244-~ Z-GHr Irtr,lped-constarrr 0scillaror using a 2N5470 Irarrsistor.
Fig. 245 shows another oscillator circuit, a Colpitts type, in which the 2N5470 transistor can be used over the range of 1 8 to 2.2 GHz. The . base of the transistor is directly grounded to the ground plane on t h e strip-line board; collector heat i s conducted to this board through a bery]liunl oxide insulating washer. Feedback is provided by t h e phaseresonant loop composed of L and C,. The output line makes use of standard microstrip-line techniques: L2 provides the reactance needed t o tune out the output capacitance; L , t
170

Varactor diodes a r e also used to provide frequency multiplication. Fig. 102 and associated text given previously in the section on Other Solid-State Diodes define the requirements f o r this type of application. 400-To-800-MHz Doubler-Fig. 246 shows the complete circuit diagram of a 400-to-800-MHz doubler that uses the 2N4012 transistor. This circuit uses lumped-element input and idler circuits-and a coaxial-cavity output circuit. The transistor is placed inside the cavity with its emitter properly grounded to the chassis. A pi section (C,, L,, L2, Cn, and Cr) is used in the input to match the impedances, a t 400 MHz, of the driving source and the base-emitter junction of the transistor. L? and C3 provide the necessary ground return f o r the nonlinear capacitance of the transistor. L and C, form the idler loop for the collector a t 400 MHz. The output circuit consists of an open-ended 1 '/a-inch-square coaxial cavity. A lumped capacitance C is added in series with a 1%-inch hollowcenter conductor of the cavity near the open end to provide adjustment for the electrical length. Power output a t 800 MHz is obtained by direct coupling from a point near the shorted end of the cavity.
171
n quarter-wave transforn~cr,trans-
forms the real collector load impcdance to about 50 ohms. This circuit can also produce about 0.3 watt output a t 2 GIlz with a 24-volt supply.
gain of the transistor a t the drive frequency and t h e conversion eficiency of the frequency-multiplier circuit. Conversion gain can be obtained only when the power gain of t h e transistor at the fundamental frequency is larger than the conversion loss of the circuit. Various types of instabilities can occur in transistor frequencymultiplier circuits, including lowfrequency resonances, parametric oscillations, hysteresis, and high-freson quency resonances. Low-frequency resonances occur because t h e gain of the transistor is very high a t low frequency compared to t h a t a t the operating frequency. "Hysteresis" refers to discontinuous mode jumps in output power when t h e input power o r frequency is increased or decreased. A tuned circuit used in the output coupling network h a s a different resonant frequency under strong drive than under weaker drivFig. 24.7-?&Hz ffrioostrip-lirrc o.~cillrtor ing conditions. I t has been found experimentally t h a t hysteresis effect ttsi~rg n 2N5470 tra~rsistor. can be minimized, and sometimes eliminated, by use of the commonTransistor Frequencyemitter configuration. Multiplier Circuits Perhaps the most troubleson~einnccause the output-current wave- stability in transistor frequencyform of power transistors can be multiplier circuits is high-frequency made to contain both fundamental resonance. Such instability shows up ant1 harmonic frequency components, in the form of oscillations at a frepower output can be obtained a t quency very close to the output frea desired harmonic frequency by use quency when the input drive power of a special type of output circuit is removed. This effect suggests t h a t coupled to the collector of the tran- the transistor under this condition sistor. Transistors can be connected behaves a s a locked oscillator a t the in either the common-base or the fundamental frequency. Commoncommon-emitter configuration f o r emitter circuits have been found to be less critical f o r high-f requency frequency n~ultiplication. The d e s i ~ n of transistor fre- oscillations than common-base cirquency-multiplier circuits consists of cuits. High-frequency resonance is selection of a suitable transistor and also strongly related to the input design of filtering and matching net- drive frequency, and can be elimiworks for optimunl circuit perform- n a t e d if the input frequency is kept ance. The transistor must be capable below a certain value. The input freof power and gain a t the funtlanien- quency a t which stable operation tal frequency and capable of con- can be obtained depends on the verting power from the fundan~ental method used to ground the enlitter to a harmonic frequency. A t a given of the transistor, and can be ininput power level, the output power creased by use of the shortest posa t a dcsil-ed harmonic frequency is sible path from the emitter to equal to the product of the power groiund.
Fig. 247 shows the power output a t 800 MHz a s a function of the power input a t 400 MHz for the doubler circuit, which uses a typical 2N4012 operated a t a collector supply voltage of 28 volts. The curve is nearly linear a t a power output level between 0.9 and 2.7 watts. The power output is 3.3 watts a t 800 MHz for a n input drive of 1 watt a t 400 MHz, and rises to 3.9 watts a s the input drive increases to 1.7 watts.
3.8
3.4
.*
P 1 3.0
$2.6
ge, a
18 .
1.0,
0.4
0.8
1.2
16 .
2.0
POWER INPUT-W
400 MHz
INPUT
t20 V
Fig. 247-Outpltt power n ~ t dcollector efficiency ns n fltrrctiotr o f irrprtl power for the 400-to-800-MHz frequerrcy dortbler.
The collector efficiency, which is defined a s the ratio of the rf power output to the dc power input a t a supply voltage of 28 volts, is also shown in Pig. 24'7. The efficiency is 43 per cent measured a t a n input power of 1 watt. The 3-dB bandwidth of this circuit measured a t power output of 3.3 watts is 2.5 per cent. The fundamental-frequency component measured at a powerOUTPUT output level of 3.3 watts is 22 dB 800 MHz down from the output carrier. Higher attenuations of spurious components can be achieved if more filFig. 246- 400-to-800-MHz c o ~ r z ~ ~ r o ~ t - e ~ t ~ i t tering sections a r e used. ter trarrsistor freqrrerrcy niultiplier.
172
173
the doubler shown in Fig. 246 except t h a t an additional idler loop, (L,, C,,) is added in shunt with the collector of the transistor. This idler loop is resonant with the transistor junction capacitance a t the second harmonic frequency (734 MHz) of the input drive. Fig. 250 shows the power output - of the tripler a t 1.1 GHz a s a func3.4 INPUT POWER= I W tion of the power input a t 367 MHz. This circuit also uses a typical 3.0 . 2N4012 transistor operated a t a collector supply voltage of 28 volts. 3 TYPE ZN4012 The solid-line curve shows the pow1 2.6 Ie r output obtained when the circuit / P 3 is retuned a t each power-input level. Fi22 The dashed-line curve shows the 0 power output obtained with the cirW P cuit tuned a t the 2.9-watt output g 1.8 level. A power output of 2.9 watts a a t 1.1 GHz is obtained with drive 14 of 1 watt a t 367 MHz. The 3-tlB bandwidth measured a t this power level is 2.3 per cent. The spurious1.0 10 14 18 22 26 30 frequency components measured a t tOLLECTOR SUPPLY VOLTAGEV the output a r e a s follows: -22 dB a t 340 MHz, -30 d B a t 680 MIIz, and Fig. 248-Po~vrr orrtprrf as a jltrrcriorr 01 -35 dB a t 1360 MHz. srrpplv ~'olrn,ce jor tllc 400-to-SOU-MHz The variation of power output with freqltolcy dotrbler. collector supply voltage a t an input drive level of I watt is shown in 367-To- 1100-MHz Triplcr-The 367-to-1100-MIIz tripler shown in Fig. 251. The variation of collector Fig. 249 is essentially the same a s eficiency is also shown. These curves were obtained with the circuit tuned a t 28 volts. INPUT A 367-MHz amplifier t h a t used 367 MHz the same circuit configuration and 9 components a s those of the tripler circuit shown in Fig. 249 was constructed to compare the performance between amplifier and tripler. The conversion efficiency for a large number of tripler units was then measured. The conversion efficiency of the tripler is defined a s the l.lGHz power obtained from the tripler divided by the 367-MHz power obtained from the amplifier a t the same power-input level ( 1 watt). The eficiency varies between 60 to 75 per cent, and has an average OUTPUT value of 65 per cent; this performI .I GHZ ance is comparable to that of a good Fig. 249-367-h4Hz-10-1 .I-GHz C O ~ I I I I Ovaractor multiplier in this frequency ~Ie~~ritter Ira~rsislor Ireqrte~~c)? rr-ipler. range.
r
The variation of power output with collector supply voltage a t an input drive level of 1 w a t t is shown in Fig. 248. This curve is obtained \vith the circuit tuned a t 28 volts. The curves of Figs. 247 and 248 indicate that the transistor amplifiermultiplier circuit is capable of amplitude modulation.
deliver a power output of 0.5 w a t t a t 1.5 GHz with a n input drive of 0.25 w a t t a t 500 MHz. 150-To-450-MHz Tripler CircuitFig. 252 illustrates the use of the 2N4012 transistor in a 150-to-450MHz frequency tripler. The input coupling network is designed to match the driving generator to the base-to-emitter circuit of the transistor. The network formed by CI and L?provides a ground return for harmonic output current a t 450 MHz. The idler network in the collector circuit (L, and C,) is deL,, signed to circulate fundamental and second-harmonic components of current through the voltage-variable collector-to-base capacitance, CI,~.
POWER INPUT-W
Fig. 250-Power orttprtt as a jrtrictiorr of
power input /or the 367-MHz-to-1.1-GHz freqrcer7cy rripler.

fi*
fo' 450 MHz
Fig. 252-150-to-450-MHz conirr~orr-emitrer lrar~sistor frequerlcy tripler.
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE-V
Fig. 251-Pow>cr orrfprrt as a jrorctiorr o f collcclor sltpp1.v ~ 0 l l l r ~ e 11ie 367-MHzfor to-1.1-Glfz jreqlterrcy tripler.
A similar tripler circuit that uses

a selected 2N3866 and t h a t is oper-
ated iron1 500 MHz to 1.5 GHz can
The network formed by C 1 CO, C I I G L,, and L provides the required coln lector loading for 450-MHz power output. Fig. 253 shows the 450-MHz power output of the tripler as a function of the 150-MHz power input. F o r driving power of one watt, power output of 2.8 watts is ob-
174

the 2.8-watt, 450-MHz level. The variation of power output with supply voltage is shown in Fig. 254.
tained a t 450 MHz. The rejection of fundamental, second, and fourth harmonics was measured a s 30 dB bclow
TV Deflection
I
--
- -
RF POWER INPUT AT 150 MHz-W
DC COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER VOLTS-V
Fi.p. 253-Po~-er ortrprrt as a jrtrrcriorr o f por.er itrpril for rlrc 150-to-450-Mff: jrcqrtefrcy Iriplcr.
Fig. 254-Power orctp~it ns o jltrrcrio~l oj collccror strpply voltage jor tlre 15O-to-450M H z freqrtorcy friplcr.
F o r reproduction of a transmitted number scanning lines. The field repepicture in a television receiver, the tition rate is thus 60 per second, and face of a cathode-ray tube is scanned the vertical scanning rate is 60 Hz. with an electron beam while the in- (For color systems, the vertical ! tensity of the beam is varied to con- scanning rate is 59.94 Hz.) I trol the enlitted light a t the phosphor The geometry of the standard oddI screen. The scanning is synchronized line interlaced, scanning pattern is with a scanned image a t the TV trans- illustrated in Fig. 255. The scanning mitter, and the black-through-white beam starts a t the upper left corner picture areas of the scanned image of the frame a t point A, and b e e p s are converted into an electrical sig- across the frame with uniform venal that controls the intensity of the locity to cover all the picture eleelectron beam in the picture tube a t ments in one horizontal line. At the ! ,;the receiver. ,lend of each trace, the beam is rapidly .. ., ,&. -. JPY 2q,t,.-./9 7 returned to the left side of the frame, I c "SCANNING Y UN D A M E N T a~ shown by the dashed line, to begin s -l + f --. the next horizontal line. The horizon.; ~. The scanning procedure used in tal lines slope downward in the diI the United States employs hori- rection of scanning because the " ",? zontal linear deflecting signal simultane1. , linejnterlaced produces a vertical scanning ' " .'scanning pattern for motion, which is very slow compared I /:Lb"' tems includes a total of 525 with the horizontal scanning speed. taAs~anninglines in a The slope of the horizontal line trace i J,c..pfram.~:having an aspect ratio of 4 from left to right is greater than the : 3 3 h e frames are repeated a t a slope of the retrace from right to left ! because the shorter time of the reof 30 per second, with two fields laced in each frame. The first trace does not allow a s much time each frame consists of all odd-number for vertical deflection of the beam. scanning lines, and the second field Thus, the beam is continuously and in each frame consists of all even- slowly deflected downward a s i t scans
i.f'
k:';
,;
Fig. 255-The odd-litre blrerlnced scarlnirlg procedure.

the horizontal lines, and its position is successively lower a s the horizontal scanning proceeds. At the bottom of the field, the vcrtical retrace begins, and the beam is brought back to the top of the frame to begin the second o r even-number field. The vertical '!flyback" t i ~ n eis very f a s t compared to the trace, but is slow conlpared to the horizontal scanning speed; therefore, some horizontal lines are produced during the vertical flyback. All odd-number fields begin a t point A in Fig. 255 and are the same All even-number fields begin a t point C and a r e the same. Because the beginning of the even-field scanning a t C is on the same horizontal level a s A, with a separation of one-half line, and the slope of all lines is the same, the even-number lines in the even fields fall exactly between the oddnumber lines in the odd field. until, a t the "blanking level" shown in the diagram, the amplitude represents a complete absence of light. This "black level" i s held constant a t a value equal to 75 per cent of the maximum amplitude of the signal during transmission. The remaining 25 per cent of the signal amplitude is used for synchronization information. Portions of the signal in this region (above the black level) cannot produce light. In the transmission of a television picture, the camera becomes inactive a t the conclusion of each horizontal line and no picture information is transmitted while the scanning beam is retracinfi to the beginning of the next line. The scanning beam of the receiver is maintained a t the black level during this retrace interval by means of the blanking pulse shown in Fig. 256. Immediately after the beginning of the blanking period, the signal amplitude rises further above the black level to provide a horizontal-synchronization pulse t h a t iniSYNC tiates the action of the horizontal In addition to picture information, scanning generator. When the botthe composite video signal from the ton1 line of the picture is reached, a r video detector of a television receiver s i n ~ i l avertical-synchronization pulse contains timing pulses to assure that initiates the action of the vertical the picture is produced on the face- scanning generator t o move t h e plate of the picture tube a t the right scanning spot back to the top of the instant and in the right location. pattern. The sync pulses in the con~posite These pulses, which a r e called sync pulses, control the horizontal and video signal a r e separated from the vertical scanning generators of the picture information in a sync-separator stage. a s shown in F i ~ s .257 receiver. and 258. This stage is biased suffiFig. 256 shows a portion of the detected video signal. When the picture ciently beyond cutoff so that current is hright, the amplitude of the signal flows and a n output signal is prois low. Successively deeper grays are duced only a t the peak positive represented by higher amplitudes swing of the input signal. I n the
MAXIMUM LEVEL
BLACK LEVEL OR BLANKING LEVEL
TV Deflection
diode circuit of Fig. 257, negative bias f o r the diode is developed by R and C a s a result of the flow of diode current on the positive extreme of signal input. The bias automatically adjusts itself so sync pulses have a repetition rate of 15,750 per second (one for each horizontal line) and a pulse width of 5.1 microseconds. (For color system, the repetition r a t e of the horizontal sync pulses is 15,734 per second.) The equalizing pulses have a width approximately half the horizontal pulse width, and a repetition rate of 31,500 per second; they occur a t half-line intervals, with six pulses immediately preceding and six following the vertical synchronizing pulse. The vertical pulse i s repeated a t a rate of 60 per second (one f o r each field). and h a s a width of approximately 190 microseconds. The serrations in t h e vertical ~ u l s e occur a t half-line intervals, diGding the complete pulse into six individual pulses t h a t provide horizontal synchronization during the vertical retrace. (Although the picture is blanked out during the vertical retrace time, i t is necessary to keep the horizontal scanning generator synchronized.) All the pulses described above a r e produced a t the transmitter by the synchronizing-pulse generator; their waveshapes and spacings a r e held .within very close tolerances to provide t h e required synchronization of receiver and transmitter scanning. The horizontal sync signals a r e separated from t h e total sync in a differentiating circuit t h a t h a s a short time constant compared to the width of the horizontal pulses. When the total sync signal is applied to the differentiating circuit shown in Fig. 260, the capacitor charges completely very soon a f t e r the leading edge of each pulse, and remains charged f o r a period of time equal to practically the entire pulse width. When the applied voltage is removed a t the time corresponding to t h e trailing edge of each pulse, the capacitor discharges completely within a very short time. As a result, a positive peak of voltage is obtained for each leading edge and a negative peak f o r the trailing edge of every pulse. One polarity i s produced b y the charging current f o r the leading edge of the applied pulse, and the
Fig. 257- Diode ~)~nc-separafor circrtit.
t h a t the peak positive swing of the input signal drives the anode of the diode positive and allows the flow of current only for the sync pulse. In the circuit shown in Fig. 258, the base-emitter junction of the transistor functions in the same manner a s the diode in Fig. 257, but in addition the .pulses a r e amplified.
Fig. 258- Transistor syr~c-separatorcircuit.
_I
25&&& UJ
ANFORMATION -- MAXIMUM WHITE

LEVEL
PICTURE
01
Fi,?. 256-Dct~.cfe[l video sigtlal.
After the synchronizing signals are separated from the composite video signal, i t is necessary t o filter out the horizontal and vertical sync signals so t h a t each can be applied to its respective deflection generator. This filtering is accomplished by RC circuits designed to filter out all but the desired synchronizing signals. Although the horizontal, vertical, and equalizing pulses are all rectangular pulses of the same amplitude, they differ in frequency and pulse width. a s shown in Fig. 259. The horizontal
178
HORIZ. EQUALIZING PULSES PULSES
63.5p3,

VERTICAL PULSE
TV Deflection
179
t h e vertical pulse begins. The equalizing pulses that follow the vertical pulse minimize any difference in t h e trailing edge of the vertical synchronizing signal for even and odd fields.
0.5H7
I90.5pS
LEADING EDGE
'-3H-l
\
\TRAILING EDGE
ODD
FIELDS
VERTICAL DEFLECTION
The vertical-deflection circuit in a television receiver is essentially a class A audio amplifier with a complex load line, severe low-frequency requirements (much lower than 60 H z ) , and a need f o r controlled linearity. The equivalent. low-frequency response f o r a 10-per-cent deviation from linearity is 1 Hz. A simple circuit configuration is shown in Fig. 262. The required performance can be obtained in a vertical-deflection circuit in any of three ways. The amplifier may be designed t o provide a flat response down to 1 Hz. This design, however, requires a n extremely large output transformer and immense capacitors. Another arrangement is to design the amplifier for fairly good low-f requency response and predistort the generated signal. The third method i s to provide ext r a gain so t h a t feedback techniques can be used to provide linearity. If loop feedback of 20 o r 30 dB is used,, transistor gain variations and nonlinearities become fairly insignificant. The feedback automatically provides the necessary "predistortion" to correct low-frequency limia
F ~ K259-I4'avefor111 of TV sy~rchrorrizi~~x . prtlsrs ( H = Irorizorrtal Iitrr period of 1115,750 sc'corrr1.s.or 63.5 as).
5.1 ps
opposite polarity is obtained from effect on horizontal timing. I t can be the discharge current corresponding seen t h a t although the total sync signal (including vertical synchroto the trailing edge of the pulse. As mentioned above, the serrations nizing information) is applied to the in the vertical pulse a r e inserted circuit of Fig. 260, only horizontal to provide the differentiated output synchronization infornlation appears needed to synchronize the horizontal a t the output. The vertical sync signal is sepascanning generator during the time of vertical synchronization. During rated from the total sync in a n intethe vertical blanking period, many grating circuit which h a s a time more voltage peaks a r e available constant t h a t i s long compared with than a r e necessary f o r horizontal the duration of the 5-microsecond" synchronization (only one pulse is horizontal pulses, but short compared used f o r each horizontal line period). with the 190-microsecond .vertical The check marks above the differen- pulse width. Fig. 261 shows the gentiated output in Fig. 260 indicate the eral circuit configuration used, tovoltage peaks used to synchronize gether with the input and output the horizontal deflection generator signals f o r both odd and even fields. f o r one field. Because the sync sys- The period between horizontal pulses, ten1 is made sensitive only to positive when no voltage is applied to the RC pulscs occurring a t approximately circuit, is so much longer than the the right horizontal timing, the nega- horizontal pulse width t h a t the capative sync pulses and alternate dif- citor has time to discharge almost ferentiated positive pulses produced down to zero. When the vertical pulse by the equalizing pulses and the ser- is applied, however, the integrated rated vertical information have no voltage across the capacitor builds
HORIZ. PULSES
--- ------- --
EVEN
n nn n m
FIELDS
-
INPUT
------- ----- -------- - - -- - - - - - - - \
OUTPUT
Fie. 261-Sepamtiort of lwrtical sytrc sigtrals fror~rthe total syrrc for odd and even fields ~viirk 110 eqltalizing pltlses. (Dashed Iirre iridicates triggerir~g level for vertical scarrtring getrerator.)
EQUALlZlNO PULSES
VERTICAL PULSE
EQUALIZING PULSES
PULSES
HORIZ.
'SYNC N P U T 0 ' 2-OHMS F E R E N T I A T E D I sE ~DlF OUTPUT
up to the value required f o r triggering the vertical scanning generator. This integrated voltage across the cnpacitor reaches its maximum amplitude a t t h e end of the vertical pulse, and then declines practically to zero, producing a pulse of the triangular wave shape shown f o r the complete vertical synchronizing pulse. Although the total sync signal (including horizontal information) is applied to the circuit of Fig. 258, therefore, only vertical synchronization information appears at the output. The vertical synchronizing pulses a r e repeated in the total sync signal a t the field frequency of 60 per second (59.94 per second in color systctns). Therefore, the integrated output voltage across the capacitor of the RC circuit of Fig. 261 can be coupled to the vertical scanning generator to provide vertical synchronization. The six equalizing pulses imniecliately preceding and following the vertical pulse improve the accuracy of t h e vertical synchronization f o r better interlacing. The equalizing pulses t h a t precede the vertical pulses make the average value of applied voltage more nearly the same f o r even and odd fields, so t h a t the integrated voltage across the capacitor adjusts to practically equal values f o r the two fields before
Fig. 262-Sir~rple wrtical-deflecfiot~ circuit.
tations. I n addition, the coupling of miscellaneous signals (such a s powersupply hum o r horizontal-deflection signals) in the amplifying loop i s suppressed.
180

the output stage to increase, the thermal-compensating transistor Q:. conducts more heavily and causes a reduction in the average voltage a t its collector. This decreasing voltage changes the bias of the predriver Q2. Because the predriver, driver, and output stages a r e all direct-coupled, the changes in the peak current of the output stage are coupled back to the base of the output stage in such a polarity a s to adjust the dc operating conditions of the output stage to compensate . for any change in peak current. There a r e two linearity potentiometers in the circuit. The first is a bias potentiometer which sets the bias on the predriver and, in turn, on the output unit so t h a t the output unit commences scan from cut* off. The second potentiometer is located in the integrating circuit, which shapes a sawtooth waveform taken from the output and feeds i t back to gate No.1 of the prcdriver to provide the required parabolic correction for good linearity.
TV Deflection
The parabolic sawtooth voltage required for convergence is obtained from the collector of the output transistor Q.. This sawtooth voltage is coupled to the base of the convergence amplifier Qn and then applied to the convergence board. F o r vertical blanking, t h e negative retrace pulse from the seconda r y of the vertical output transformer is amplified and inverted by a blanking transistor, and i s then applied to the cathodes of the picture tube. oretically approaching infinity. I n addition, if very little of the total time is spent a t zero current, the circuit would require a tremendous
Fig. 263 shows a vertical-deflection system t h a t employs bipolar and MOS transistors. A positive pulse fed back from the output circuit triggers the oscillator Q1. The high input impedance of the hIOS transistor Q2, used a s a predriver, permits the use of relatively large resistors and small capacitors in the gnte-No.1 circuit. Negative sync is injected a t gate No. 2. Only 4 to 5 volts of sync a t the integrator input provides exceptionally good interlace. The thermal compensating stage, Q , provides thermal tracking dur. ing warmup and also prevents thermal runaway. The peak current of the output stage, Q,, is monitored h y connection of the base of Qs to the emitter side of the emitter resistor of Ql. The output voltage developed a t the collector of QG is pl.oporlional to the peak current of the vertical output stage and is fed back to gate No.1 of the predriver Q.. by means of the bias-linearity control. If some condition exists which causes the peak current of
(a)
SIMPLE DEFLECTION CIRCUIT
HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION
I n the horizontal-deflection stages of a television receiver, a current t h a t varies linearly with time and h a s a sufficient peak-to-peak amplitude must be passed through t h e horizontal-deflection-yoke winding t o develop a magnetic field adequate to deflect the electron beam of the television picture tube. After the beam is deflected completely across the face of the picture tube, i t must be returned very quickly to i t s starting point. ( A s explained previously, the beam is extinguished during this retrace by the blanking pulse incorporated in the composite video signal, o r in some cases hy additional external blanking derived from the horizontal-deflection system.)
'
I
I
(b) ADDITION OF CAPACITOR
9 IJEG. SYNC.
t21 V 1 y 0
&[-
1 T.
(c) YOKE CURRENT [top) AND SWITCH VOLTAGE
(bottom) FOR CIRCUIT (b)
BOARD
TO HORIZONTAL CIRCUIT
Basic Circuit Requirements

The simplest form of a deflection circuit is shown in Fig; 264(a). I n this circuit, the yoke impedance L is assumed to be a perfect inductor. When the switch is closed, t h e yoke current s t a r t s from zero and increases linearly. A t any time t, the current i is equal t o EtIL, where E is the applied voltage. When the switch is opened a t a later time t,, the current instantly drops from a value of E t r / L to zero. Although the basic circuit shown in Fig. 264(a) crudely approaches the requirements f o r deflection, i t presents some obvious problems and limitations. The voltage across the switch becon~es extremely high, the-
DRIVER
( d l YOKE CURRENT (top) AND SWITCH VOLTAGE [bottom) FOR SWITCH CLOSED AT t r
+21 v BIAS LIN.
[el ADDITION OF DAMPER DIODE
Fi.q. 263-Vr1ti~~crl-rl~~,Rt~ctio1t for color TV receiver. cirrrit
Fig. 264- Development o f horizonfal-deffccfion circ~cit.

atnount of dc power. Further~iiort~, wavefornls f o r this new condition. If the switch is again opened a t the operation of the switch would t,, closed a t tc, and so on, the desired be rather critical with regard to both its opening and its closing. Finally, sweep results, the peak switch voltbecause tlie deflection field would be age is finite, and the average supply phased in only one direction, the current is zero. The deflection system beam would have to be centered a t is then lossless and efficient and, bethe extrc~ileleft of the screen f o r cause the average yoke current is zero, beam decentering is avoided. zero yoke current. If a capacitor is placed across the The only fault of the circuit of Fig. switch, a s shown in Fig. 2'72(11), the 264(b) is the critical tinling of the yoke current still increases linearly switch, particularly a t time t = t,. when the switch is closcd a t time However, if the switch is shunted by t = 0. Ilowever, when the switch is a damper diode, a s shown in Fig. opened a t time t = t , , a tuned circuit 264(e), the diode acts a s a closed is formed 1)g the parallel coml>ination switch a s soon a s the capacitor voltof L and C. The resulting y3lre cur- age reverses slightly. The switch rents and switch voltages are then may then be closed a t any time between t, and t?. as shown in Fig. 264(c). The current is a t a niaxin~umwhen tlie voltage Transistor Horizontal-Deflection equals zero, and the voltage is a t a Circuits maximum when the current equals In horizontal-deflection circuits, zero. If i t is assunled that there a r e the switch can be a transistor, a s no losses, the ringing frequency f,., shown in Fig. 265. Although the transistor is forward-biased prior to is equal to 1 / ( 2 ~ d E ) . If the switch is closed again a t any t. (shown in Fig. 264), it is not time the capacitor voltage is not equal an effective switch for the reverse to zero. an infinite switch current collector current; therefore, the damper diode carries most of this flows a s a result of the ,-aDacitive disIIowever, if switch is cume"t. High voltage is generated closed a t the precise moment tz t h a t by use of the step-up transformer in parallel with the This the capacitor voltage equals zero, the step-up transformer is so capacitor current effortlessly trans- that its leakage inductance, disfcrs to the switch, and a new transient t r ibut e d caDacitance. and outDut condition results. Fig. 264(d) shows stray capac;tance cdmplement \he the yoke-current and switch-voltage yoke inductance and retrace tuning
TV Deflection
capacitance in such a manner that the peak voltage across the primary winding is reduced and the peak volta g e across the secondary winding is increased, a s compared to the values that would be obtained in a perfect transformer. This technique, which is referred to a s "third-harmonic tuning", yields a voltage ratio of secondary-to-primary peak voltage of approxin~ately 1.7 times the value expected in a perfect transformer. To provide linearity correction f o r wide-angle television picture tubes, it is necessary to retard the sweep rate a t the beginning and end of scan. Therefore, a suitable capacitor C2 is placed in series with the yoke, a s shown in Fig. 265, so t h a t the direct current required to replenish circuit losses is fed through the flybacktransformer primary. A parabolic waveform is then developed across C, (called the S-shaping capacitor) so that the trace voltage across the yoke is less a t the ends of the sweep than in the middle of the sweep. (This capacitor actually provides a series resonant circuit tuned to approximately 5 kHz so t h a t a n S-shaped current portion of a sine wave results.) I t is desirable to place the S-shaping capacitor and the yoke between the collector and the emitter of the transistor so t h a t the yoke current does not have to flow through the power supply. The highest anticipated peak voltage across the transistor in Fig. 265 is a function of the dc voltage obtained a t high ac line voltage and a t the lowest horizontal-oscillator frequency. ( A t these conditions, of course, the receiver is out of sync.) The tolerance on t h e inductors and capacitors alters the trace time only slightly and usually may be ignored if a 10-per-cent tolerance is used for the tuning capacitor. Fig. 266 shows a schematic of a transistor horizontal-deflection circut for a color TV receiver. The horizontal output transistor, Q,, is a high-voltage silicon transistor.
thi
FLYE~ACK
TRANSFORMER HIGH-VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER
PICTURE-TUBE LANODE [ULTOR) CAPACITANCE
f.~z~~~~~~~
CAPACITOR
Fig. 266-florizorrrol-dcfiectio~l circrril and Irigli-voltage and low-voltage power sirpplies.
184

I
TV Deflection
The normal collector-emitter pulse and thereby reduce the change in voltage across Q , includes a n am- picture width ( a t some sacrifice in ple safety factor t h a t allows for high-voltage regulation). The net reany increased pulse t h a t may result sult of both changes is a regulafrom out-of-sync operation, line tion of about 2.8 ltilovolts f o r the surges, and other abnormal con- high voltage, with very little variation in picture size. ditions. A secondary benefit of the inherA unique feature of the horizontal-deflection circuit is the low- ently good regulation of t h e tranvoltage supply of approximately 23 sistor deflection system is a reduction volts t h a t is derived from it. This in the size of the flyback transfeatures makes it possible to elimi- former. The size reduction is accomnate the power transformer in the plished .by a reduction in the area power supply. The low-voltage power of the "window" in the flyback core. is used to operate all but the high- A reduction in the size of the highvoltage receiver stages, such a s the voltage cage required to maintain video-output stage, the audio-output adequate isolation of t h e high-voltstage, and the horizontal oscillator a g e winding from ground is possible because of the snlaller flyback transand driver. The vertical oscillator is supplied from the same point former. The transformer-coupled driver which supplies the horizontal output in such a way t h a t the actual voltstage takes advantage of the higha g e is a function of beam current; voltage capability and switching this connection compensates for t h e speed of the horizontal driver trantendency f o r picture height to sistor which is designed ,primarily f o r video-output use. A sine-wave change with brightness settings. The transistor deflection circuit stabilized multivibrator type of achieves commercially acceptable horizontal oscillator is used. This high-voltage regulation without the type of oscillator is especially useuse of the high-voltage shunt reg- ful in experimental work with deulator used with tube-type deflec- flection systems because i t permits tion circuits. With a flyback trans- on-time and off-time periods to be easily varied. former of normal design and a The afc phase detector operates low-voltage power supply with about 3-per-cent regulation, high-voltage on the principle of pulse-width regulation from zero beam to full variation of combined sync and ref1 load of 750 microan~peresis about erence pulses. I 1 the circuit shown 3 ltilovolts and is accompanied by in Fig. 266, timing infornlation is a considerable increase in p i c t ~ ~ r e related to the leading edges of the width. Improvement of this behavior sync pulses, and the retrace process with brightness changes is achieved is initiated prior t o the leading edge by utilizing the accompanying of the sync pulse; performance of changes of direct current to the de- the circuit is very satisfactory. flection circuit in two ways. First, the a i r gap of the transformer is SCR Horizontal-Deflection reduced to permit core saturation Circuit to decrease t h e system inductance :IS the high-voltage load is inA highly reliable horizontal-decreased. When this method is used, flection system t h a t uses silicon conregulation is improved to about half trolled rectifiers (SCR's) has been t h a t of the normal transformers developed f o r use in color television with no circuit instabilities, but picreceivers. This system, shown in Fig. ture-width change is still greater 267, illustrates a new approach to than desired. Second, series resist- horizontal-circuit design t h a t repreance is added t o the B supply to sents a complete departure from the decrease power input a t full load approaches currently used in com-
mercial television receivers. The switching action required t o generate the scan current in the horizontalyoke windings and the high-voltage pulse used to derive the dc operating voltages f o r the picture tube is controlled by two SCR's t h a t a r e used in conjunction with associated fastrecovery diodes to form bipolar switches. The SCR's used to control the trace current and to provide the
commutating action to initiate traceretrace switching exhibit high voltage- and current-handling capabilities together with the excellent switching characteristics required f o r reliable operation in deflectionsystem applications. The switching diodes, (trace and commutating diodes), provide f a s t recovery times, high reverse-voltage blocking capabilities, and low turn-on voltage drops. These features and the fact
VERTICAL HEIGHT
TO
TO VERTICAL CIRCUIT
Fig. 2 6 7 S C R horizontal-deflection circuit.

that, with the exception of one noncritical triggering pulse, all control voltages, timing, and control polarities a r e supplicd by passive elements within the system (rather than by external drive sources) contribute substantially to the excellent reliability of the SCR deflection system. Fig. 267 shows the circuit configuration of the conlplete horizontal-deflection system. The system operates directly from a conventional, unrcgulatcd dc power supply of +I55 volts, and proviclcs fullscreen deflection a t angles up to 90 degrees a t full bean1 current. The current and voltage waveforms required f o r horizontal deflection and f o r generation of the high voltage are derived essentially from LC rcsonarit circuits, As a result, f a s t and abrupt switching transients which would impose strains on the solid-state device a r e advoided. A regulator stage is included in the SCR horizontal-deflection circuit to maintain the scan and the high voltage within acceptable lilnits with variations in the ac line voltage o r picture-tube beam current. The system also contains circuits that provide full protection against the effects of arcs in the picture tube o r the high-voltage rectifier, and linearity and pincushion correction circuits. The SCR horizontal-deflection system enlploys two bidirectional switches, each of which consists of an SCR and a diode in an inverse parallel connection. Fig. 268 shows a simplified schematic of the basic deflection circuit. SCRT and diode Dr a r e used to control the current in the yoke winding L, during the trace interval; SCRr and diode Dr provide the comniutating action required f o r retrace. A t the beginning of the trace interval, the trace-switch diode conducts the yoke current established during previous circuit action. The trnce-switch diode conducts a linearly decreasing current until the yoke current reaches zero to produce the first half of the scan current. Before the zero-yoke-current point is reached, the trace-switch SCIL is made ready to conduct by application of a positive pulse to its gate electrode. When the yoke current crosses the zero point from negative t o positive, t h e current transfers from the trace-switch diode to the trace-switch SCR. Capacitor C,. then begins t o discharge through the trace-switch SCR to supply current to yoke winding L, during the second half of the trace interval. The voltage across capacitor C, remains essentially constant throughout the trace-retrace cycle. This constant voltage results in a linearly rising current through the yoke winding to complete the trace period.
COMMUTATING SWITCH
TV Deflection
capacitors CR and CA during the rectly from a pulse developed by the first half of retrace. This current horizontal oscillator. then rings back into the yoke wind3. This deflection system is unique ing during the second half of re- in that, although i t operates from trace. The circuit f o r the ringing oscillation during the second half of retrace is completed through the commutating-switch diode and allows suflicient time f o r the commutating-switch SCR to turn off. I COMMUTATINO-SWITCH VOLTAGE When the yoke current reaches its (DIODE AND SCR) peak negative value, the traceswitch diode begins to conduct t o s t a r t the trace interval. During the time the commutating switch is closed, the input inductor 0 COMMUTATING- SWITCH LCC connected across the B+ supis DIODE CURRENT ply, and energy is stored in this 1 I inductor. This stored energy charges the retrace capacitors CR and CA to replenish the energy loss in the 1 I I COMMUTATING-SWITCH SCR circuit. I M GATE SIGNAL I Fig. 269 shows the current and voltage waveforms applied to the trace and commutating switches a s 1 a result of the circuit actions deTRACE- SWITCH VOLTAGE scribed in the preceding paragraphs. I (DIODE AND SCR) I The SCR horizontal-deflection system offers a number of distinct advantages over the conventional types of systems currently used in commercial television receivers. The following list outlines some of the I DIODE C R E T URN more significant circuit features of the SCR deflection system and points out the advantage derived from each of them: 1 Critical voltage and current . waveforms, and timing cycles a r e determined by passive components in response to the action of two SCR-diode switches. The stability of Fig. 269-Volrage and cttrrerrt wavefortns t o the switching SCR's and diodes the system, therefore, is determined applied the horizontal-deflecriot~system. in primarily by the passive components. When the passive components a r e a conventional B+ supply of +I55 properly adjusted, the system ex- volts, the flyback.pulse is less than hibits highly predictable perform- 500 volts. This level of voltage ance characteristics and exceptional stress is substantially less than t h a t operational dependability. in conventional line-operated sys2. The only input drive signal re- tems, and this factor contributes to quired for the SCR deflection sys- improved reliability of t h e switchtem is a low-power pulse which has ing devices. no stringent accuracy specification 4. Regulation in t h e SCR deflecin relation to either amplitude o r tion system is accomplished by contime duration. The deflection sys- trol of t h e energy stored by a tem, therefore, can be driven di- reactive element. This technique
~ HIGH~
VOLTAGE
--
~ i < 6 8 z ~ o s i ccircrtir for gorc'rafiort of 2 111e def7ectiot1-crtrretrf tc*aveforttr it1 rlrr hori;ottral-yoke tvitrditrg.
--
J u s t prior t o the end of trace, the commutnting-switch SCR is gated on by the horizontal oscillator. Capacit o r Ce then discharges a pulse of current through inductor L Nand the trace and commutating SCR's. This current pulse, referred to a s the commutating pulse, increases until i t exceeds the yoke current and thereby causes the trace diode DT to turn on. The conduction of diode DT reverse-biases the trace SCR f o r sufficient time to allow i t to turn off. When the commutating pulse declines to a value less than the yoke current, diode DT opens, and the energy in the yoke winding produces a current that charges the retrace
188

zero current level through the reverse recovery of high-voltage p-n junctions in the deflection diodes. The diode junctions are not limited in volt-ampere switching capabilities for either normal o r abnormal conditions in the circuit.
}
I
avoids the use of resistive-load rcgulating elements required by many other types of systems and, therefore, makes possible higher over-all svstem efliciency and reduces inputpower requirements. 5. All switching occurs a t the
Power Switching and Control

RANSISTORS have already istablished themselves in switching applications in radar, television, telemetering, pulse code communications, and computing equipment. More recently, triacs, discs, and SCR's have been used in these applications and in arc-lamp ballasting circuits, automobile ignition systems, and heat, light, and motor controls. This section describes t h e circuits used in these applications and discusses special consideration required f o r their operation. in either of the stable regions (cutoff or saturation); a n external pulse "triggers" t h e transistor to the other stable region, but the circuit then switches back to its original stable state a f t e r a period of time determined by t h e time constants of t h e circuit elements. A bistable (flip-flop) circuit h a s a stable state in each of the two stable regions. The transistor is triggered from one stable state to the other by a n external pulse, and a second trigger pulse is required to switch the circuit back to its original stable state. The multivibrator circuit shown in Fig. 270 is . a n example of a monostable circuit. The bias network holds transistor Q8in saturation and transistor Q,a t cutoff during the quiescent or steady-state period. When an input signal is applied through the coupling capacitor C1, however, transistor QI begins to conduct. The decrea_sing collector v o l t a ~ C of-, (coupled tp the-base of Q, through ( capacitor G)causes the base current
-,
NONSINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
Oscillator circuits which produce nonsinusoidal output waveforms use a regenerative circuit in conjunction with resistance-capacitance (RC) or resistance-inductance (RL) con~ponents to produce a switching action. The charge and discharge times of t h e reactive elements (which a r e directly proportional t o R x C o r LIR) a r e used to produce sawtooth, square, o r pulse output waveforms. The switching action in a nonsinusoidal oscillator occurs when a n externally applied signal causes a n instantaneous change in the operating state of the circuit; when this instantaneous change occurs the circuit' is said t o be triggered. Triggered circuits may be astable, monostable, or bistable. Astable triggered circuits have no stable state; they operate in the active linear region and produce relaxation-type oscillations. A monostable circuit has one stable state
0l -
Fig. 270-Mor~ostable r~~ultivibrator.
w
CI

and collector current of Qz to de.-.crease. The i n c r F Z S i ~ ~ I ~ age of Q, (coupled to the base of Q, through resistor R,) then increases the forward base current of QI. This regeneration rapidly drives transistor QI into saturation and transistor Q2into cutoff. The base of transistor Q? a t this point is a t a negative potential almost equal to the magnitude of the battery voltage V,,. C a p a c i t o r Ct t h e n d i s c h a r g e s through resistor R2 and the low saturation resistance of transistor Q1. As the base potential of Qz becomes slightly positive, transistor Qz again conducts. The decreasing collector potential of Qr is coupled to the base of QI and transistor QI is driven into cutoff, transistor Q2 becomes saturated. This stable condition is maintained until another pulse triggers the circuit. The duration of the output pulse is primarily determined by the tinie constant of capacitor Cx and resistor R? during discharge. In other words, the oscillating frequency of the multivibrator is determined by the values of resistance and capacitance in the circuit. The Eccles-Jordan type multivi\)rator circuit shown in Fig. 279 is a n example of a bistable circuit. The resistive and bias values of this circuit are chosen so t h a t the initial application of dc power causes one transistor to be cut off and the other t o be driven into saturation. Because of the feedback arrangement, each transistor is held in its original state by the condition of the other. The application of a positive trigger pulse to the base of the O F F transistor or a negative pulse to the base of the ON transistor switches the conducting state of the circuit. The new condition is then maintained until a second pulse triggers the circuit back t o the original condition. I n Fig. 271, two separate inputs a r e shown. A trigger pulse a t input A will change the state of the circuit. An or an input of opposite polarinput B input of the same polarity a t ity a t input A will then return the t ~ f . ~

Regenerative feedback through the tickler-coil winding 1-2 of transformer TI and capacitor C causes current through the transistor to rise rapidly until saturation is reached. The transistor is then cut off until C discharges through resistor R. The output waveform is a pulse, the width of which is primarily determined by winding 1-2. The time between pulses (resting or blocking time) is determined by the time constant of capacitor C and resistor R.
191
transistor then conducts for a longer period of time so t h a t t h e output voltage increases to the desired level. If the output voltage tends to rise above the reference voltage, the duration of the ON-time pulse decreases. The shorter conduction period of the pass transistor then results in a compensating decrease in output voltage. When a step-down regulator is required (e.g., 100 volts down ' t o 28 volts), t h e efficiency of a switching regulator i s considerably higher than t h a t of a conventional series regulator. If very precise regulation is required, the switching regulator can be used a s a pre-regulator followed by a conventional regulator circuit: this confimration ootimizes the advantages of both Gpes of regulators. Over-all efficiency f o r such a combination circuit is typically about 80 to 85 p e r cent, a s compared to values of 25 to 30 per cent f o r a conventional series-type step-down regulator. I n addition, total power dissipation is reduced from several hundreds of w a t t s to less than 50 watts. Fig. 274 shows a switching regulator included in the design of a mercury-arc-lamp ballasting system. DC potential is applied to the Vln terminals so that the transistor switch QI ( p a r t of the switching regulator) is slightly forward-biased by a small current through Ra (approximately 3 milliamperes). Through positive feedback, Ql is immediately saturated by L2, which also powers the control circuit. Cur-
INPUT A
SWITCHING REGULATORS
CZ
r i g . 271-Eccles-Jorclrr,r rype bisrable rrrul~ivibrotor.
circuit to its original state. (Collector triggering can be accomplished in a similar manner.) The capacitors CJ and C, a r e used t o speed u p the regenerative switching action. The outp u t of the circuit is a unit step volta g e when one trigger is applied, o r a square wave when continuous pulsing of the input i s used. A blocking oscillator is a form of nonsinusoidal oscillator which conducts for a short period of time and is cut off (blocked) f o r a much longer period. A basic circuit f o r this type of oscillator is shown in Fig. 272.
Fig. 273 shows the basic configuration of a switching type of transistor voltage regulator. I n this circuit, the pass transistor is connected in series with the' load and is pulse-duration nlodulated by the signal supplied from the pulse generator o r multivibrator. The ON time of' the multivibrator is controlled by a dc comparison between a reference voltage and the output. The pulsed output from the series transistor is integrated by the lowpass filter. When the transistor is conducting, current is delivered to the load from the input source. In the O F F condition, the diode conducts and the energy stored in t h e reactive elements supplies current to the load. If the output voltage tends to decrease below the reference voltage, the duration of the ON-time pulse increases. The pass
!f3+c
kc=-
i 2 7 2 .- ~ ~rircrri, ~ ~ ; ~ oscillaror.
b/orkiim
Fig. 273-Basic diagrant of switching regulator.
RCA Transistor, ~hyristor,& Diode Manual

VOLTAGE
I
I
is t h a t only the high-current switching element Q, must meet the breakdown-voltage requirement imposed by the high input voltage; with this one exception, all of t h e controlcircuit transistors a r e of the IOWvoltage, low-dissipation type. The circuit is able to withstand operation under short-circuit conditions.
Fig. 277- 175-wolf switching-regulafor ballast.

DIODE
Fig. 2 7 4 - S ~ ~ ~ i f c h i r r ~ - r ~ ~ g r itlr~si,vrr for I~110r solitl-~fofc~ rrrercltry-arc-larrrp 6iillasfirrg.
rent rises a t a linear rate until the voltage across R, causes the control circuit to shunt tlie base-emitter junction of 4,. Q , is shut off and held off by L2 until the current t l ~ r o u g h L, is zero. The inductive kickback voltage i s clamped by t h e communtating diode and, therefore, is the saliie a s tlie output voltage on C2. L, charges C. to a voltage proportional to Vor.~. During the next cycle, the control circuit samples a conlbination of the volta g e on C3 and the current in RI.. The output waveshapes f o r t h e circuit a r e shown in Fig. 275; performance data a r e sllown in Fig. 276. The unique feature of this circuit
DC INPUT VOLTAGE TO FILTER CAPACITOR C I
Fig. 276-Perfor rrrcrrrce crrrvcs / o r circrrir o f Fig. 274.
A 175-watt switching-regulator ballast circuit utilizing the approach just described i s shown in Fig. 277. F o r three-phase operation, no CI filter element i s necessary provided t h a t the dc input voltage to the switching regulator never drops below 200 volts. An input voltage drop below this level would extinguish the bulb. Switching-regulator techniques a r e also utilized in motor-control systems. A servo motor control is shown in Fig. 278. Switching-mode servo controls afford a n efficient means for amplification of directional information. As a n alternative to the use of cascaded linear stages to drive a class B push-pull output stage, this switching mode of control allows the active elements of the amplifier to operate in either saturation or cutoff. Because a relatively small length of time is spent in the active region of the devices, where power dissipation is high, the average power dissipation is lower. The efficiency oE the over-all system, therefore, is t--igher. Switching servos a r e used in stable platforms for guidance and
navigational systems, control of memory access devices in computer and data-processing systems, and other applications in which efficiency is a prime factor. An ever-expanding application f o r switching systems is in the ac motor-control field. Sometimes this
application is necessary because the standby power i s dc. More generally, however, high-speed inverters or switching circuits a r e used because the higher-frequency motors a r e more efficient and weigh less than their lower-frequency counterparts.
+40 V
3F
MOTOR VOLTAGE
Fig. 278-P1clsc-widfh-r11odulufedservo-rr~ofor-driven orrfpuf sfage.
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS

In many applications, the aptimum value of voltage is not available from the primary power source. In such instances, dc-to-dc converters o r dc-to-ac inverters may be used, with o r without regulation, to provide the optimum voltage f o r a given circuit design. An inverter is a power-conversion device used to transform dc power to ac power. If the ac output is rectified and filtered to provide dc again, the over-all circuit is referred to a s a converter. The purpose of the converter is then to change the magnitude of the available dc voltage.
Power Switching and Control Transistor Converters and Inverters

Iqg. 279 shows two simple converter circuits which can be used in place of the conventional vibratortype converter in automobile radios. The switching drive to the two transistors is supplied by a separate, small, saturable transformer in the circuit of Fig. 279(a), and by a n additional center-tapped drive winding on a single saturable transformer in Fig. 279(b). The characteristic hysteresis loop of the auto-transformer used in the circuit of Fig. 279(b) is shown in Fig. 280. Transformer parameters such a s frequency, number of turns,
B
195
very slowly because the magnetizing inductance is high. A t point 3, the core i s in saturation, and the magnetizing current again increases rapidly. A s the current continues t o increase (between points 3 and 4), the ON transistor comes out of saturation. When point 4 h a s been reached, the voltages across the primary windings of the transformer have dropped to zero, and t h e battery voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminals of each transistor. The magnetizing current then begins to decay, and voltages of opposite polarity a r e induced across the transformer. A t point 5, t h e magnetizing current has been reduced to zero, t h e second transistor is in saturation, and the first transistor has twice t h e battery voltage across its emitter-tocollector junction. This sequence of events is repeated during each halfcycle of the operation of t h e circuit, except f o r a reversal of polarity. The approximate load line of the converter circuit of Fig. 279(b) is shown in Fig. 281. Many of t h e important transistor ratings can be
+ SATURABLE CORE
(a1
->
\SL-] "
w SATURABLE CORE
REVEaS
CORE SATURATION
DIODE ( U ) CONDUCTION
7'
LOADED
NO LOAD
Fig. 280-Chnmcteristic hysteresis loop of artlo-trarrsforrrrer rtsed in circrtit o f Fig. 279(b)
RINGING
(C)
Fir. 279-Sirriplc corlverter circrri~s that nray be rtssed t o replace vibralor-type corrver/ers irz arrror~rohileradios: f a ) corrverter circrtit tllat uses separate otrtprrt arrd feedback trarrsforrrrers; (h) converier circrrir in w,hicll the feedback wirtdirrgs are irrcluded 0 1 1 the orrtput trarrsforr~rer; c ) typical voltage atrd cltrrerrr waveJorn~s. (
and size and type of core material a r e determined by the operating requirements f o r t h e circuit. Once the transformer h a s been established, a change in supply voltage results in a change in the operating frequency. Switching is accomplished a s a result of the saturation of the transformer. When the slope of t h e hysteresis loop shown in Fig. 288 is small, the magnetizing inductance is small and the magnetizing current increases rapidly. This situation exists a s the loop i s traversed in a counter-clockwise manner from point 1 to point 2. From point 2 to point 3, the magnetizing current increases
Vcc
*vcc
COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER
V LA E OT G
Fig. 281-Approxi~~late load Ible for converler circrtit show11in Fig. 28716).
determined from this curve. F o r example, the collector-to-emitter sustaining voltage under reverse-bias conditions, VCRV(SUS), given by is where VCC is the collector-supply
RCA Trans istor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

voltage and AVcc is the magnitude of the supply variations o r "spikes." The second-breakdown voltage limit ES/Dfor the transistor i s given by the load circuit during this portion of the oscillator cycle. With transistor QI in saturation, the collector current through the primary inductance of transformer TI Esln 2 34 ( 1 ) L ~n'l where p is the common-emitter for- rises linearly with time (-dildt = EIL) drive supplied ward-current transfer ratio, I n is the by theuntil the base feedback windtransformer base current, and L1 is the total ing can no longer maintain QI in series inductance of t h e transformer saturation. As the current through and t h e load reflected to the input. As mentioned previously, the col- QL decreases from the saturation the lector-to-emitter saturation voltage level, the voltage induced into and feedpack winding decreases, Vca(sat) of the transistor should be transistor Q1 is rapidly driven below. cutoff. Fig. 282 shows the basic circuit yond collector The energy stored in the configuration f o r a ringing-cholre of transformer inductance (primary TI) is relased by the dc-to-dc converter. I n this converter, collapsing magnetic field and couplcd by the secondary winding of transformer TI,through rectifier diode CR,,to the load resistance Rt. and filter capacitor CI. The filter capa; citor stores the energy it reccivcs from the collector inductance. W h c ~ l no current is supplied to the load circuit from the oscillator (i.e., during conduction of transistor Q,), capacitor C1 supplies current to the load resistance Rr. to maintain the output voltage a t a relatively constant value. The switching action of rectifier diode CRl prevents any decrease of t h e energy stored by Fig. 282-Rnsic circrrit cori/igrtr.ariorr o j rr capacitor Cl because of the negaringirrg-choke dc-to-dc corrr.crrer. tive pulse coupled from the oscillan blocking oscillator (chopper cir- t o r during the periods that transistor cuit) is transformer-coupled to a Q,conducts. half-wave-rectifier type of output The operating efficiency of the circuit. The rectifier converts the ringing-choke converter i s low, and pulsating oscillator output into a the circuit, therefore, is used prifixed-value dc output voltage. marily in low-power applications. In When the oscillator transistor Q, addition, because power is delivered conducts ( a s a result of either a to the output circuit for only a forward bias or external drive), small fraction of the oscillator cycle energy is transferred to the collec(i.e., when Ql is not conducting), the tor inductance presented by the pri- circuit has a relatively high ril)l,le mary winding of transfor~ner TI. factor which substantially increases The voltage induced across the output filtering requirements. This transformer feedback minding con- converter, however, provides tlefinected to the transistor base through nite advantages to the system deresistor Rn increases the conduction signer in terms of design siniplicity of Q1 until the transistor is driven and compactness. illto saturation. The rectifier diode in I n a converter, the c h a n ~ e freCRI in series with the secondary quency of operation with supply voltwinding of transformer T I is oriented a g e is not usually important hecause so that no power is delivered to the output voltage is rectified and

filtered. In a n inverter circuit, however, the frequency may be very important and is generally controlled by adjustment of the supply voltage. Typically, the dc supply voltage is controlled by means of a voltage regulator inserted ahead of t h e converter to stabilize the input voltage and a power amplifier following the converter t o isolate the converter from the effects of a varying load. Inverters may be used to drive a n y equipment which requires an ac supply, such a s motors, ac radios, television receivers, or fluorescent lighting. I n addition, a n inverter can be used to drive electromechanical transducers in ultrasonic equipment, such as ultrasonic cleaners and sonar detection devices. Fig. 283 shows a block diagram of a typical inverter circuit. The output frequency is directly depende n t on the induced voltage of the When t h e inverter is used t o provide dc-to-dc conversion; the squarewave voltage is usually applied to a full-wave bridge rectifier and filter. Fig. 284 shows the configuration of the pudh-pull switching converter. The single saturable transformer controls circuit switching and provides t h e desired voltage transformation f o r the square-wave output delivered to the bridge rectifier. The rectifier and filter convert the square-wave voltage in a smooth, fixed-amplitude dc output voltage. When the voltage VCCis applied to the converter circuit, current tends to flow through both switching transistors QI and Q . It is , very unlikely, however, t h a t a perfect balance can be achieved between corresponding active and passive components of t h e two transistor sections; therefore, the initial flow of current through one of the transistors is slightly larger than t h a t through the other tranVOLTAGE POWER REGULATOR SUPPLY sistor. If transistor Q, is assumed to conduct more heavily initially, the rise in current through its collector inductance causes a voltage I to be induced in the feedback windFEEDBACK ings of transformer TI which supply I the base drive to transistors Q1 and Q2. The base-drive voltages a r e in the proper polarity to increase the current through Ql and to decrease POWER CONVERTER AMPLIFIER the current thruogh Q1.A s a result of regenerative action, the conduction of Q, is r a ~ i d l yincreased. and a dr>ven to cutoff.. Fig. 283-Block diagram o f typical , Q is inverter circuit. The increased current through Q1 causes the core of the collector converter transformer. The feedback inductance t o saturate. The inducshown samples this induced voltage tance no longer impedes the rise and adjusts the output of the voltage in current, and t'he transistor curregulator to maintain a constant in- rent increases sharply into the satuduced voltage i n t h e converter and ration region. F o r this condition, thus a constant output frequency. the magnetic field about t h e collecIf a regulated output voltage i s not tor inductance is constant, and no required, the second voltage regula- voltage is induced in the feedback tor i s omitted. I windings of transformer T . With The push-pull switch in^ inverter the cutoff base voltage removed, curis probably the most widely used rent is allowed to flow through a type of power-conversion circuit. transistor Q . The increase in curF o r inverter applications, the circuit rent through the collector inductance provides a square-wave ac output. of this transistor causes voltages to

be induced in the feedback nlindings in the polarity that increases the current through Q.. and dccrrases the current through QI. This effect is aided by the collapsing magnetic field about the collector inductance of Q, thnt results from the decrease in currcnt through this transistor. Tlie fecdl~nckvoltages produced by this col1al)sing field quicltl y drive Q , beyond cutoff and further increase the condurtion of Qz until the core of thc collcctor inductance for this transistor saturates to initiate a new cycle of operation. The square wave of voltage produced by the switcliing action of transistors Q1 and Q, is coupled hy transfo1,lner TIto the bridge rectifier and filter, ~vhich develop a snlootli, constantamplitude dc voltage across tlie load resistance RT.. The small ripple produced by tlie square ~ v a v egreatly simplifies filter requirements. tion increases the VCR saturation of the output and does not permit a fast turn-off. The boosted 1)arliugton inverter shown in Fig. 285 uses two small additional transformer . windings (N:, N,) and eliminates and both problems.
199
l
DC SUPPLY
(a)
Fig. 285- Boosted Darlitc.~forr irtverlcr wifh frrrrr-on dri1.c.
I
i
1
(bl
Fir. 284-Basic circrrit corrfiprtr.nrio~ro j a sirtglc-trarxforrttcr prcsh-prrll slc~ifchirrgCOr7verter.
I'ush-pull transformer-coupled converter.~\%-it11full-wave rectification provide power to the load continuously and are, therefore, well suited for low-impedance, high-power applications. Although not a s economical a s the ringing-choke design, thc push-pull configuration provides hinher efRcicncy and inlproved regulation. In higl*l)ower driven invcrters, it is not uncommon to use a Darlington connection to increase the current gain. However, this configura-
The polarity of N and N I is n shown f o r Q, ON and Qs OFF. N, .and N u a r e wound on core No. 1 which could be a motor o r other magnetic structure. The voltage developed across NI allo~vsQIto saturate fully while the voltage across NI allows Qa to have a reverse bias applied, thus helping the device to turn off. The diodes provide a path f o r reverse bias when the transistor turns off and hloclts voltage while the transistor is on; thus, they allow the driver transistors to control the output units. Three-phase bridge invcrters f o r induction motors are usilally used to convert dc, GO-Hz,o r 400-Hz input to a much higher frequency, possibly a s high a s 1 0 kHz. Increasing frequency reduces the motor size and increases the horscpower-toweight ratio, desirable features in military, aviation, and portable industrial power-tool markets. Fig. 286 shows a typical three-phase bridge circuit with base driving signals and transformer primary currents.
T is not allowed to saturate; therer fore, the peak collector current through the transistor is determined principally by the value of t h e load impedance. Because no two transistors a r e perfectly matched, one of the transistors in t h e inverter circuit conducts more rapidly than the other when the power is turned on. This transistor, Q? f o r example, tends toward saturation and causes positive voltages to appear a t t h e dotted ends of the transformers. Thus, there is a n effective positive feedback t h a t causes Q1 to switch off and Q t o switch on. The voltage , from the collector of QI t o the collector of Q is then positive and a equal to twice the collector supply The voltage Vnm across voltage VCC. the feedback resistor RI\I is essentially the product of the resistance Rlb and the base current referred to the primary of T The voltage . . across TI is equal to 2 VCC - V~fb. A t the beginning of the next halfcycle, the voltage across RII, increases very slowly with the slowly increasing magnetizing current through Tn. When TI reaches its saturation flux density, t h e magnetizing current increases very
"~fb
4
O TO "
120'
120' TO 240 240' TO
360
Fig. 286-Three-plrasc bridge itrvcrter: (a) circtrif cortfigrtrcrliorr; (b) hnsc driving sigrmls; ( c ) trarlsjorrrrer pririlary current switchitlg.
Fig. 287 shows the schematic diagram of n two-transistor, two-transformer inverter circuit. A saturable a base-drive transformer T controls the inverter switching operation. A linearly operating output transforlner TI transfers the output power to the load. The output transformer
Fig. 287-Two-trar1sistor/two-tra1tsformer ir~vertcr.
rapidly and causes a rapid increase lr, in V I l . A s a result, the voltage across Tn decerases rapidly and Q, comes out of saturation. The collector voltage of Qz then rises, and
200
201
The operation of the SCR inverter is very similar to t h a t of the twotransistor push-pull inverter except t h a t external gate-trigger signals a r e required to initiate the SCR switching action. Fig. 290 shows the two thyristors SCR, and SCR? connected to the output transformer TI. These thyristors a r e alternately triggered into conduction by gate-trigger pulse genera t o r t o produce a n alternating current in t h e primary of t h e power transformer. Fig. 291 shows typical operating wave forms f o r t h e SCR inverter. The thyristors a r e commutated by capacitor C,, which i s connected between t h e anodes of SCRI and SCR,. The flow of current through the circuit can be traced more easily if i t is assumed t h a t initially SCR, i s conducting and SCR2 i s cut off and t h a t the common cathode connection of the SCR's i s t h e reference point. F o r this condition, the voltage a t the anode of SCR? is twice t h e voltage of t h e dc power supply, i.e., 2E,,. The load current flows from the dc power supply through one-half the primary winding of transformer TI, inductor L2, SSRl, and inductor L,. When the firing current is applied t o t h e g a t e of SCR,, this SCR turns on and conducts. During the "ON" period of SCR?, the capacitor Cl begins t o discharge through L., SCR-, SCRI, and Lz. Inductors Ls and L function to limit the r a t e of rise of the discharge current d i / d t so t h a t t h e associated stresses a r e maintained within t h e capability of the device during t h e turn-on of the SCR. The effect of this control is to decrease t h e turnon dissipation, which becomes a significant portion of the total device dissipation a t high repetition rates. The discharge current through SCR, flows in a reverse direction, and a f t e r the carriers a r e swept o u t (and recombined) the SCRI switch opens (i.e., SCRl switches t o the "OFF" state). A t this time, t h e voltage across the capacitor C1, which
~,cgcncr:ltivc action c:iuses Q , and Q.. to reverse states. As tlicse provesacs a r c rcl)catcd drll,ing succeeding half-cycles, oscillations a r e sustained.
SCR Inverters
SCR inverters offer a n ellicient and ccononiical mcthod for conversion of direct current to allernating current. In the design of an SCR FORWARDinverter, the fact t h a t tlie SCIZ is T R I G G E R E D ON B~~~~~ 1)asically a "latching" device must SWITCH be considcrcd. Anode current can be initiated a t any titlie by application of a signal of the proper polarity to the gate. However, thc gate loses control a s soon a s conduction begins, and current continues to flow, regardless of any gate signal which nlay be applied, a s long a s the anode remains positive. Special commutating circuitry is required t o fORWARD CURRENT turn off tlie SCR a t the proper time. A basic conlmutation circuit is shown SCR in Fig. 288(a). 'REVERS E RECOVERY TVhen conduction is initiated 1)y CURRENT application of a positive pulse to the gate, the voltage acroqs the SCR (bl decreases rapidly a s current increases through it because of the Fig. 288-C011tt11rc/ariott o j utl SCR: (u) voltage drop across the inductor L. bnsic cor~rtttrrtnriot~ circrrit; ( 6 ) ~ o l r a g earrd The capacitor C charges th1.oug11the cfirrcrtl ivai~cforttt.~. resistor It i r ~the polarity indicated. If the switch S i s then closcd, tlie capacitor will be connected across Fig. 289(a) shows the basic conthe SCR in such a polarity t h a t the figuration f o r an inverter circuit. anode of the SCR i s suddenly driven An ac output can he generated l)y negative. Conduction of the SCR alternately closing and opening then ceases a s soon a s the charge switches S, and SL.. more practical A stored in the device has bcen re- nlethod of producing an ac output is moved 1)y the reverse recovery cur- to replace switches S , and S, with rent. SCR's, a s shown in Fig. 289(b). The tinic ~.equiredfor the SCR t o Capacitor C is used, a s previously recover its for\vartl l~locliinp cap- described, to commutate SCRl and nbility, a s shown in Fit. 288(b), SCR, alternately. limits the m a x i n ~ u moperating freInverter circuits may use other quency of the inverter. If the SCR methods of comnlutation. F o r ex11as not recovered its bloclii~>g cap- ample, auxiliary SCR's may be used ability by the time the anode swings to produce a negative co~nmutating positive, continuous conduction re- pulse across t h e inverter SCR a t the sults, and no ac power is generated. proper time, o r a saturable reactor Sprcial fast-turn-off SCR's, which may be used in series with a capacipermit operation a t frequencies up t o r to produce a c o m m u t a t i n ~ pulsc to 25 ICIIZ, a r e currently available. a t the proper time.
DC POWER SUPPLY
s2
(a1
AC OUTPUT
SUPPLY
AC
0G AT E
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
(bl
Fig. 289-111verfer circuits: (a) basic cottfigrrruliot~; b ) SCR Dlverter. (
Fig. 290 shows a typical highfrequency SCR switching inverter; Fig. 291 shows the waveshapes across the SCR and the output of the transformer. For resistive loads, this inverter is capable of delivering 500 watts of output power a t a n operating frequency of 8 kHz, and is provided with regulation from a no-load condition to full load. With proper output derating, this circuit can also accom~uodate inductive and capacitive loads. Under a capacitive load, the power dissipation of the SCR's is increased; under an inductive load, the turn-off time is decreased. The inverter can be operated a t any optional frequency up to 8 kHz provided t h a t a suitable output transformer is used and the timing capacitors a r e changed in the gatetrigger-pulse generator. A change in operating frequency, however, does not require any change in the comniutating components C1 and L1.
204

is triggered by pulses from the gatetrigger generator No.1, and the energy-storage network discharges through an inductance and the load (transformer). Fig. 296 shows t h a t the discharge of the storage network is oscillatory; t h e half-sinewave shape is characteristic of a single LCsection energy-storage network. F o r turn-off, the load is "mismatched" to the discharge-circuit impedance so t h a t a negative volta g e is developed on the capacitor a t the end of the pulse. A s a n example, the rise-time portion of turn-on i s defined a s the time interval between the 10-percent and 90-per-cent points on t h e current wave shape when the SCR is triggered on in a circuit that h a s rated forward voltage and sufficient
205
state forward voltage of only 1 or 2 volts under such conditions. An interval many times greater than the turn-on time may be required before the forward voltage drop reduces to the steady-state level.
circuit adjusts the pulse width to 30 maintain a fixed-voltage output cur- 2 rent. Tiraveforms a r e shown for a I lightly loaded and a heavily loaded 20 case.
9
z1 0 0
AUTOMOBILE IGNITION SYSTEM

Fig. 293 shows a simple ignition system t h a t uses an n-p-n transistor; performance curves f o r the circuit
Z w -
AC Power Controls
Thyristors have been widely accepted in power-control applications in industrial systems where .highperformance requirements justify the economics of the application. Historically, in the commercial high-volume market, economic considerations have precluded the use of the thyristor. However, with the development of several families of thyristors by RCA designed specifically f o r mass-production economy and rated f o r 120- and 240-volt line operation, the use of these devices in controls for many types of small electric motors, incandescent lighting, and electric heating elements has been made economically feasible. The controls can be designed to provide good performance, maximum efficiency, and high reliability in compact packaging arrangements.
1000 2 0 0 0 3000 4000 ENGINE SPEED- r/n.ln
5000
Fig. 294-Igniriorr
voltage as a frtc~ctior~ of crrgitle speed.
PULSE MODULATORS
Silicon controlled rectifiers a r e often used in pulse circuits in which the ratio of peak to average current is large. Typical applications include radar pulse modulators, inverters, and switching regulators. The limiting parameter in such applications often is the time required f o r forward current t o spread over the whole area of the junction. Losscs in the SCR a r e high, and a r e concentrated in a small region until t h e entire junction area is in conduction. This concentraton produces undesirable high temperatures. A typical SCR pulse modulator circuit is shown in Fig. 295; basic waveforms f o r the circuit a r e shown in Fig. 296. The capacitors of t h e energy-storage network a r e charged by the dc supply. The SCR
Fig. 293-Solid-state acttorrrohilc i.yrririorr syslent.
a r e shown in Fia. 204. The advantages of this circuit include less maintenance of points and spark plugs, better perfornlance a t high engine speeds, and easier engine starting.
CHARGING
Basic Requirements
The simplest form of half-wave power control is shown in r i g . 297. This circuit provides a simple, non-regulating half-wave power control t h a t begins a t the 90-degree conduction (peak-voltage) point and
iF=300 A
L
,-I
IMPEDANCE
CHARGING
SCR
SATURABLE REACTOR r(0ELAY~I 2 ~ 5 1 TO
7~
SUPPLY
Fi.r.
Z~G-TI~~II-O~I reqrtirerricr~ts for prtlse-rnoditla~orSCR.
Fig. 295-13nsic
prtlsr ~r~odrtlntor circrtit.
resistance to limit the current t o rated values. F o r a 600-volt device, the end of the turn-on interval occurs when the forward voltage drop across the SCR is 60 volts. This value contrasts with the steady-
8c+
MIN
(a1
MIN
(b)
Fifi. 297-Degree of cor~trolover condrrcriorz arrgles when ac resistive network is riscd ro trigxer ( a ) SCR's and (bJ triacs.
206

junction capacitance and the circuit inductance. For the circuit parameter values given (R = 20 ohms, L = 500 n~icrohenries,and C = 500 picofarads), the frequency of oscillation is 3.2 x 10' Hz. Calculation of t h e maximum d v l d t stress across the triac yields a value of 1.97 volts per microsecond. The voltage a t the time of commutation i s then 1.6 volts, and the maximum commutating d v l d t becomes 3.15 volts per micrcsecond.
207
commutating dvldt stress is produced in all resistive circuits. Fig. 300 shows a commutating dvldt waveshape f o r a resistive load of 6 amperes in a 120-volt triac control circuit.
may be adjusted to within a few degrees of full conduction (180degree half-cycle). The half-tvave proportional control sl~ownin Fig. 298 is a non-regulating circuit ~vhosefunction depends upon an RC delay network for ate phaselag control. This circuit is better than simple resistance firing circuits because the phase-shifting characteristics of the RC networlc permit t h e firing of the SCR heyond the peak of the impressed voltage, resulting in small conduction angles. On t h e positive half-cycle of the applied voltape, capacitor C is charged through the networlc R, and R,,. When the voltage across capacitor C exceeds the gatefiring voltage of the SCR, the SCR is turned on; during the remaining portion of the half-cycle, a c power is agplicd to the load.
reaches the breakdown voltage of t h e diac, i t fires and C discharges through thc diac to its maintaining voltage. A t this point, the diac again reverts to its high-impedance state. The discharge of the capacit o r from breakdown to maintaining voltage of the diac provides a current pulse of sufficient magnitude to fire the SCR. Once the SCR has fired, the voltage across the phaseshift network reduces to the forward voltage drop of the SCR for the remainder of the half-cycle. Two SCR's are usually required to provide full-wave power control. Because of the bidirectional switchin^ characteristics of triacs, however, only one of these tlevices i s needed to provide t h e same type of control. Fig. 299 shows three fullwave power controls t h a t cnlploy thvristors. In circuits of this type, a rapidly rising off-state voltage can .occur across the thyristor when the device changes from a conducting state to a blocking statc (commutates). The influence of this dvldt stress on the operation of the powercontrol element is described below. Fig. 298- SCR half-ivrrrr propor./io~rctl Consideration is given only to those circuit applications that utilize a power corrlrol circrtil. triac a s the main power-control The delay in firing the SCR de- element. pends upon the time-constant netThe dvldt stress in a circuit with work (R,, RI,, C) which produces a a resistive load (such a s those just gate-firing v o l t a ~ e h a t is shifted in described) can be illustrated by cont 1)liase with respect to the supply sideration of a circuit with a Gv o l t a ~ e .The amount of phase shift ampere load t h a t has a power is adjusted by R,,. With maximum factor close to unity. The load reresistance in the circuit, the RC time sistance in this circuit is 20 ohms constant is longest. This condition for a source voltage of 120 volts. If results in a large phase shift with a the total circuit inductance is ascorrespondingly s m a l l concluction sumed to be 500 microhenries and annle. With minimum resistance, the the total triac and stray capacitance phase shift is small, and essentially is 500 picofarads, the circuit factor the full line voltage is applied to for the conduct in^ state is 0.99996, the load. lagging. Thus, the load current laas The control circuit uses the break- the line voltage 1)y the small phase down voltiige of a diac a s a delay of approximately 25 microthreshold setting f o r fir in^ the seconds. A t the time t h a t the triac SCR. The diac is specifically de- commutates current, the line voltajie signed for handling the high-curis 1.G volts. A t this time, a transient rent pulses required to trigger SCR's. damped oscillation occurs a s a reWhen the voltage across capacitor C sult of the interaction of the triac
Fig. 300-Triac
principal voltage during cornn~uratior~ a resistive load. of
ClRCUlT
TRIAC
SUPPLY
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
Fig. 299-Full-wave rhyrisror niotor corr/rol circrri/s rcsing (a) bridge rectifier and a sitigle SCR; (b) irrverse parallel SCR's; (c) a rriac.
Thus, it can be seen that a definite d v l d t stress is imposed on the triac even when the load is primarily resistive. Because all resistive circuit configurations have some small inductance associated with them, a
The use of triacs f o r full-wave ac power control results in either fixed o r adjustable power to the load. Fixed load power is achieved by use of the triac a s a static on-off switch which applies effectively all of t h e available line voltage to t h e load, o r by use of t h e triac in a fixed-phase firing mode which applies only the desired portion of the line voltage to the load. The latter method of operation i s but one point of a n infinite number of available points whicn can be attained by variablephase firing operation. Fig. 301- shows the current and voltage waveshapes produced when a triac is used to control a c power to a highly inductive load f o r on-off triac operation; Fig. 302 illustrates the waveshapes for phase-control operation. Because the load is highly inductive (wL>>R), the load current lags the line voltage by some phase angle e. When t h e current through the triac (i.e., the load current) goes to zero (commutates), the triac turns off. In static control operation, the triac is immediately turned on by continuous application, or re-application, of the g a t e triggering signal; thus, this signal causes the triac to continue conducting f o r the desired number of successive half-cycles.
208

junction capacitance is shunted by a low-value, nonlinear resistance which minimizes the effect of triac capacitance. However, when the triac
n m
209
on triacs with increases in frequency was explained previously in the section on Thyristors.) RCA off e r s a n extensive line of triacs rated f o r 400-Hz applications. Areas of application f o r 400-Hz triacs on aircraft include: 1 Heater controls f o r food-warm. ing ovens and f o r windshield defrosters. 2. Lighting controls f o r iristrument panels and cabin illumination. 3. Motor controls. 4. Solenoid controls. 5. Power supply switches Fig. 305 shows a low-current triac in use in a simple, common, proportional-control application; the circuit consists of a single RC time constant and a threshold device. The trigger diac is used a s a threshold device to remove the dependence of the trigger circuit on
As shown in Fig. 301, a t time t,, the gate is opened and the triac continues to conduct for the remainder of t h a t half-cycle of load current. A t the end of the halfcycle, commutation occurs and the triac is subjected to an off-state blocking voltage which has a polarity opposite t o t h e conducted current and a magnitude equal to t h e value of line voltage a t t h a t instant. Because the triac goes from a conducting state to a blocking state in a very short period of time, the rate of rise of off-state voltage is very rapid. This rapidly rising off-state voltage produces a dvldt across the main power terminals of the triac and can result in the triac going into conduction if the triac is incapable of \vithstanding the dvldt.
INDUCTIVE
LOAD .-
TRIAC
PRINCIPAL CURRENT
I I
POWER SOURCE
CIRCUIT
INDUCTIVE
PRINCIPAL
I I
I
dv/dl
1
1
9
Fig. 302-Prir~cipnl voltage arid crtrrerlt for phase-confro1 triac operariori witl~ art irrductive load.
yTl
Ibl
into a conducting state and remains in continuous conduction, supplying current to the load. This malfunction is illustrated in Fig. 303.
Fig. 304-(a) Series-circuit corlrlection of triac, Lldrtcfive load, and ac power source; and ( b ) equivalent circuit.
Fix. 301-Pri~tcipal voltage arrd crtrrcvrt for smric-sn3irch rriac operatior1 with an bmdrcrive load.
Fig. 302 shows the waveshnpes produced f o r phase-control operation \vith an inductive load. The oscillations which are present on the pcalts of the voltage waveform are the result of interaction of the circuit inductance and capacitance. For this type of operation, the stress caused by the comnlutating dvldt is produced each time the current crosses the zero-axis and, therefore, occurs a t a frequency cqunl to twice the line-voltage frequency. If thc triac is incapable of sustaining the d v l d t which is produced, i t goes
Fig. 303-Principal voltage arrrl CrlrreIrt s h o w i ~ ~r~tal/ri~rctior~ triac as a resrrlt g of o f corrrrr~urafiri,qdv/dr prod~tceci by arr iridrtctive load.
Fig. 304(a) shows the circuit diagram of a series connection of voltage source, triac, and load. An equivalent circuit for this series connection is shown in Fig. 304(b). When the triac is in conduction, the triac
goes out of conduction, the resistive component becomes very large and t h e equivalent triac shunting capacitance becomes significant. Because the circuit is basically a series RLC circuit, the voltage waveshape and the r a t e of rise of voltage across the triac a t commutation a r e determined by t h e magnitude of source voltage and t h e circuit inductance, capacitance, and resistance. Thus the rising off-state voltage across the triac can be a n overdamped, critically damped, o r underdamped oscillation. The increased complexity of aircraft control systems, and the need for greater reliability than electromechanical switching can offer, h a s led to the use of solid-state power switching in aircraft. Because 400Hz power is used almost universally in aircraft systems, triacs employed f o r power switching and control in such systems must have a substantially higher commutating dvldt capability than a r e those employed similarly in 60-Hz systems. (The increase in commutating dvldt stresses
Fig. 305-Simple control circuit using a single time constant.
variations in g a t e trigger characteristics. The circuit can provide sufficient control f o r many applications, such a s heaters and motor-speed and switching controls. Because of its simplicity, t h e circuit can be packaged in confined areas where space is a t a premium. Electrically, it displays a hysteresis effect and initially turns on f o r resistive loads with a conduction angle which may be too large; however, i t provides maximum power output a t the full "on" position of the control potentiometer. The hysteresis effect produced by a single-time-constant circuit can be reduced by addition of a resistor (Rs)in series with the trigger diac, a s shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 305. The series resistor reduces t h e capacitor discharge time and thus
210

Fig. 308 shows a circuit in which a n SCR controls the triggering and operation of a triac in a n integralcycle control circuit which is radiofrequency-interference free. A basic SCR gate-trigger o r gate-control

The triae in Fig. 308 is not triggered as long as the SCR is on. When the SCR is turned off by renloval of the gate signal and application of a negative anode potential, the triac is triggered on a t the beginning of t h e next half-cycle. When the triac conducts, the capacitor charges up to the peak supply voltage and retains its charge to trigger the triac on in the next half-cycle. When the triac conducts in the reverse direction, the negative charge on the capacitor is held to a low value so t h a t i t does not trigger the triac when the supply voltage reverses. If the SCR is still off, the triac repeats its conduction angle. If t h e SCR is conducting, the triac does not trigger on, but remains off until the SCR is again turned off. This circuit provides t h e unique function of integralcycle switching, i-e., once the triac is triggered on, i t completes one full cycle before turning off. This type of switching eliminates dc components present with half-wave control. The circuit also provides synchronous switching, i.e., the triac turns on a t the beginning of the cycle and does not generate RFI. controls, however, the ordinary faceplate and wallbox do not provide sufficient heat-sink area. I n this case, additional area may be obtained by use of a finned face plate t h a t has a cover plate which stands out from the wall so a i r can circulate freely over the fins. On wall-mounted controls, it is also important t h a t the triac be electrically isolated from the face .plate, but a t the same time be in good thermal contact with it. Although the thermal conductivity of most electrical insulators is relatively low when compared with metals, a low-thermal-resistance, electrically isolated bond of triac to faceplate can be obtained if the thickness of the insulator is minimized and t h e area for heat transfer through t h e insulator is maximized. Suitable insulating materials a r e fiberglass tape, ceramic sheet, mica, and polyimide film. Fig. 310 shows two
MOUNTING
providcs reduced time lag bccnl~se of the diac turn-on-characteristics. The circuit shown in Fig. 306 uses a double-time-constant control to improve on the performance of the sinrle-time-constant control circuit. hi$ circuit minimizes the hystcresis effect and allows the triac to turn on a t small conduction angles. The circuit h a s the a d v a n t a ~ e sof low hysteresis, bidirectional operation a t
Fig. 306-Corztrol circrrit rrsbrg a dortble tinle col~slatll.
small conduction angles, and continuous control up to the maximum conduction angle. In addition, the fixed resistor Rf can be replaced by a trimmer potentiometer for minimum control a t low conduction angles. . The circuit shown in F ~ R307 uses a neon bulb a s a t l ~ r e s l ~ o ldevice d rather than the solid-statc diac. This circuit h a s the advantnges. of low hysteresis, bidirectional operation a t small conduction angles, and
Fig. 308-Integral-cycle co~rrrolcirc~ril.
t /- , I CONTROL
circuit can be represented by a voltage source and a series resistance, a s shown in Fig. 309. The series resistance should include both the ex-
ELECTRICAL INSULATION
SOLDER
TAB
2
CIRCUIT RESISTANCE
L
I
Light Dimmers
A simple, inexpensive lightdimmer circuit can be constructed wit11 a diac, a triac, and a n RC cllarge-control network. I t is important to remember t h a t a triac in this type of circuit dissipates power a t the rate of about one w a t t per ampere. Therefore, some means of removing heat must be provided to keep the device within its safe operating-temperature range. On a small light-control circuit such a s one built into a lamp socket, the lead-in \\,ire serves a s a n effective heat sink. Attachment of the triac case directly to one of the lead-in wires provides sufficient heat dissipation f o r operating currents up to 2 amperes (rms). On mall-mounted controls operating up to G amperes, the combination of faceplate and wallbox serves a s an effective heat sink. F o r higher-power
Fig. 309-Eqrtivaletrt
gate trigger circrril.
Fig. 307-Cotrtrol circrtit rtsitrg o tleotrbrrlb rlrresl~olddevice.
continuous control up to the maximum conduction angle. 13ecause the neon-bulb threshold voltage is higher than that of a solid-stage diac, however, full 3GO-dcgree control may not bc achieved.
tcrnal circuit resistance and the internal generator resistance. With this type of equivalent circuit, the conventional load-line approach to g a t e trigger-circuit design can be used. With pulse-type triggering, i t is assumed initially t h a t the time required to trigger all SCR's of the same type is known, and that the maximum allowable g a t e trigger pulse widths for specific peak gate power inputs a r e to be determined. The magnitude of gate trigger current required to turn on an SCR of a given type can be determined from the turn-on characteristics shown in the section on Thyristors.
ELECTRICAL
I S L TO NU A I N
Fig. 310-Exatnples o f isolated rno~tnling o f triacs.
exan~plesof isolated mounting for triacs in a TO-5 package and the new plastic package. Electrical insulating tape is first placed over the inside of the faceplate. The triac
212
Power Switching a n d Control

when the diac did not conduct. As a result of the different voltage conditions on the capacitor, the breakover voltage of the diac is reached earlier in the next half-cycle. This point is labeled B on the capacitorvoltage waveform. The conduction angle O? corresponding to point B is greater than 8,. All succeeding conduction angles a r e equal to e2 in magnitude. When the circuit resistance is increased by a change
LlNE VOLTAGE
is then ~iiounted to the insulated faceplate by use of epoxy-resin cement. Because the light output of an incandescent lanip dcpcnds upon thc voltage impressed upon the lamp filament, changes in the lamp voltage vary the brightness of the l a ~ n p .When ac source voltages are used, a triac can he used in series with an incandescent lanip to vary the voltage t o the lamp by changing its conduction angle; i.e., the portion of each half-cycle of ac line v o l t a ~ ein which the triac condurts to provide voltage to thc lanq) filament. The triac, therefore, is very attractive a s a switching element in light-dimming applications. To s\vitcli incandescent-lamp loads reliably, a triac must be able to withstand the inrush current of the lainp load. The inrush current is a result of the difference hetween the cold and hot resista~iceof the tungsten filament. The cold resistance of the tungsten filament is much lower than the hot resistance. The resulting inrush current is approximately 12 times the normal operating current of the lamp. The simplest circuit t h a t can be used for liglit-dimming applications is shown in Fig. 311. This circuit uses a diac in series with the gate of a triac to minimize the variations in
pacitor change the conduction angle of the triac. Because of its simplicity, this circuit can be packaged in confined areas where space is a t a premium. The capacitor in the circuit of Fig. 311 is charged through the control potentiometer and the series resistance. The series resistance is used to protect the potentiometer l)y limiting the capacitor charging current when the control potentiomctcr is a t its minimum resistance setting. This resistor may be eliminated if the potentiometer can withstand the peak charging current until the triac turns on. The diac conducts when the voltage on the capacitor reaches its breakover voltage. The capacitor then discharges through the diac to produce a current pulse of sumcient amplitude and width to trigger the triac. Because the triac can be triggered with either polarity of gate signal, the same oper a t']on occurs on the opposite lialf-cycle of the applied voltage. The triac, therefore, is triggered and conducts on each half-cycle of the input supply voltage. The interaction of the RC network and the trigger diode results in a hysteresis effect when the triac is initially triggered a t small conduction angles. The hysteresis effect is characterized by a difference in the control potentiometer setting when the triac is first triggered and when the circuit turns off. Fig. 312 shows the interaction between the RC networlr and the diac to produce the hysteresis effect. The capacitor voltage and the ac line voltage are shown a s solid lines. As the resistance in tlie circuit is decreased from its maximum value, the capacitor voltage reaches a value which fires the diac. This point is desigFig. 3I1-Sirr,qle-tirr1e-co11.rta11t liglrtnated A on the capacitor-voltage ditiirr~ercircr~it. waveshape. When the diac fires, tlie gatc trigger characteristics. I11 appli- capacitor discharges and triggers cations where space is a t a pl.emium, the triac a t an initial conduction the RCA-40431 or RCA-40432, \ ~ h i c h angle 8,. During the foi.mii~gof the combines the functions of I)otli triac gate trigger pulse, the capacitor and diac, may be used. Cliangcs in voltage drops suddenly. The charge the resistance in series wit11 thc ca- on the capacitor is sinaller than
Fig. 3I2-M/avrfor111s sho~virtg irtteractiorz of coritrol t~etnlorkatid trigger diode.
ance of the single-time-constant control circuit. This circuit uses a n additional RC network to extend the phase angle so that the triac can be triggered a t small conduction angles. The additional RC network also minimizes the hysteresis effect. Fig. 314 shows the voltage waveforms f o r the ac supply and the trigger capacitor of the circuit of Fig. 313. Because of the voltage drop across R3, the input capacitor Cs charges to a higher voltage than the trigger capacitor CJ. When the voltage on CJ reaches the breakover voltage of the diac, i t conducts and causes the capacitor to discharge and produce the gate-current pulse to trigger the triac. After the diac turns off, the charge on C z is partially restored by t h e charge from the input capacitor C2. The partial restoration of charge on Cs results in better circuit performance with a minimum of hysteresis.
in the potentiometer setting, the triac is still triggered, but a t a snlaller conduction angle. Eventually, the resistance in series with the capacitance becomes so great that the voltage on the capacitor does not reach the breakover voltage of the diac. The circuit then turns off and does not turn on until the circuit resistance is again reduced to allow the diac to be fired. The hysteresis effect makes the voltage load appear much greater than would normally be expected when the circuit is initially turned on. The double-time-constant circuit in Fig. 313 improves on the perform-
LlNE VOLTAGE
TRIGGERCAPACITOR VOLTAGE
Fig. 3 l k V o l t a g e waveforms of doubletime-constant cor~trol circuit.
Fig. 313-Dorrble-tirrte-cowant di~rrrrrer circiiit.
light-
Fig. 315 shows a lamp-dimmer circuit in which the use of a n RCA-CA3059 integrated-circuit zerovoltage switch in conjunction with a 400-Hz triac results in minimum RFI. (The CA3059 is described briefly in the section on Heater Controls. A detailed description of this integrated circuit is given in the manual on RCA Linear Integrated Circuits, Technical Series IC-42, in RCA Application Notes ICAN4158 and ICAN-6268, or in the Technical Bulletin on the CA3059, File No. 397.

1

No. 9 of the differential amplifier within the CA3059. The other side of the differential amplifier (terminal No. 13) uses a variable reference level, set by the potentiometer R3. A change of the potentiometer setting changes the lamp intensity. I n 400-Hz applications, i t may be necessary to widen and shift t h e CA3059 output pulse (which is typically 12 microseconds wide and centered on zero voltage crossing) to assure t h a t sufficient latching current is available. The resistor Ra (terminal No. 12 t o common) and t h e capacitor C. (terminal No. 5 t o common) a r e used f o r this adjustment. desired temperature. Fig. 318 shows the on-off ratio of t h e triac. Within the time period, the on-time varies by a n integral number of cycles from full ON to a single cycle of input voltage.
TRIAC OFF -7RIAC
ON-
7 p-TRl C A
~ I M
TRIAC ON
'
LOW HEAT O F F 1
BASE--^ E
HlGH HEAT
Heat Controls
Fig. 315--Circrcit diagrarri for 400-Hz zero-voltage-switched lar~tpdintntcr.
Fig. 318-Triac duty cycle.
Lamp dimming is a simple triac application t h a t demonstrates an advantage of 400-Hz power over 60 Hz. Fig. 316 shows the adjustment
Fig. 316-IVaveforrrts for 60-Hz phasecot~rrolled lalrrp dirnrr~cr.

400-HZ LINE VOLTAGE
of lamp intensity by phase control of t h e 60-Hz line voltage. Because R F I is generated by the step functions of power each half cycle, extensive filtering is required. Fig. 31'7 shows a means of controlling power to the lamp by the zero-voltageswitching technique. Use of 400-Hz power makes possible t h e elimination of complete o r half cycles within a period (typically 17.5 milliseconds) without noticeable flicker. Fourteen different levels of lamp intensity can be obtained in this manner. I n the circuit shown in Fig. 315, a linesynced ramp is set up with the desired period and applied to terminal
I
I
-1
LINESYNCED
:RAMP
I
I1
//!
I
!I/
+ / 11
(1
\y
Fig. 317-W'avejorma
/or 400-Hz zero-voltage-switched lump dit~lr~tcr.
There a r e three general categories of solid-state control circuits f o r electric heating elements: on-off control, phase control, and proportional control using integral-cycle synchronous switching. Phase-control circuits such a s those used f o r light dimming a r e very effective and efficient f o r electric heat control except f o r the problem of radio-frequency interference (RFI). I n higher-power applications, the R F I is of such magnitude t h a t suppression circuits to minimize the interference become quite bulky and expensive. On-off controls have only two levels of power input t o the load. The heating coils a r e either energized to full power o r a r e a t zero power, Because of thermal time constants, on-off controls produce a cyclic action which alternates between thermal overshoots and undershoots with poor resolution. This disadvantage is overcome and RFI is minimized by use of the concept of integral-cycle proportional control with synchronous switching. In this system, a time base is selected, and the on-time of the triac is varied within the time base. The ratio of t h e on-to-off time of the triac within this time interval depends upon the power required to the heating elements t o maintain the
One method of achieving integralcycle proportional control is to use a fixed-frequency sawtooth generator signal which is summed with a dc control signal. The sawtooth generator establishes the period o r time base of the system. The dc control signal is obtained from the output of the temperature-sensing network. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 319. As the sawtooth voltage increases, a level is reached which turns on power to the heating elements. A s t h e temperature a t the sensor changes, t h e dc level shifts accordingly and changes the length of time that t h e power is applied t o the heating elements within t h e established time. When t h e demand for heat is high, t h e dc control signal is high and high power is supplied continuously
TTRIGGER LEVEL
nr
CO-KTROL
LOW HEAT DEMAND HlGH HEAT DEMAND
LOADIA
VOLTAGE
n V
Vv ~
92LS-3081)
Fig. 319-Proportional-controller wavesltapes.
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode ~ a n u a l

to the heating elements. When the denland for heat is completely satisfied, the dc control signal is low and low power is supplied to the heating elements. Usually a system using this principle operates continuously somewhere between full ON ant1 full O F F to satisfy the demand for heat. The RCA-CA3059 integrated-circuit zero-voltage switch is intended primarily a s a trigger circuit for the control of thyristors and is particularly suited for use in thyristor temperature-control applications. This multistage circuit employs a diode limiter, a threshold detector, a differential amplifier, and a Darlington output driver to provide the basic switching action. The dc supply voltage for these stages is supplied by an internal zener-diode-regulated power supply t h a t has suficient current capability to drive external circuit elements, such a s transistors and other integrated circuits. The trigger pulse developed by this circuit can be applied directly to the gate of an SCR o r a triac. A builtin fail-safe circuit inhibits the application of these pulses to the thyristor gate circuit in the event t h a t the external sensor f o r the integrated-circuit switch should be inadvertently opened or shorted. The CA3059 may be employed a s either an on-off type of controller o r a proportional controller, depending upon the degree of temperature regulation required. Fig. 320 shows a functional block diagram of the CA3059 integratedcircuit zero-voltage switch. Any triac t h a t is driven directly from the output terminal of this circuit should be characterized for operation in the I ( + ) o r I I I ( + ) triggering modes, i.e., with positive gate current (current flows into the gate for

both polarities of the applied ac voltage). The circuit operates directly from a 60-Hz ac line voltage of 120 o r 240 volts. The limiter stage of the CA3059 clips the incoming ac line voltage to approximately plus and minus 8 volts. This signal is then applied to the zero-voltage-crossing detector, which generates a n output pulse during each passage of the line voltage through zero. The limiter output is also applied to a rectifying diode and an external capacitor t h a t comprise the dc power supply. The power supply provides approximately 6 volts a s the dc supply to the other stages of the CA3059. The onloff sensing amplifier is basically a differential comparator. The triac gating circuit contains a driver f o r direct triac triggering. The gating circuit is enabled when all the inputs a r e a t a high voltage, i.e., the line voltage must be approximately zero volts, the sensing-amplifier output must be "high," the external voltage to terminal 1 must be a logical "1," and the output of the failsafe circuit must be "high." Fig. 321 shows the position and width of the pulses supplied to the gate of a thyristor with respect to the incoming ac line voltage. The CA3059 can supply sufficient g a t e voltage and current to trigger most RCA thyristors a t ambient temperatures of 25C. However, under worstcase conditions (i.e., a t ambienttemperature extremes and maximum trigaer requirements), selection of the higher-current thyristors may be necessary for particular applications. As shown in Fig. 320, when terminal 1 3 is connected to terminal 14, the fail-safe circuit of the CA3059 is operable. If the sensor should then be accidentally opened or shorted, power is removed from the load (i.e., the triac is turned off). The internal fail-safe circuit functions properly, however, only when the ratio of the sensor impedance a t 26"C, if a thermistor is the sensor, to the impedance of the potentiometer R. is less than 4 to 1.
Fig. 321-Timing relationship between the output pltlses of the CA3059 and the ac line voltage.
+NTC=NEGATIVETEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT
Note: Detailed descriptive informntion and the complete circuit dingrnm for the CA3059 nre given in the RCA 1,inenr Inteprated Circuits hlnnual, Technical Series IC-42. or in RCA r\pplirntinn Notex ICAN-4158 and ICAN-6268 and the RCA Technical Bulletin on the CA3059. File No. 397.
Fig. 320-F~rtlctional block diagram o f the integrated-circuit zero-voltnge switch.
On-Off Temperature ControllerFig. 322 shows a triac and a CA3059 used in a n on-off temperature-controller configuration. The triac is turned on at zero voltage whenever the voltage Vs exceeds the reference voltage V,. The transfer characteristic of this system, shown in Fig. 323, indicates significant thermal overshoots and undershoots, a wellknown characteristic of such a system. The differential or hysteresis of this system, however, can be further increased, if desired, by the addition of positive feedback. Proportional Temperature Controller- For precise temperaturecontrol applications, the proportional-control technique with synchronous switching is employed. The transfer curve f o r this type of controller is shown in Fig. 324. I n this case, the duty cycle of the power supplied to the load is varied with the demand f o r heat required and the thermal time constant (inertia) of the system. F o r example, when the t,emperature setting is increased in a n "on-off" type of controller, full power (100 per cent duty cycle) i s supplied to the system. This effect results in significant temperature excursions because there is no a n t i c i ~ a t o r y circuit to reduce the power gradually before the actual set temaerature is
218

AC
219
TO PIN 2
OV+=+GV
IN
120 VAC 60 Hz
120 V A C
O OUTPUT
TO PIN 9
60 Hz
COMMON
TO PIN 7 COMMON
CONNECTIONS REFER TO RCA CA3059
Fig. 326-Ra118p generator.
Fig. 322-CA3059
TEMPERATURE SETTING OVER
018-off te~nperaturecontroller.
SHOOT
DIFFERENTIAL
UNDER SHOOT
TIME
Fig. 323-Tra~!sfer chnractcristics o f nrr on-off te~nperature-cor~lrol syste111.

TEMPERATURE
,-<DI:F~,~~NCTIAL
a
t-
Before such a system is imple: mented, a time base is chosen so t h a t the on-time of the triac is varied within this time base. The ratio of the on-to-off time of the triac within this time interval depends on the thermal time constant of the system and the selected temperature setting. Fig. 325 illustrates t h e principle of proportional control. For this o p eration, power i s supplied to the load until the ramp voltage reaches a value greater than the dc control signal supplied to t h e opposite side of the differential amplifier. The triac then remains off f o r the remainder of the time-base period. As a result, power is "pro~ o r t i o n e d " to the load in a direct relation to the heat demanded by the system.
RAMP SIGNAL
F o r this application, a simple ramp generator can be realized with a minimum number of active and passive con~ponents. Exceptional ramp linearity is not necessary f o r proportional operation because of the nonlinearity of the thermal system and the closed-loop type of control. In the circuit shown in Fig. 326, ramp voltage is generated when the capacitor C? charges through resistors R, and Rn. The time base of the ramp is determined by resistors R1 and R2, capacitor C,, and the breakover voltage of the IN5411 diac. When the voltage across CI reaches approximately 32 volts, t h e
diac switches and turns on t h e 2N3241A transistor. The capacitor Ca then discharges through the collector-to-emitter junction of the transistor. This discharge time is the retrace o r flyback time of the ramp. The circuit shown can generate ramp times ranging from 0.3 to 2.0 seconds through adjustment of R?. F o r precise temperature regulations, the time base of t h e ramp should be shorter than the thermal time constant of the system, but long with respect to t h e period of the 60-Hz line voltage. Fig. 327 shows a triac and a CA3059 connected for the proportional mode.
TIME
F ~ R .324-Trar1,~/er c/~nrnctrr;~tics a of proportior~a~ tenlpcratrrre-cor~trol syster~l.
120 V A C
Hz
ON
~ ~ 5 " . POWER 5 POWER ~ 0 ~ ' 7 5 0 ~ ~ j POWER ~ ~ 0

OUTPUT OUTPUT OUTPUT POWER
d
achieved. However, in a proportional control technique, less power to is s u ~ n l i e d the load (reduced dutv cycl;)*as the error signal is reduced (sensed temperature approaches the set temperature).
TIME-Fig. 325-Prb~ciplts o f proporrio~rol corztrol.
Fig. 327-CA3059 proporti011al tentperature controller.
220
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode 'Manual

trolled is low, tlie resistance of thc thermistor is high and a n output signal a t terminal 4 of zero volts i s obtained. The SCR, therefore, i s turned off. The triac is then t r i c gered directly from the line on positive cycles of t h e ac voltage. When the triac is triggered and supplies power to the load RI., capacitor C is charged to the peak of the input voltage. When t h e ac line swings negative, capacitor C discharges through t h e triac g a t e t o trigger t h e

fro111 the g a t e of tlie triac. The triac is then turned off. The cycle repeats when the SCR i s again turned by a reversal of the polarity of the applied voltage. The circuit shown in Fig. 329 i s similar to the configuration in Fig. 328 except h a t the fail-safe circuit t incorpor&.ed in the CA3059 can be
221
motors and perform switching, o r a n y other desired operating condition t h a t can be obtained by a switchinp action. Because most motors a r e line-operated, the triac can be used as a direct replacement f o r electromechanical switches. A very simple triac static switch f o r
Integral-Cycle Tcniperature Controller (No half-cycling)-If a temperature controller \vhicli i s cornpletely devoid oT half-cycling and hysteresis is required, then the circuit shown in Fig. 328 may be used This type of circuit i s essential f o r applications in which half-cycling and the resultant dc component coultl cause overheating of a power transformer on the utility lines. I n the circuit shown in Fig. 327, the sensor is connected between
At-
\-
TYPE ZN3241A
- *FOR
* FOR PROPORTIONAL OPERATION OPEN TERMINALS
PROPORTlONAL OPERATION OPEN TERMINALS I0,II;AND AND CONNECT POSITIVE RAMP VOLTAGE TO TERMINAL 13
13,
Fig. 329-CA3059
10.11, AND 13, AND CONNECT POSITIVE RAMP VOLTAGE TO TERMINAL 13
irrtcgral-cycle fe~nperaturecontroller that features fail-safe operation and no half-cyclitlg eflect.
Fig. 328-CA3059
itltegral-cycle tetuperatlcre controller in which half-cycling enecr is e l i t ~ ~ i t ~ a t e d .
terminals 7 and 9 of the CA3059. This arrangement i s required because of the phase reversal introduced by the SCR. TJTith this configuration, terminal 12 is connected to terminal 7 for operation of the CA3059 in the dc mode (ho~vever, the load is switched a t zero voltage). Because the position of the sensor h a s been changed f o r this configuration, the internal fail-safe circuit cannot be used (terminals 13 and 14 a r e not connectetf). In the integral-cycle controller, wlien the temperature being con-
triac on the negative half-cycle. The diode-resistor-capacitor "slaving network" triggers the triac on negative half-cycles of the ac input voltage a f t e r i t is triggered on the positive half-cycle to provide only integral cycles of a c power to the load. When the temperature being controlled reaches t h e desired value, a s determined by t h e thermistor, then a positive voltage level appears a t terminal 4 of t h e CA3059. The SCR then s t a r t s to conduct a t the beginning of the positive input cycle to shunt the trigger current away
used. In this latter circuit, t h e NTC sensor is connected between terminals 7 and 13, and a transistor inverts the signal output a t terminal 4 t o nullify the phase reversal introduced by the SCR. The internal power supply of the CA3059 supplies bias current to the transistor. The circuit shown in Fig. 329 can readily be converted to a true proportional integral-cycle temperature controller sinlply by connection of a positive-going r a m p voltage to terminal 9 (with terminals 10 and 11 open).
control of a c motors i s shown in Fig. 330. The low-current switch
~&IET~
z40vAc ~OHZ CURRENT
J
Fig. 33O-Sit?lple
triac static switch.
Motor Controls
Triacs and SCR's can be used very effectively t o apply power to
controlling the g a t e trigger current can be any type of transducer, such a s a pressure switch, a thermal switch,- a photocell, or a magnetic type of cirreed relay. This s i m ~ l e cuit allows t h e motor to be switched directly from t h e transducer switch
222

operate directly from either ac or dc power sources. Fig. 333 is a schematic of this type of motor operated from an ac supply. Because most domestic applications today require 60-Hz power, universal motors a r e usually designed to have optimum performance characteristics a t this frcqucncy. Most univers:~l nlotors run faster a t a given dc voltage than a t the same 60-1Iz ac voltage. The field winding of a universal motor, whether distributed or lumped (salient pole), is in series with the armature and external circuit, a s shown in Fig. 333. The current
I
223
phase-lag control. This circuit is better than simple resistance firing circuits because the phase-shifting characteristics of the RC network permit the firing of the SCR beyond the peak of the impressed voltage, resulting in small conduction angles and very slow speed.
UNIVERSAL MOTOR
without any intcmmedintc power switch or relay. Triacs can also be used to change the operating characteristics of niotors to obtain many different speed and torque curves. For dc control, the circuit of Fig. 331 can be used. By use of the tfc triggering modes, the tri:lc can be directly triggered from transistor
STALL
N O LOAD
Fig. 3 3 k T y p i c a l performance curves for a ldtliversal n~otor.
MOTOR TERMINALS 1
I Fir. 331- AC trinc sa~ifch corrrrol froi~r [fc ilrpllf.
circuits by either a pulse or continuous signal. A transistor seriesswitching regulator al)proacll can also be used t o control the armature current of a dc motor, a s shown in Fig. 332. Usually the transistor is full on o r full off and the duration of the pulse (or the duty cycle) dctcrmines the motor spced. I t s typical high-power application is in the drive illotors of electric vehicles o r submarines.
EXTERNAL
CONTROL
Fig. 333-Series-\vorr~ld
rririvrrsal rjtoror.
One of the simplest and most emcient means of varying the impressed voltage to a load on a n ac power system is by control of t h e conduction angle of a thyristor placed in series with the load. Typical curves showing the variation of motor speed with conduction angle f o r both half-wave and full-wave impressed motor voltages a r e illustrated in Fig. 335.
Fig. 336-Half-wave motor control with

n o regulafio~t.
I
L~
COMHUTATING DIODE (IF REWlREDl
r
4,
+
BATfERY
OR ENERGY SOURCE
RA
I
>
AMPUFIEU
>
INPUT FROM F E E D CONTROL AND SENSING
Fig. 332-DC ~rrofor aritrarrrrcj c o ~ r ~ r o l .
Many fractional-horsel,ower motors a r e series-wound "universal" motors, so named because of their ability to
through the field winding produces a magnetic field which cuts across the armature conductors. The :~ction of this field in opposition to the field current sullset up by the a r ~ n a t u r e jects the individual conductors to a lateral thrust ~vhich results in armature rotation. AC operation of a universal motor is possit)le because of the nature of its electrical connections. As the ac source voltage reverses every halfcycle, the magnetic field produced by the field winding reverses its direction sin~ultaneously. Because the armature windings a r e in series s i t h the field windings through the brushes and commutating scgnienls, the current through the armature winding also reverses. Because both the magnetic field and a r ~ n a t u r e current are reversed, the direction of the lateral thrust on the armature windings remains constant. Typical performance characteristic ckuves for a universal motor a r e sho\vn in Fig. 334.
CONDUCTION ANGLE-DEGREES
F k . 335-Typicul perfonnonce cltrves for

a rtrliversal i ~ ~ o t o r with phase-angle control.
Half-Wave Control-There a r e many good circuits available f o r half-wave control of universal motors. The circuits a r e divided into two classes: regulating and nonregulating. Regulation in this instance implies load sensing and compensation of the system to prevent changes in motor speed. The half-wave proportional control circuit shown in Fig. 336 is a non-regulating circuit t h a t depends upon a n RC delay network for gate
Fig. 337 shows a fundamental circuit of direct-coupled SCR control with voltage feedback. This circuit is highly effective f o r speed control of universal motors. The circuit makes use of the counter emf induced in t h e rotating armature because of the residual magnetism in t h e motor on the half-cycle when the SCR is blocking. The counter emf is a function of speed and, therefore, can be used a s a n indication of speed changes a s mechanical load varies. The gatefiring circuit i s a resistance network consisting of R, and Rz.During t h e positive half-cycle of the source voltage, a fraction of the voltage is developed a t the center-tap of the potentiometer and is compared with the counter emf developed in t h e rotating armature of the motor. When the bias developed a t t h e g a t e of the SCR from the potentiometer exceeds the counter emf of t h e motor, the SCR fires. AC power is then applied t o the motor f o r the

fire a t low bias-potention~eter settings and causes t h e motor t o accelerate to a point a t which the counter emf induced in the rotating armature exceeds the gate firing bias of the SCR and prevents the SCR from firing. The SCR is not able to fire again until the speed of the motor has reduced, a s a result of friction losses, to a value a t which the induced voltage in the rotating armature is less than the g a t e bias. A t this time the SCR fires again. Bccause the motor deceleration occurs over a number of cycles, there is no voltage applied to the motor; hence, the tern1 skip-cycling. When a load is applied to t h e motor, the motor speed decreases and thus reduces t h e counter emf induced in the rotating armature. With a reduced counter emf, the SCR fires, earlier in the cycle and provides increased motor torque to the load. Fig. 337 also shows variations of conduction angle with changes in counter emf. The counter emf appears a s a constant voltage a t the motor terminals when the SCR is blocking. Half-Wave Rlotor Control Limitations-If a universal motor is operated a t low speed under a hcavy mechanical load, i t may stall and cause heavy current flow through the SCR. F o r this reason, low-speed heavyload conditions should be allowed to exist for only a few seconds to prevent possible circuit damage. In a n y case, fuse ratings should be carefully determined and observed. Nameplate d a t a for some universal motors a r e given in developed horsepower to the load. This mechanical designation can be converted into its electrical current equivalent through the following procedure. Internal motor losses a r e taken into consideration by assigning a figure of merit. This figure, 0.5, represents motor operation a t 50-percent efficiency, and indicates t h a t the power input t o the motor is twice the power delivered to the load. With this figure of merit and the input voltage V.,, the rnls input

current to t h e motor can be calculated a s follows: r m s current = mechanical h o r s e ~ o w e rx 746 0.5 V, . F o r a n input voltage of 120 volts, the r m s input current becomes r m s current = horsepower x 12.4 F o r a n input voltage of 240 volts, the r m s input current becomes r m s current = horsepower x 6.2 The motor-control circuits described above should not be used with universal motors t h a t have calculated mms current exceeding t h e values given. The circuits will accomrnodate universal motors with ratings up to % horsepower a t 120 volts input and up t o 1 % horsepower a t 240 volts input. Full-Wave Universal and Induction Motor Controls-Fig. 338 shows a single-time-constant full-wave triac circuit which can be used a s a satisfactory proportional speed control f o r universal motors and with cerspecific operating condition determined by t h e conduction angle of the triac. Because the singletime-constant circuit cannot provide speed control of a n induction motor load from maximum power to full O F F , but only down t o some fraction of t h e full-power speed, t h e effects of hysteresis described previously a r e not present. Speed ratios a s high a s 3:l can be obtained from the single-time-constant circuit used with certain types of illduction motors. Care must be taken t o avoid continuous low-speed operation of induction motors i n which sleeve bearings a r e used as improper lubrication will result. Because motors a r e basically inductive loads and because the triac turns off when t h e current reduces t o zero, the phase difference between the applied voltage and the device current causes t h e triac to t u r n off when t h e source voltage i s a t a value other than zero. When t h e triac turns off, the instantaneous value of input voltage is applied directly to the main terminals of t h e triac. This commutating voltage m a y have a r a t e of rise which can retrigger the triac. The commutating d v / d t can be limited to the capability of the triac by use of a n RC network across t h e device, a s shown in Fig. 338. The current and voltage waveshapes f o r the circuit a r e shown in Fig. 339 t o illustrate t h e principle of commutating dvldt. I n applications in which t h e hysteresis effect can be tolerated o r which require speed control primarily in the medium to full-power range, a single-time-constant circuit such a s t h a t shown in Fig. 338 f o r induction motors can also be used f o r universal motors. However, i t is usually desirable to extend t h e range of speed control from fullpower ON t o very low conduction angles. The double-time-constant circuit shown in Fig. 340 provides the delay necessary to trigger t h e triac a t very low conduction angles with a minimum of hysteresis, and also provides practically full power
FI
RI
CR2
SCRl
CRI
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
MOTOR VOLTAGE
remaining portion of the positive half-cycle. Speed control i s accomplished hy adjustment of potentiometer R,. If t h e SCR is fired early in the cycle, the motor opera t e s a t high speed because essentially the full rated line voltage is applied to the motor. If the SCR is fired later in the cycle, the avera g e value of voltage applied t o the motor is reduced, and a corresponding reduction in motor speed occurs. On the negative half-cycle, the SCR blocks voltage to the motor. The voltage applied to t h e g a t e of the SCR is a sine wave because it is derived from the sine-wave line voltage. The minimum conduction angle occurs a t the peak of t h e sine wave and is restricted to 90 degrees. Increasing conduction angles occur when the gate bias t o the SCR is increased to allow firing a t voltage values which a r e less than the peak value. A t no load and low speed, sltip cycling operation occurs. This type of operation results in erratic motor speeds. Because no counter E M F is induced in the armature when the motor is standing still, the SCR will
IZOVAC 0R 24 OVAC 60Ht
T
Fig. 338-I~rd~tctiotl nrotor corltrol.
tain types of induction motors, such a s shaded pole or permanent splitcapacitor motors when the load is fixed. No regulation i s provided with this circuit. This type of circuit is best suited t o applications which require speed control in t h e medium to full-power range. I t is specifically useful in applications such a s fans or blower-motor controls, where a small change in motor speed produces a large change in a i r velocity. Caution must be exercised if this type of circuit is used with induction nlotors because the motor may stall suddenly if the speed of the motor i s reduced below t h e drop-out speed f o r t h e

switch or a n electronic switch used with some type of sensor to reverse the direction of the motor. A resistance is added in series with the capacitor to limit capacitor discharge current to a safe value whenever both triacs a r e conducting simultaneously. If triac No.1 is turned on while triac No.2 is on, a loop current resulting from capacitor discharge will occur and may damage the triacs. The circuit operates a s follows: when triac No.1 is in the off state, motor direction is controlled by triac No.2; when triac No.2 reverts to the off state and triac No.1 turns on, the motor direction i s reversed. The triac motor-reversing circuit can be extended to electronic garagedoor systems which use the principle f o r garage-door directioq.
MOTOR

receiver activates the time-delay monostable multivibrator so that i t then changes the flip-flop state and provides continuous gate drive to the U P triac. The door then continues to travel in the U P direction until the upper-limit switch closure disables gate drive to the U P triac. A second keying of the transmitter provides the DOWN triac with gate drive and causes the door to travel in the DOWN direction until the gate drive is disabled by the lower limit closure. The time in which the monostable multivibrator is active should override normal transmitter keying for the purpose of eliminating erroneous firing. A feature of this system is that, during travel, transmitter keying provides motor reversing independent of the uppero r lower-limit closures. Additional features, such a s obstacle clearance, manual control, o r time delay f o r overhead garage lights can be included very economically.
RECE I V ER
REVERSING
~VOLTAGEL " j z;fm
FLIP- FLOP
Fig. 339-IYavrdmpes o f cor~~rnrttatir~g dvldr characteristics.
to the load a t the minimum-resistance position of the control potentiometer. When this type of control circuit is used, a n infinite range of motor speeds can be obtained from very low to full-power speeds.
120 OR
24ovac L 60 Hr
TRlAC No.1
vAck ::.2;k
RESISTANCE
- - - - - -TRlAC
TRlAC
Fig. 342-Block diagram for remorecotltrol solid-stare garage-door system.
1
Fig. 34O-Dortble-tir1re-co11s~at1tr~rotor corttrol.
DIRECTION
0 C NR X OTC
-0
DIRECTION CONTROL
Fig. 341-Reversirrg rrrotor cor~trol.
lleversing Rlotor Control-In many illdustrial applications, i t is necessary to reverse the direction of a motor, either manually o r by means of an auxiliary circuit. Fig. 3 4 1 shows a circuit which uses two triacs to provide this type of reversing motor control f o r a split-phase capacitance motor. The .reversing switch can be either a manual
control. The system contains a transmitter and a receiver and provides remote control of door opening and closiag. The Idock diagram in Fig. 342 shows t h e functions required for a complete solid-state system. When the garage door is closed, the gate drive to the DOWN triac is disabled by the lower-limit closure and the g a t e drive to the U P triac is inactive because of the state of the flip-flop. If the transmitter is momentarily keyed, the
DC Power Supplies
center-tapped high-voltage transformer winding. This circuit has a lower peak-to-average voltage ratio than the circuit of Fig. 343 and about 65 per cent less ripple. Only 50 per cent of the total current flows through each rectifier. This type of circuit is widely used in television receivers and large audio amplifiers. The single-phase full-wave bridge circuit shown in Fig. 345 uses four
229
can be used to supply twice as much output voltage a s t h e circuit of Fig. 344 for the same transformer voltage, o r to expose t h e individual rectifiers to only half a s much peak reverse voltage f o r the same output voltage. Only 50 per cent of the total current flows through each rectifier. This type of circuit is popular in amateur transmitter use. The three-phase circuits shown in Figs. 346 through 349 a r e usually found in heavy industrial equipment such a s high-power transmitters. The three-phase Y half-wave circuit shown in Fig. 346 uses three rectifiers. This circuit has considerably less ripple than the circuits discussed above. In addition, only onethird of the total output current flows through each rectifier. Fig. 347 shows a three-phase full-wave bridge circuit which uses six rectifiers. This circuit delivers twice a s much voltage output a s t h e circuit of Fig. 346 f o r the same transformer conditions. In addition, this circuit, a s well a s those shown in Figs. 348 and 349, has a n extremely small percentage of ripple. In the six-phase "star" circuit shown in Fig. 348, which also uses six rectifiers, the least amount of the total output current (one-sixth) flows through each output rectifier. The three-phase double-Y and interphase transformer circuit shown in
WTPUT VOLTAGE
DC Power Supplies
power supplies convert the DCput of atoprime source, such aoutsa generator, a form useful to the circuit to be powered. The supply of power usually requires rectification to change ac to dc, filtering to smooth out the ac ripple in the output of the rectifier circuit, and regulation to assure a constant output from the power supply in spite of variations in the input voltage and output load.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER CURRENT
RECTIFICATION
The niost suitable type of rectifier circuit for a particular application depends on the dc voltage and current requirements, the amount of rectifier "ripple" (undesired fluctuation in the dc output caused by a n ac component) that can be tolerated in the circuit, and the type of ac power available. Figs. 343 through 349 show seven basic rectifier configurations. These illustrations include the output-voltage waveforms for the various circuits and the current waveforms for each individual rectifier in the circuits. Filtering of the output of the rectifier circuits is discussed later in this section. Ideally, the voltage waveform should be a s flat a s possible (i.e., approaching almost pure dc). A flat curve indicates a peak-to-average voltage ratio of one. The single-phase half-wavc circuit shown in Fig. 343 delivers only one pulse of current for each cycle of ac input voltage. A s shown by the current waveform, the single rectifier conducts the entire current flow. This type of circuit contains
Fig. 343--Si~rg(e-~hasehalf-wove circliit.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER CURRENT
a very high percentage of output ripple. Fig. 344 shows a single-phase fullwave circuit t h a t operates from a
Fig, 345-SjnR(e-phase frtll-wave wirhour certrer-tapped power trartsfornrer (i.e., bridge-rectifier circuit).
rectifiers, and does not require the use of a transformer center-tap. I t
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER CURRENT
Fifl. 344-Sirtgle-plrase fir//-wave circtiil 1tlit11cetller-rapped power rratlsformer.
RECTIFIER CURRENT
Fig. 346-Three-phase "Y" half-wave circ~cit.
DC Power Supplies
n
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
TTTWv\
RECTIFIER CURRENT
Fig. 347-Three-plrrrse
"Y" fitll-wave circrrir.
Fig. 349 uses six half-wave rcctifiers in parallel. This arrangement delivers six current pulses per cycle and twice a s ~ n u c h output current a s the circuit sho\vn in Fig. 346. Table I V lists voltage and current ratios for the circuits shown in Figs. 3.13 through 349 for resistive or inductive loads. These ratios apply f o r sinusoidal ac input voltages. I t is
generally recommended t h a t inductive loads rather than resistive loads be used f o r filtering of rectifier current, except f o r the circuit of Fig: 343. Current ratios given for inductive loads apply only when a filter choke is used between the output of the rectifier and any capacitor in the filter circuit. Values shown do not take into consideration voltage drops
Fig. 349-Three-phase "double-Y" and interphase-transformer circuit.
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
L--I ~ - 4
which occur in the power transformer, the silicon rectifiers, o r the filter components under load conditions. When a particular rectifier type has been selected f o r use in a specific circuit, Table IV can be used t o determine the parameters and characteristics of the circuit. In Table IV, all ratios a r e shown a s functions of either t h e average output voltage En, o r t h e average dc output current I.,, both of which are expressed a s unity f o r each circuit. In practical applications, the magnitudes of these average values will, of course, vary f o r t h e different circuit configurations.
FILTERING
Filter circuits a r e used t o smooth out the ac ripple in the output of a rectifier circuit. Filters consist of txvo basic types, inductive "choke" input and capacitive input. Combinations and variations of these types are often used; some typical filter circuits a r c shown in Fig. 350. The simplest of these filtering circuits is the capacitive input type. This type of filtering is most often uscd in low-current circuits in which
RECTIFIER CURRENT
-.
F i g . 348-Six-plrasc
"star" circrtit.
a fairly large amount of ripple can be tolerated. Such circuits a r e usually single-phase, half-wave o r fullwave. I n this type of filter, t h e capacitor charges up to approximately the peak of t h e input voltage on each half-cycle t h a t a rectifier conducts. The current into the load is then supplied from t h e capacitor rather than from the power supply until tlie point in the next halfcycle when t h e input voltage again equals the voltage across the capacitor. A rectifier circuit t h a t uses a smoothing capacitor and the voltages involved a r e shown in Fig. 351. The input and output voltage wavefors f o r this circuit a r e shown in Fig. 352. Higher average dc output voltages and currents can be obtained from this type of circuit by the use of larger capacitors. A larger capacitor also tends to reduce t h e ripple. However, .care must be taken t h a t the capacitor is not so large t h a t excessive peak and r m s currents cause overheating of t h e rectifier. The next simplest filter is t h e inductive input filter. This filter performs the same function as a capacitive input filter in t h a t i t smooths
234

sistance in series with the field. If the battery is fully charged and the electrical loading is small (e.g., only from the ignition circuit), the 10-volt zener diode breaks down, turning (II on and Q2 off (i-e., high resistance). The consequent reduction in field current reduces the armature voltage E, so t h a t the
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
DC Power Supplies
is reflected across the resistance R, in series with the load so t h a t the output voltage VO is maintained nearly constant.
235
pass element. This type of circuit is designed to provide approximately 125 volts, regulated to 2 3 per cent for both line and load. Ripple is less than 0.5 per cent rms. The power supply is basically a half-wave phase-controlled rectifier. The capacitor C1 between the cathode and gate of the SCR charges up during half of each cycle and is discharged by the firing of the SCR. The firing angle of the SCR is advanced o r retarded by the charging current flowing into the capacitor C . Some of the current which would , normally charge this capacitor i s shunted by the collector of the control transistor Q,. A s the current in the control transistor increases, current is shunted around t h e ,capacitor, through the ballast lamp I,, so t h a t the capacitor charging time is increased. As a result, t h e firing angle of the SCR is retarded, and a lower output voltage results. The controlling voltage on t h e control transistor is derived from both the dc output and from t h e line voltage in such a manner a s to provide load and line regulation respectively. The voltage-dependent
reducing the dissipation and current requirements in the high-voltage device Q1.
Ema, I m o x
I mar
'P ~ ~ m ' x o
RI =
IN ( m a r )
Fig. 357- Typical shunt-regulator circrtit.
IOUT (mar)
In the circuit of Fig-. 354, the niaximum power dissipated in Q , or QI. is approxinlately one-fourth of the power that would be dissip:ited in a conventional series-pass stage. The I~alanceof the power is dissipated in resistor R,. In many high-current applications regulators, a L)nrlincluding sc~,ies ington configuration is utilized to improve the current gain, as shown in Fig. 855. A serious lin1it:ition of this method, however, is the high ponrer dissipated in the pass element because this dcvice cannot reach saturation.
A third type of regulator, the switching regulator, was discussed previously in the section on Power Switching and Control. This type of voltage regulator is recommended f o r dc power-supply applications that require high efficiency, but only moderate regulation and noise immunity.
SCR Regulated Power Supply

Fig. 358 shows the circuit configuration for a regulated dc power supply t h a t uses an SCR a s a series
battery supplies the load current. If , the battery requires c h a r ~ i n g o r if the electrical load is heavy, then the lower terminal voltage is not suficient to break down the zener. For this condition, Q I is off and Q.: is on full (i-e., driven into saturation). As a result, ficld current is h i ~ h the armature voltage is high, , and the alternator supplies current to the load and also charges the battery. Under normal operation, the transistor may be fully on, fully off, or some\vliere in between (i.e., on 11ut in the active region rather than in saturation). The actual transistor operating conditions depend on hattery condition and electrical load. Shunt regulator circuits a r e not a s 0 rficient a s series regulator circuits for most applications, but they have ~ F E (TOTAL) = ~ F +E ~ ~F + ~ ~F E ~ F E ~ E ~ the advantage of greater siniplicity. VCEZ = 'CE +VBE In the shunt voltage regulator cirFi,y. .?55-l)c1rIi1rylr111 c < > ~ ! / ; , y r i r i r / i ~ ~ ~ r . ruit shown in Fig. 357, the ciirrcnt through the shunt element consisting A typic:il auto~nol~ilevolt:lgcr r ~ u l a t o rcirruit for an auto with a of transistors Q , and QI varies with 12-colt system is shown in Fig. 356. c.hnnges in the load current o r the T~.ansistor presents a varii111lere- input voltage. This current variation (1:
TYPE
SCR
2N3228
BALLAST LAMP
VOR 1
QI
Fig. 358-SCR regulated power supply.
236

angle of the SCR. Changes in dc output voltage t h a t result from variations in load current a r e fed back to the base of the control transistor by a voltage divider a t the input to the filter in the proper polarity to adjust collector current in a direction to compensate for changes in dc output voltage.
resistor (VDR?) in the base circuit of the control transistor decreases resistance for an increase in line voltage and thus increases hase current (and collector current) a s line voltage is increased. In addition, the lamp I, exhibits an increase in resistance with increasing line voltage, and, thus, tends to retard the firing
Testing and Mounting

his section the testing Tinstallation covers to allwhich ande suggestions ar generally applicable types of solid-state devices. Careful observance of these suggestions will help experimenters and technicians to obtain the best results from solidstate devices and circuits.
n-p-n
TESTING
The ability to determine the condition of solid-state devices is a n important requisite f o r servicemen, experimenters, and others who a r e required to operate and maintain electrical equipment t h a t employs such devices. Although thorough, comprehensive evaluations of solidstate devices are hindered by t h e limited amount of commercially available test equipment, simple techniques and circuits can be readily devised to provide golno-go type s f indications or t o measure significant characteristics of the devices. The following paragraphs outline various test methods, indicate some of the available test equipment, and describe simple test circuits t h a t may be constructed f o r use in the test and evaluation of different types of solid-state devices.
TRANSISTOR
Fig. 359-''Go/?1o-g0" test circuit bipolar transistors.
for
,, -
, ..
,'
. .' :
/
' L ~ i p o l aTransistors r
Fig. 359 shows a golno-go t e s t circuit for bipolar transistors. The connections shown a r e for an n-p-n transistor. When the base resistor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery, the lamp should go out. F o r p-n-p transistors, the same results should be obtained with the battery polarities reversed.
A quick check of bipolar transistors can also be made prior to their installation in a circuit by resistance measurement with a conventional ohmmeter. The resistance between any two electrodes should be very high (more than 10,000 ohms) in one direction and considerably lower in the other direction (100 ohms o r less between emitter and base o r collector and base; about 1000 ohms between emitter and collector). It is very important to limit the voltage applied by the ohmmeter in such tests (particularly between emitter and base) so t h a t the breakdown voltages of t h e transistor will not be exceeded; otherwise, the transistor may be damaged by excessive currents. I n addition to the test to determine open o r shorted elements described above, any comprehensive evaluation of bipolar transistors must include measurements of the two most important transistor characteristics, beta and leakage. Commercial transistor testers a r e avail-
238

3. An adjustment which permits leakage currents to be "bucked out" before the beta measurement is made; otherwise, the beta reading may be upset by the leakage current. In the case of high-leakage germanium power transistors, the resultant beta reading may be significantly inaccurate. This rule applies to both in-circuit and out-ofcircuit tests. 4. Means for calibrating the beta test f o r each transistor tested. 5. A facility for reading leakage current directly in values a s low a s one microampere. The considerations listed above define the primary requirements of a good transistor tester. Other features a r e desirable, of course, to make the tester completely reliable and easy to use. of the Transistor Tester-A11 necessary and desirable features have been included in the RCA WT-501A Transistor Tester, a measurement instrument t h a t combines service speed and simplicity with laboratory-measurement qualities. Fig. 360 shows the overall schematic and Fig. 361 shows a photograph of the WT-501A transistor tester. This tester is designed to measure transistor collector-to-base leakage (Icnv), collector-to-emitter leakage (ICE,,), and dc beta. Collector current (Ic) is continuously adjustable up to 1 ampere in four ranges. The WT-501A can also be used for incircuit beta tests of a transistor. A 100-microampere meter movement is used in the measuring circuits f o r the various test functions. Precision resistors a r e used t o assure accurate test results. An N-P-NIP-N-P switch provides the proper bias polarity to the transistor. Two dual potentiometers provide coarse and fine adjustment of collector current (CAL) and incircuit zero. The instrument has two internal 1.5-volt 'ID"-size batteries. One battery i s used in n-p-n tests and the other is used in p-n-p tests. The batteries a r e also used during in-circuit
239
tests to provide voltage in reverse polarity to cancel the effect of circuit leakage.
Transistor Tester Requirenientsable to perform these nieasurements.; Because there is no efficient substi- The value of a transistor tcster detutc way to cvaluntc thcse charnc- pends on its dcsic~iand how i t is tcristics, a transistor tcster is :I used. F o r accurate ineasure~iientsof mortliwhile instrunlent for use in a wide range of transistor types, the the servicing of equipnlents t h a t em- tester must incorporate several speploy bipolar transistors. cific design features. The more inlThe beta, or conimon-emitter for- portant considerations a r e a s folward-current transfer ratio (li,,) , lows: of a bipolar transistor expresses tlie 1. The capability to measure beta gain char;lcteristics of the device. a t the collector-current level .best This characteristic can be dctermincd suited to the transistor type or its application. This capability should I)y use of nc or dc test voltages. extend to the handling of devices Collector-to-base leakage ( l , . ~ , , , ) , measured with the emittcr open, is ranging from small-signal rf trantlie critical leakage of both ger- sistors that have nominal collector manium and silicon transistors. How- currents of a few milliamperes to ever. these two basic transistor tvnes high-power types that have ratings . can display wide differences in their UI' One ampere' 2. The facility to provide beta leakage values and in levels of acreadings with a n accuracy of &5C/o ceptability. both in and out of circuit. ( I t should A transistor tester should nieasure I,, however, that beta leakage directly in milliamperes or is directly affected bv the collector microamperes. current.)
IN CIRCUIT ZERO ADJUST
F0 CIRCUIT
RANGE
TKFxJeJ
S ~
Fig. 361- RCA W T - 5 O I A transistor tester.
COAASE
REAR
SIC
Beta-measuring circuit: A simplified diagram of t h e dc-beta test circuit is shown in Fig. 362. Resistors Rb and R, serve both to establish
Fig. 3 6 2 S i m p l i f i e d beta-rneas~rrin~ circuit for 0-lo-100-~nilliampere range.
R4"
Fig. 360-Circrrir
diagra~rr for RCA W T - 5 0 l A rmrisistor tesler.
the collector current, and t o shunt t h e meter to the required sensitivity. Values for Rb and R, a r e a s follows:
240
Ra~ge 1 ~iiA 10 mA 100 niA 1 A

Rb
1000 110 10 1 ohms ohms ohms ohm

to the collector metering circuit. This voltage compensates f o r the collector-to-emitter leakage through the components in the circuit under test, and permits the meter to be set to zero. The CAL adjustment and the metering circuit a r e the same a s for out-of-circuit measurement. The resistance of the measuring circuit is low in value so t h a t no significant loading effect occurs from the circuit being tested.
Rc 110 ohms 10 ,011nis 1 ohm 0.1 ohm
When tlie range switch is set to the CAL function, the meter is in the collector circuit. Collector current is deterniined by the value of the collcctor resistor f o r the particular range, and by the setting of the CAL control. In the BETA function, the meter is switched to the base circuit. DC beta is defined a s the ratio of the steady-state collector current to the 1)asc current. Because the collcctor current is established a t a known value by the CAL adjustment, the hnse-current meter rentling can I)e interpreted in terms of dc beta for tlie transistor.
Irnc) measuring circuit: Ivrro is the culTrent flow, o r leakage, from the collector to the base with the emitter open. As shown in Fig. 363 1.5 volts is applied to the collector ant1 base of the transistoy, and the
m
OHMS
2
241
+ 6 I Vf
n- p-n UNDER TEST
Fig. 364-Sirrrplifird I,,,:,, rest circrtit lor I-rrrillin~rrpo.e rartge.
MOS Transistors
In the servicing of electrical equipment t h a t employs MOS transistors, i t is readil y determined that the test techniques required to measure the characteristics of these devices are not the same a s those used for bipolar transistors. An entirely new set of techniques, aimed specifically a t the unique properties of MOS transistors, is re q uired. Simple golno-go types of test circuits, however, may still be used for detection of open or shorted devices. The test circuit shown in Fig. 366 can be used to test n-channel depletion or p-channel enhancement MOS transistors for opens or shorts. The substrate and source of the device being tested should be connected to terminal No. 1, the gate should be connectcd to terminal 2, and the drain should be connected to terminal No. 3. If the MOS transistor is a dual-gate type, the gates a r e tested separately. For n-channel depletion types, if the lamp lights when the switch is open and does not light when the switch i s closed, the transistor is good. If the lamp lights with the switch in either position, the transistor is shorted. If tlie lamp remains off with the switch in either position, the transistor is open. For p-channel enhancement types, the reverse indications a r e obtained. In the section of this Manual on 310s Field-Effect Transistors, the susceptibility of these devices to
b
OHMS
.l'I
made on the CAL position of the 1milliampere range. If Irl:,, exceeds 1 milliampere, however, the range switch can be set to the 10-milliampere or 100-milliampere range a s necessary. Collector-to-cmittcr leakage is indicated in millia~i~peres, depending on the current range t h a t is used. In-circuit beta test: The test circuit used to measure in-circuit current gain is similar to t h a t used for out-of-circuit beta measurement. As shown in Fig. 365, the INCIRCUIT ZERO ADJUST control applies a voltage of reverse polarity
6 . 4 9 LAMP 2v 60 mA
Fig.
366-"Go/no-go" test circuit MOS.lrartsis/ors.
for
n- p- n
TRANSISTOR U N D E R TEST
Fig. 363-Sirrrplified
II-IIO lest circ~rit.
CAL
meter is connected in the collector circuit. Collector-to-base leakage is indicated directly in n~icroamperes. IIT:,, n~casuringcircuit: Irl:o rep-
INCIRCUIT
ZERO A D J
resents the lealtage from collector

3fi1 sliows
to cinitter, with the base open. F ~ E . ;I simplified t l i a g r a ~ i of ~ the Ic.,:,, test circuit. A volt;ige of 1.5 volts is applied to the transistor, ant1 the meter is connectcd in L-----_1 the collector circuit. The resistor INCIRCUIT TRANSISTOR slinnting the meter rrduccs the UNDER TEST meter sensitivity to 1 0 milliamperes. Fig. 365-Sir~rldifieri irr-circrrit /)etrr lest hIeasuremcnt of Icv:,, is normally circrtif /or. O-to-100-1~1illiu111[~~~re rutr.re.
possible damage from t h e discharge of electrostatic charges was pointed out. Integral gate-protection systems used in certain types of dualgate devices a r e very effective in guarding against t h e effects of electrostatic charges. The following special precautions, however, a r e necess a r y in handling MOS-transistors which do not contain integral-gate protection systems: 1. Prior to assembly into a circuit, all leads should be kept shorted together by either (a) use of metal shorting springs attached to the device by the vendor, a s shown in Fig. 367, o r ( b ) use of conductive foam such a s "ECCOSORB LS26" o r equivalent. (ECCOSORB is a Trade Mark of Emerson & Cuming, Inc.). Note: Polystyrene insulating "SNOW" can acquire high static charges and should not be used. 2. When devices a r e removed by hand from their carriers, the hand being used should be a t ground potential. Personnel handling MOS transistors during testing should ground themselves, preferably a t the hand o r wrist. 3. Tips of soldering irons should be grounded.

4. Devices should never be inserted into or renloved from circuits with power on.

except the 1N34A and 1N270. The test circuit f o r these two types i s shown in Fig. 370. With a diode connected a s shown in Fig. 3G9 and with the polarity of the battery a s shown, t h e lamp should light; when the polarity of the battery is reversed, the lamp should not l i ~ h t . the lamp lights regardIf less of the polarity of the battery, the diode is shorted; if t h e lamp does not light with either polarity, the diode is open. When t h e anode of a 1N34A o r IN270 diode is connected to terminal No. 1 in Fig. 370, the lamp should light if the diode is good; when the anode is connected to terminal No. 3 the light should go off. If the light remains lit regardless of the connection, the diode is shorted; if the light is off regardless of t h e connection, the diode is open. the triacs should be tested f o r both negative and positive gate signals for each direction in which they a r e connected. Fig. 371 shows a golno-go type of test circuit t h a t can be used to test thyristors t h a t operate directly from the line voltage. When the
There a r e a number of easily constructed golno-go types of test circuits t h a t may be used to detect open o r shorted rectifiers. Several of these test circuits a r e shown in the following paragraphs. Fig. 368 shows a simple "go/nogo" test circuit f o r silicon rectifiers operating a t 120 volts. With the connection shown, the lamp operates at half-power. When the switch i s closed, the lamp should brighten if the diode under test is good. If there is no change in brightness when the switch is closed, t h e lamp was burning a t full power with the switch open; in this case, the diode is shorted. If the lamp is out with the switch open but lights when the switch is closed, the diode is open.
Fig. 367-Illrtsrrnrion shon,s slrortiri~spririg for RCA hfOS field-eflecr tmir.rbtors illat d o nor coritain the iriregral gnte protection. (Spring sl~ortldiior be reitroved rrrrtil after the device is soldered iiito circuit.)
Fig. 371-Simple test circrtit for SCR's.
Silicon Rectifiers
I n general, silicon rectifiers and most other types of solid-state diodes can be adequately tested by resistance nleasurements with a conventional ohmmetcr . (For procedures used in the testing of tunnel diodes, refer to RCA Tunnel Diodes, Technical hlnnual TD-30.) Resistance measurements a r e talten in both the forward and reverse directions. The ratio of the "reverse" resistance reading to the "for\vardP' resistance reading should be greater than 10 to 1. F o r the forwarddirection measurement, i t is important to assure t h a t the forwnrdvoltage rating of the rectifier is greater than the voltage applied by the ohmmeter (the battery voltage of a conventional ohmmeter is 1.5 volts); otherwise, the rectifier may be damaged by excessive current. The front-to-back ratio of rectifiers can also be checked a t various current levels with the RCA WT-501A T ansistor Tester described in the pnragraph on testing of Bipolar 'rransistors.
P?
OHMS
TEST,
Fig. 368-"Go/no-go" rest circuit high-voltage silicor~rcctificrs.
for
TYPE
Fig. 369 shows a "go/no-go" tester f o r all silicon rectifiers in this Manual t h a t operate a t low voltages
NO LAMP 49
ZV
60 mA
Fi.r. 370-"Go/no-go'' lest circrtit for silicori rectifier types 1N34A and lN270.
SCR's and Triacs

SILICON
switch is closed, a current of approximately 20 milliamperes flows through the 25-watt lamp, the 5600ohm resistor, and the switch; this amount of current is not enough to light t h e lamp. When t h e switch is opened, the light should brighten t o approximately half maximum brightness. Under these conditions, t h e SCR should be triggered into operation (shunting the 5600-ohm resistor) on each positive half-cycle of input by the 20-milliampere current flowing in the gate-cathode circuit. If the lamp lights to full brightness, the SCR is shorted. If the lamp does not brighten regardless of the position of the switch, t h e SCR is open. Fig. 372 shows a simple, inexpensive test circuit t h a t may be used t o evaluate t h e OFF- state voltage capabilities of thyristors,
RECT~F~ER
Fig. 369-"Go/rio-go" test circrtit for low-voltage silicori rectifiers exclttdirig types 134A nrld IN270.
Similar test procedures and circuits may be used for testing SCR's and triacs. The triac, however, should b? tested f o r operation in all four .operating modes. F o r convenience of illustration, the test circuits described show only SCR's. Triacs tested in these circuits should be connected in one direction and then reversed f o r each test. I n addition,
Fig. 372-Test circuit used to determine dc forward- and reverse-voltage-blocking capabilities and leakage currerzt o f thyristors.
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manu-al

and f o r reverse-hloclting (SCR's) and leakage tests. Resistor R1and capacitor Cl a r e included in the test circuit to limit t h e rate of rise of applied voltage to the thyristor under test. Resistor R? limits the discharge of capacitor Cl through the thyristor in the event t h a t the thyristor is turned on during the test. Resistor Rn provides a discharge path for capacitor C1. F ~ E373 shows a simple tcst cir. cuit that may be used t o determine the holding and latching currents of thyristors. F o r the holdingcurrent tests, the value of potentiometer Ill is adjusted to apl)roximately 50 ohms, and the springloaded push-button switch PB1 is momentarily depressed to turn on the thyristor. The value of R1 is

of current flows through the thyristor. Turn-on time is specified by the thyristor manufacturer a t the rated blocliing voltage. I t is defined (for resistive loads) a s the time interval between 10 per cefit of the gate voltage and the period required f o r the current to rise to 90 per cent of its maximum value. Fig. 376 sho\rVsa simple test circuit used to measure turn-off time. The circuit subjects the thyristor to current and voltage waveforms similar to those encountered in most typical applications. In the circuit diagram, SCRl is the device under test. Initially, both SCR's a r e in the OFF-state; push-button switch SW1 is momentarily closed to s t a r t the test. This action turns on SCRl and load current flows through this SCR and resistor R?. Capacitor C1 charges through resistor R3 to the voltage developed across R2. If the second push-button switch SWs is then closed, SCR, is turned on. anode-to-cathode voltage of SCRl passes through zero and starts to build u p in a forward direction a t a rate dependent upon the time constant of C1 and R2. The peak value of the reverse current during the recovery period can be controlled by adjustment of potentiometer R& If the turn-off time of SCRl is less than the time tl, the device will turn off. The turn-off interval tl can be measured by observation of the anode-to-cathode voltage of SCRl with a high-speed oscilloscope. A typical waveform is shown in Fig. 376. The gate voltage and current required to switch a thyristor to i t s low-impedance state a t maximum rated forward anode current can be determined from the circuit shown in Fig. 377. The value of
Fig. 374-Test circrrit nrrtl ivaveforr~rs rr.~cd to determine dv/dr capability of a thyristor.
in t h e manufacturer's test specffications. This rating i s determined from the following equation: dv -dt rated value of thyristor voltage (Vno) RC time constant
OHMS
x 0.632
Fig. 377-Test circuit used to determine gate-trigger-pulse reqttirements of thyristors.
Fi.0. 373-Test circlrit rrserl to dcterrnirie holding a~tdlatchir~gatrrcrrts o f thpristors.
Fig. 375 shows a sinlple tcst circuit used to determine turn-on times of thyristors. The value of resistor R1 is chosen so t h a t t h e rated value
FACTORY TESTED ~
" F RATED B
then gradually increased to the point a t which the tllyristor turns off. F o r the latching-current test, the value of potentiometer R1 is initially adjusted so t h a t the main-terminal current is less than the holding level. The value of R, is then dccreased, a s push-button switch PBr is alternately depressed and released, until the thyristor latches on. Fig. 374(a) shows a simple test circuit t h a t may be used to determine the dvldt capability of a thyristor. The curves in Fig. 374(b) define the critical values f o r linear and exponential rates of increase in reapplied forward OFF-state voltage for a n SCR. The critical value for the exponential rate of rise of for~vardvoltage is the rating given
1 is2
GATE TRIGGER PULSE
CLOSED
5, CLOSED
Fig. 376-Test circrtit and voltage wave-
forrrrs tcsed to deterrrti~~e turn-off times o f tlryristors.
resistor R2 is chosen so t h a t maximum anode current, a s specified in t h e manufacturer's current rating, flows when t h e device latches into i t s low-impedance state. The value of resistor R1 is gradually decreased until t h e device under test i s switched from i t s highimpedance state'. t o its low-impedance state. The values of g a t e current and g a t e voltage immediately prior to switching a r e the gate voltage and current required to trigger the thyristor.
HEAT-SINK REQUIREMENTS
SCRl is then reverse-biased by the voltage across capacitor C . The dis, charge of this capacitor causes a short pulse of reverse current to flow through SCRl until this device recovers its reverse-blocking capability. A t some time tl, the All solid-state devices a r e temperature-sensitive, some to a greater degree than others. A s a result, the device temperature o r power dissipation must be kept below the maximum specified rating
Fig. 375-Test circrrit artd i r ~ a ~ v f o rctsrd s ~r~ to clctenribre trrrrr-oft rirne of thyristors.
246

mon practice to use t h e chassis of the unit as a heat sink. In any case, the heat-dissipation capability of the heat sink is based on its thermal resistance Ha..+. The thermal-resistance value of the heat sink should be small enough t o obtain a powerdissipation capability, a s expressed in the above equation, t h a t exceeds the power-dissipation rating of the semiconductor device. F o r highpower devices, the interface thermal resistance 8 ~ - s between the semiconductor case and the surface of the heat sink can be maintained a t a low value (1 to 2C per watt) by use of epoxy glue o r silicone grease. Fig. 378 shows a useful nomograph f o r obtaining the physical dimensions of a heat sink a s a function of its thermal resistance. The data in this nomograph pertain to a heat sink t h a t cools by convection and radiation and t h a t is of natural bright finish of copper or aluminum. The heat-sink area is selected from the left-hand column and a line is drawn horizo~ltallyfroni this point. The value of thermal iesistance OS.., is read directly from the graph, depending on the type and thickness of the heat-sink material and the mounting position of t h e heat sink, either horizontal or vertical, with respect to t h e mounting board.
either by limiting the input power requirements to maintain a limited power dissipation or by providing some external ~ n e a n sof re111oving the excess heat generated during normal operation. Generally, lowpower semiconductor devices have sufficient mass and heat-dissipation area to conduct away the detrimental heat energy formed a t their semiconductor junctions. F o r higherpower devices, such a s power trxnsistors, thyristors, and silicon rectifiers, however, a heat sink must be used. Under steady-state conditions, the inasi~num dissipation c:~pability of a solid-state device that has a heat sinlc attached depends on the sun1 of ( a ) the series thermal resistances from the semiconductor junction to the ambient, (b) the lnaxi~numjunction temperature, and (c) the ambient temepratnre a t which the device is operated. The total t h e r ~ n a lresistance of the device fro111 junction to ambient )I-& can be expressed a.s follows:
where (.t.l-r is the thermal resistance from the semiconductoi~ junction to the case of the device, ( 3 ~ - sis the thermal resistance between the device case and the surface of the heat sink, and ns-\ is the t h e ~ m a l resistance of the heat sink (from its surface to the ainbient air). The maximum solid-state device dissipation capaI,ility of a Prl(max) with a heat sinlc attached is given by
Fig. 378-T1rcr111al rcsi.rta~rceas u firtrc~ior~ heal-sink dirr~errsions(Nonlograph reof
TRANSISTOR MOUNTING
pririred fro111 ELECTRONlC DESIGN, A~cg.16, 1961).
The collector, base, and terminals of transistors can be connected to associated circuit elements by means of socltets, clips, or solder connections t o the leads or pins. If connections a r e soldered close to the lead or pin seals, care must be talten to conduct excessive heat away from the seals, otherwise the heat of the soldering operation may craclc the glass seals and damage the tran\vhcre TJ(max) is the nlaxi~nuni sistor. When dip soldering is emjunction tcniperature obtaincd from ployed in the assembly of printed the manufacturer's data and T(anib) circuits using transistors, the temis the nmljient tenlpcrature. perature of the solder should be Discrete heat sinks are sold coln- limited t o about 225 t o 250C f o r mercially in various size, shapes, a maximum immersion period of colors, ant1 materials. It is also com- 10 seconds. Furthermore, the leads
should not be dip-soldered too close to the transistor case. Under no circu~nstances should the mounting flange of a transistor be soldered to a heat sink because the heat of the soldering operation may permanently damage the transistor.
Metal-Package Types
In some transistors, the collector electrode is connected internally to the metal case to improve heat-dissipation capabilities. More efficient cooling of the collector junction in these transistors can be accomplished by connection of the case to a heat sink. Direct connection of the case
to a metal surface is practical only when a grounded-collector circuit is used. .For other configurations, the collector is electrically isolated from the chassis or heat sink by means of a n insulator t h a t h a s good thermal conductivity. Suggested mounting arrangement for RCA transistors supplied in hermetically sealed metal packages a r e shown in detail in the section on Mounting Hardware. F o r small general-purpose tran'sistors, such a s the 2N2102, which use a JEDEC TO-5 package, a good thermal method of isolating the collector from a metal chassis o r printed circuit board is by means of a beryllium oxide washer. The use
248

be used between the mounting screws and the chassis, as shown in Fig. 380, to prevent n short circuit between them. F o r large power transistors, such as t h e 2N2876, which use a doubleended stud package, connection to the chassis o r heat sink should be made a t the flat surface of the transistor perpendicular t o t h e threaded stud. A large mating surface should be provided to avoid hot spots and high thermal drop. The hole f o r the stud should be only a s large a s necess a r y f o r clearance, and should contain no burrs or r i d ~ e s its perimon eter. A s mentioned above, the use of a silicon grease between t h e heat sink and the transistor improves thermal contact. The transistor can be screwed directly into t h e heat sink o r can be fastened by means,of a nut. I n either ease, care must be taken to avoid t h e application of too much torque lest the transistor semiconductor junction be damaged. Although tho studs a r e made of relatively soft copper t o provide 1iip.h thermal conductivity, t h e threads should not be relied upon to provide a mating surface. The actual heat transfer must take place on the

underside of the hexagonal p a r t of the package. The use of a n external resistance in the emitter or colleclor circuit of a transistor is a n effective deterrent to damage which might be caused by thermal runaway. The minimum value of this resistance f o r low-level stages m a y be obtained from the following equation:
249
RCA Versawatt packages for medium-power applications and the RCA high-power plastic packages. Each basic type offers several different package options, and the user can select t h e configuration best suited to his particular application. Fig. 381 shows the options currently available f o r RCA Versawatt packages. The JEDEC Type TO220AB in-line-lead version, shown in Fig. 381(a), represents the basic style. This package features leads t h a t can be formed to meet a variety of specific mounting requirements. Fig. 381(b) shows a modification of the basic type t h a t allows a Versawatt package to be mounted on a printed-circuit board with a 0.100inch grid spacing and a minimum lead spacing of 0.200 inch. Fig. 381(c) shows a J E D E C Type TO220AA version of the Versawatt package. The dimensions of this type of transistor package a r e such t h a t i t can replace the JEDEC TO66 transistor package in a commercial socket o r printed-circuit board without retooling. The TO-220AA Versawatt package is also supplied with a n integral heat sink. The RCA molded-plastic highpower packages a r e also supplied in several configurations, a s shown
of a zinc-oxide-filled silicone compound between the washer and t h e chassis, together with a ~notlerate amount of pressure froni thc top of the transistor, helps to improve thermal dissipation. An alternate method is the use of a fin-type heat sink. Fir. 379 illustrates both types of n~ounting.Fin-type heat sinks a r e especially suitable when transistors a r e mounted in Teflon sockets which
SILICONE GREASE
8, 0 WASHER
I II
CHASSIS
FIN-TYPE HEAT SINK
where E is t h e dc collector supply voltage in volts, Po is the product of the collector-to-emitter voltage and the collector current a t the desired operating point in watts, and &-A is the thermal resistance of t h e transistor and heat sink in degrees centigrade per watt (8,-c ~ C - S
0s-A)
Plastic-Package Types
RCA transistors a r e also available in two basic types of molded-siliconeplastic packages, which a r e supplied in a wide range of power-dissipation ratings and a variety of package configurations to assure flexibility of application. These types include t h e
Fig. 379-S~i,qgcstcd rnor~r~tir~g nrrallgemert1.c for traruirtors bl JEDEC TO-5 package.
provide no thermal conduction t o the chassis o r printed circuit board. For power transistors xvhich use a JEDEC TO-3 package, such a s the 2N3055, i t is recommended t h a t a 0.002-inch mica insulator o r a n anodized aluminum insulator having high thermal conductivity be used between the transistor base and the hcnt sink o r chassis. The insulator sliould extend beyond the mount in^ clamp, a s shown in Fig. 380. I t should be drilled or punched to provide both the two mount in^ holes and the clerancc holes f o r the elnitter and base pins. Burrs should be removed from both the insulatol. and the holes ill t h e chassis so t h a t the insulatinls Inger will not be destroyed during mounting. It is also recommended t h a t a n insulating washer
u
I
CLAMP
HEAT SINK
+NYLON INSULATING WASHER METAL WASHER
& I
>I;
F ~ E380-S11,qgcsted nlorolfirrg nrmtt,qcrrlcrrl . for rrar~sistors ill JEDEC 7'0-3 packnge.
Fi,q. 381- RCA Versawatt tmrrsislor packages: (a) JEDEC No. TO-220AB in-litre-lead vrrsiot~;(I>) corrfigrtmtior~designed for rr~o~otfirrg printed-circrtit hoard.$; ( c ) JEDEC oft No. TO-220AA version, wlriclr tlray be ltsed as a replacrnrenf for JEDEC N o . TO-66 metal packages.
250

sink by use of lead-tin solder because the heat required with this type of solder will cause the junction temperature of the transistor t o become excessive. The TO-220AA plastic transistor can he mounted in commercially available TO-GG sockets, rsuch a s UID Electronics Corp. Socket No. PTS-4 or equivalent. F o r testing purposes, the TO-220AB in-line packa g e can be mounted in a Jetron Socket No. CD74-104 o r equivalent. The recommended hardware and mount in^ arrangements f o r RCA high-power molded-plastic transistors a r e also shown in the section on Mounting Hardware. These types can he mounted directly in a socket such a s the Industrial Hardware Corporation No. LST-1702-1 (or equivalent) o r they can be mounted in a standard TO-3 socket with the NR193B clamp. The precautions given f o r the Versawatt packages should also be followed in the mounting of the high-power molded-plastic packages. The maximum allowable power dissipation in a solid-state device is limited by its junction temperature. An important factor to assure t h a t the junction temperature remains below the specified maximum value is the ability of the associated thermal circuit to conduct heat away from the device. When a solid-state device is operated in free air, without a heat sink, the steady-state thermal circuit is defined by the junction-to-free-air thermal resistance given in the published data on the device. Thermal considerations require that there be a free flow of a i r around the device and t h a t the power dissipation be maintained below that which would cause the junction temperature to rise above the maximum rating. When the device is mounted on a heat sink, however, care must be taken to assure t h a t all portions of the thermal circuit a r e considered. Operation of the transistor with heat-sink temperatures of 100C o r greater results in some shrinkage of
251
the insulating bushing normally used to mount power transistors. The degradation of contact thermal resistance is usually less than 25 per cent if a good thermal compound is used. (A more detailed discussion of thermal resistance can be found in the RCA Power Circuits Manual, Technical Series SP-51.) During the mounting of RCA molded-plastic solid-state power devices, the following special precautions should be taken to assure efficient heat transfer from case to heat sink: 1 Mounting torque should be be. tween 4 and 8 inch-pounds. 2. The mounting holes should be ' kept a s small a s possible: 3. Holes should be drilled o r punched clean with no burrs or ridges, and chamfered t o a maximum radius of 0.010 inch. 4. The mounting surface should be flat within 0.002 inchiinch. 5. Thermal grease (Dow Corning 340 o r equivalent) should always be used (on both sides of the insulating washer if one is employed). 6. Thin insulating washers should be used (thickness of factorysupplied mica washers ranges from 2 to 4 mils). 7. A lock washer o r torque washer should be used, together with materials t h a t have sufficient creep strength t o prevent d e g radation of heat-sink efficiency during life. A wide variety of solvents is available f o r degreasing and flux removal. The usual practice is to submerge components in a solvent bath for a specified time. From a reliability standpoint, however, it i s extremely important t h a t the solvent, together with other chemicals in the solder-cleaning system (such a s flux and solder covers), not adversely affect the life of the component. This consideration applies to all nonhermetic and molded-plastic components. I t is, of course, impractical t o evaluate the effect on long-term tran-
Fig. 382-RCA hi,qh-power plartic frarrsisfor packa~es: (a) JEDEC N o . TO-219AB vcrsiorr, which r c p r ~ ~ ~ cthe t basic corrfi~rtrafion; b ) JEDEC No. TO-219AA versiori, r~ s ( which ttray he used as f l rc~plflce~~rrrrt JEDEC TO-3 nrefal packages; ( c ) cot~fig~tratiorz for drsigtied lor rirortrifirlg or1 printed-circuit boards.
in Fig. 382. The JEDEC Type TO- not be larger than necessary to pro219AB, shown in Fig. 382(a), is the vide hardware clearance and, in any basic high-power plastic package. case, should not exceed a diameter Fig. 382(b) shows a JEDEC Type of 0.250 inch. Flange distortion is TO-219AA version of the high-po\vcr also possible if excessive torque is plastic package. With the addition used during mounting. A maximum of an NR193B top clamp, the TO- torque of 8 inch-pounds is specified. 219AA package can be used a s a Care should be exercised to assure direct replacement for the her- t h a t the tool used to drive the mountmetically sealed JEDEC TO-3 pack- ing screw never comes in contact age. The RCA high-power plastic with the plastic body during the package i s also available with a n driving operation. Such contact can attached header-case lcad, a s shown result in damage to the plastic body in Fig. 382(c). This three-lead pack- and internal device connections. An age is designed f o r mounting on a excellent method of avoiding this problem is to use a spacer o r comprinted-circuit board. Itecommended mounting arrange- bination spacer-isolating bushing ments and sugcested hardware for which raises the screw head or nut the Versawatt transistors a r e sIlo\vn above the top surface of the plastic in the section on blotlntin~ llard- body. The material used f o r such a ware. The rectangular masher spacer o r spacer-isolating bushing (NR231A) used in the mounting of should, of course, be carefully scthese devices i s designed to minimize lected to avoid "cold flow" and condistortion of the mounting f l n n ~ e sequent reduction in mounting force. when the transistor is fastencd to a Suggested materials f o r these bushheat sink. Excessive distortion of the ings a r e diallphthalate, fibcrglassflange could cause damage to the filled nylon, or fiberglass-filled polytransistor. The washer is particu- carbonate. Unfilled nylon should be larly importxnt when the size of the avoided. Modification of the flange can also mounting hole exceeds 0.140 inch (6-32 clearance). Larger holes a r e result in flange distortion and should needcd to acconllnodate insulating not be attempted. Thc transistor bushings; however, the holes should should not be soldered to the heat
RCA Trausistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

sistor life of all c l e a n i ~ ~solvents, g whicl~a r e marketed under a variety of brand names with numerous adtliLives. Chlorinated solvcllts, g:.;leoline, and other hydrocarbons cause the inner encapsulant to swcll and damage the transistor. Alcohols a r e accepta1)le solvents and a r e rccomlnended for flux ren~oval whenever possil~le. Several examples of suitable alcohols a r e listed below: 1. mcthanol 2. ethanol 3. isopropanol 4. hlcnds of the above When considerations such a s solvent flammability a r e of concern, selccted Freon-alcol~ol blends are usable when exposure is limitcd. Solvcnts such a s those listcd below should be safe when used for normal flux removal operations, but rare shoultl 11e talten to assure their suitability i l l tllc cleaning procedure: 1. Freon TE 2. Freon TE-35 3. Freon TP-35 (Freon P C ) Thcse solvents may be uscd foi- a maximum of 4 hours a t 25C or for a n~axinluniof 1 hour a t 50C. Care must also be used in the selection of fluxes in the soldering of leads. Rosin or activated-rosin fluxes a r e recomn-rendcd; organic fluxes a r e not. exist a t the interface. To mi~linlize this interface resistance, an adhesive material with low thermal resistance, such a s IIysol*' Eposy I'atch Material No. GC or Wakefield" Delta Bond No. 152, or their equivalent, should be used. Fig. 383 shows the special press-fit package used for some SCR's and triacs. Press-fit mounting depends upon an interference fit between the

The press-fit package is not restricted to a single mounting arrangement; direct soldering and the use of epoxy adhesives have been successfully employed. The press-fit case is tin-plated to facilitate direct soldering to the heat sink. A 60-40 solder should be used, and heat should only be applied long enough to allow the solder to flow freely.
800 LB. MAX.
253
the heat sink is preferable because i t is most efficient. Not only is the bond permanent, but the thermal resistance BC-B from the thyristor case to the heat sink is easily kept below 1 C per w a t t under normal soldering conditions. Oven o r hotplate batch-soldering techniques a r e recommended because of their low cost. The use of a self-jigging arrangement of the thyristor and the heat sink and a 60-40 solder preform is recommended. If each unit is soldered individually with a flame or electric soldering iron, the heat source should be held on the heat sink and the solder on the unit. Heat should be applied only long enough to permit solder to flow freely. Because RCA thyristors a r e tin-plated, maximum solder wetting is easily obtainable without thyristor overheating. The special high-conductivity leads on the two-lead TO-5 packa g e permit operation of the thyristor at current levels that be 'Onsidered excessive f o r a n ordinary TO-5 package. The special leads can be bent into almost a n s confirruration to fit any monting requirement; however, they a r e not intended to
thyristor case and the heat sinlc. As the thyristor is forced into the heatsink hole, metal from the heat sink flows into the knurl voids of the thyristor case. The resulting close contact between the heat sink and thyristor case assures low thermal resistances. A recommended mounting mcthod, shown in Fig. 384, shows press-fit knurl and heat-sink hole dimensions. If these dimensions are maintained, THYRISTOR MOUNTING a "worst-case" condition of 0.0085 F o r most efficient heat sinks, inti- inch interference fit will allow pressmate contact sliould exist I~etwecn fit insertion below the maximunl the heat sinlc and a t least one-half allowable insertion force of 800 of the package base. The thyristor pounds. A slight chamfer in the pnclta~c can be mounted on the heat heat-sink hole will help center and sink mechanically, with ~ l u or epoxy guide the press-fit package properly e adhesive, or by soldering. The into the heat sink. The insertion tool JEDEC TO-48, TO-GG, and stud- should be a hollow shaft having an rnountcd pacltagcs are mounted me- inner diameter of 0.380 -c- 0.010 chanically. I n thesc cases, silicone inch and a n outer diameter of 0.500 grease shoultl be used hetwccn thc inch. These dimensions provide suffidevice and the heat sink to elimi- cient clearance for the leads and asnate surface voids, prevent insula- sure that no direct force is applied tion build-un due to oxidation. and to the glass seal of the thyristor. help conduct heat across the * P,oducrs of I-lyson Corporation, Olcan, face. Although glue or el)oV ad- New York, and Wakcficld Engineering. Inc.. Wakefield. Mazsachusclls. rcsncchesivc provides good bonding, a significant amount of resistance may tively.
Fig. 384-Sugges!ed n~orortingarrange,,lent for press-fit types.
F o r the JEDEC TO-5, TO-8, and low-profile packages, shown in. Fig. 385, soldering of the thyristor to
Fig. 385-JEDEC
TO-5, TO-8, and low-profile packages.
254

is given, together with approximate dimensions. The thyristors in the illustrations a r e soldered t o the heat sink; if epoxy is used, a n additional thermal resistance OC-s of 1 to 2 C per w a t t must be added to the thermal-resistance values sho\vn. The junction-to-case thermal-resistance value f o r the particular thyristor bcing used should be added to the values shown to obtain the over-all junction-to-air thermal resistance of each configuration. In the designs

shown, electrical insulation of the heat sink from the chassis or equipment housing may be required. thermal resistance of any heat spreader d e ~ e n d s on the heattransfer area, type of metal used, type of insulation used, and whether the thyristor is fastened t o the heat
Of (CASE TO HEAT SINK1 3 TO 6. C/W rELECTRICAL INSULATION
tillce repeated bending and unl)ending. In particular, repeated bending at tl~c glass should be avoidcd. The leads a r c not especially brittle a t this point, but the glass has a sharp edgc which produces a n excessively small radius of curvature in a bend made a t the glass. Repeated bending with a small radius of curvature a t a fixed point will cause fatigue and !)real(age in alnlost any material. For this reason, right-angle bends should be made a t least 0.020 inch from the glass. This practice will avoid sharp bends and maintain suficient electrlical isolation between lead connections and header. A safe bend can be assured if the lead is gripped with pliers close to the glass seal and then bent the requisite amount with the fingers, a s shown in Fig. 386. When the leads of a number of devices a r e to
Chassis-Mounted Heat Sinks

In many applications, i t is desirable and practical to use the chassis or equipment housing a s the heat sink. I n such cases, t h e thyristor must be electrically insulated from the heat sink, but must still permit heat generated by the device to be efficiently transferred t o the chassis o r housing. This heat transfer can be achieved by use of the heatspreader mounting method. In this method, the thyristor is attached to a metal bracket (heat spreader) which is attached to, but electrically insulated from, the chassis. The heatrsink configurations shown in Fig. 387 can serve a s heat spreaders, a s well a s the special clip shown in Fig. 388. (Triacs soldered to this heat spreader a r e available from RCA a s type numbers 40638 and 40639; SCR's on this spreader a r e available a s type numbers 40656 and 40657.) Electrical insulation may consist of material such a s alumina ceramic, polyimide film or tape, fiberglass tape, o r epoxy. The metal bracket itself has a low thermal resistance, and spreads the heat out over a larger area than could the thyristor case alone. The larger area in contact with the electrical insulation allows heat to transfer from bracket to chassis through the insulation with relatively low thermal resistance. Typical heat sinks, such a s those shown in Fig. 387, provide a much lower thermal resistance when used a s heat spreaders than when used a s heat sinks. Heat-spreader dimensions can be varied over a wide range t o suit particular applications. F o r example, area o r diameter c.ul be increased, or shape changed, a s long a s the heat-tmnsfer area in contact with the electrical insulation is sufficient. An area of 0.2 square inch o r more is usually desirable. The exact
MOUNTING TAB
SOLDER
CCI F- IICCINC SELF-JIGGING TAB
EPOXY
Fig. 388-Self-jigging heat spreader.
INSULATION
HEAT S I N K
I
Fig. 386-Afcrhod of belrdi~rp lcnd.~or1 ~h).ristor packarc.
@s-A=180C/W
bc bent into a particular configuration, i t may be advantageous to use a lead-bending fixture to assure t h a t all leads a r e bent to the same shape and in t h e correct place the first time, so t h a t there is no need f o r repeated bending. RCA thyristors are also available in plastic packages. The inforniation ~ i v e n pl.eviously on the mounting and handling of plastic-pacltage transistors is, in general, applicable to plastic-package thyristors a s well.
spreader . with solder o r epoxy. Soldered construction yields a thermal resistance about 1 C per w a t t less than t h a t obtained with epoxy. Alumina o r polyimide insulation provides a thermal resistance about 1 to 2 C per w a t t less than t h a t obtained with thermosetting fiberglasstape insulation. The heat spreader can be made of a n y material with suitable thermal conductivity, such a s copper, brass, o r aluminum. Solderable plating for aluminum is commercially available.
RECTIFIER MOUNTING
The maximum forward-current ratings f o r RCA silicon rectifiers apply specifically for operation in free a i r (natural convection cooling). The average (dc) forward-current and the peak recurrent forwardcurrent capabilities of these rectifiers a r e substantially higher than those shown in the maximum ratings when the rectifiers a r e attached to heat sinks. Rectifiers used f o r low-power applications normally do not require an external heat sink to dissipate the heat generated a t their p-n junctions. Most rectifiers in this category a r e packaged in the same
8~-~'3o'C/w
Typical Heat-Sink Configurations

Fig. 387 shows some typical heatsink conf gurations t h a t can be used with RCA tlbyristors in a TO-5 pacliage. The thermal-resistance 0 s - A for each of the easily fabricated sinks
Fig. 387-Typicnl
frcot-si~rkconfirtratiorrs for ~tsc witlr TO-5 pockage.
'

When dip soldering is used in the assembly of printed circuits, the temperature of the solder should not exceed 255C for a maximum immersion period of 10 seconds. The leads should not be dip-soldered beyond points, "A" and "B" indicated in Fig. 391.
POINT A
crease in thermal resistance ~ C - S from t h e rectifier case to the heatsink surface is approximately 3C per watt.
POINT B
F ~ R 391-Dingram s l ~ o ~ v i n ~ hej7011d . nreas

whiclt dip-soldering sltovld ,lot extend.
Fix. 389-Variorru
paclinnr tlr,sktrc /or RCA silicorr rc~cti/ier.s.
Fig. 392 shows the suggested mounting of t h e higher-current-type DO-4 and DO-5 packages. Mounting components of the type shown a r e furnished with each rectifier. With these mounting components, the in-
Fig. 392-4lrggested nrortrzting arrangernenis for 0 0 - 4 and DO-5 packages.
sniall case used for tlie JEDlCC TO1 package. F o r medium-currcnt (1- to 2-ampcre) higli-voltagc ap-
i ~ ~ g soldcred between the case and
Ihc soldering point with a pair of pliers.
plications, tlie rectifier is pacltagcd in a flange-case, axial-leal JEDEC DO-1 case. F o r higher-current applications, the DO-4 and DO-5 packRECTIFIER ages are used. These paclcagc conALUMINUM figurations a r e shown in Fig. 380. PLATE Fig. 390 shows two suggcstcil nicthods for attaching the flangecase, axial-lead pacltage to a heat sinlr. The flange of the rectifier lnay also LC soldered directly to the heat sink, provided the flange temperature during soldering does not cxSILICONE GREASE cccd 253C for a miximum pcriod of 10 seconds. Permanent damage to the rectifier may result if these limits a r e exceeded. The flcxiblc lends of some RCA RECTIFIER rectifiers nre usually soldcred to the circuit elements. I t is desirable in all installations to provide some slaclr o r an expansion elbow in each lcad to prevent excessive tcrision on the lends. JIanual soldering should bc performetl carefully and SILIEONE HEAT'SINK quickly to avoid daninge to tllc rccGREASE ficr by cscessire heating. To minimize hcnting the rectifier junction Fig. 390--Sltgxc~t~(i rrrrthods jor attachdurinq ~ n a n u a lsoldering, it is dc- irtg recti/ier typrs IN2858A tl~rough IN2864A to lrrnt sink. si+nl>le t o grip the flcxiblc lcad 1 ~ -
n ,s%zzT
IJ

RCAGLOBAL

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

RCAGLOBAL

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Materials, Junctions, and Devices Bipolar Transistors MOS Field-Effect Transistors Thyristors Silicon Rectifiers Other Solid-state Diodes

Materials, Junctions, and Devices

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode lvlarlual

Fig. 2-Cr)~srol 1arr;te srrrrcrrtre.

Materials, Junctions, and Devices

Fig. 5-Z~rteracrion o f Iroles and electrons at p-n jurrcliot~.

Fig. 4- lattice strrrcrttre o f p-type nraterial.

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

the lattice structure of the p-type

IMAGINARY - +j SPACE-CHARGE EQUIVALENT BATTERY

Fis. 6-Pofrtttial grnllieltt across spaceclrarge region.

(a) REVERSE BlAS

(b) FORWARD BlAS

current flow CI biased p-rc jrrncfions.

Materials, Junctions, and Devices

REVERSE CURRENT (MICROAMPERESI

Fig. 8-Voltage-crrrretrt characteris~ic for a p-tr jrtncliorr.

9-Schettrafic sytnbol for a solidsfale diode.

INPUT SIGNAL 'L'

Materials, Junctions, and Devices

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode ManuaI

GATE SOURCE n- CHANNEL O E P L E T I O N TYPES p- CHANNEL SOURCE

Fig. 13-Sclrc~rtrotic sytrrhols for r~ce~nl-oxiiie-sertricot~cl~ictor field-elfec! tvctrrsjsrors (MOSIFET).

Fi,?. I4-Jrotcriorr dingrarir ( a ) nrrcl sche~rtarics)~rrrbo[ 6 ) for a iliac. (

Materials, Junctions, and Devices

F i a 6 - J u t r c f i o n diagram ( a ) and schenratic symbol ( b ) for a triac.

DESIGN AND FABRICATION

GROWN-JUNCTION TYPE ORIGINAL SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL- BASE EMITTER DOT

UNDIFFUSED BASE SOLDER REGION- ORIGINAL COLL&TOR SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

DRIFT-FIELD TYPE F i g . 18-Cross-sectioru of jrcrrclion Iransistors.

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

r P ACKAGE SOLDER DIFFU&D CT OR C O LLE UNDiFFUSED BASE (LOW RESISTANCE) (HOMOGENOUS)

(c) DOUBLE-DIFFUSED PLANAR TYPE

EMITTER CONTACT ;DIFFUSED EMITTER - -

DIFFUSED COLLECTOR HEAVILY DOPED

(b) DOUBLE-DIFFUSED TYPE

( d ) TRIPLE-DIFFUSED PLANAR TYPE

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

Fig. 21-Cottrrrron-bn.re circrtif corlfigrtraliorf.

The direction of the arrows in Fig.

Fig. 22-Corrt~rtorf-crrrittcr circctir figftmlio~r.

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

Fig. 26-Elcc/rotlc crrrrc.trts rrrrtfer ( n ) 110sigrrcrl mrll ( 6 ) s i g ~ m l corrditior~s.

Fig. 27- Forward crcrretrt-transfer ratio as

YBRICERV(BR)CEV COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER VOLTAGE

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

urrungcrnerrt co~nrnorr-emitter circrril.

value of Itll was selected to provide a base current of 27 microamperes, a s follows:

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode M a n u a l

Fig. 31-"Sell-bias" nrrarrgerrrerrt /or cotrtrrrorr-errfilter circriif,

Fig. 33-Bias rrefwork rrsirlg e ~ ~ r i t t eslar bitizirrg resistor.

Fix. 34-Bias ~retworktr.rirrr: .~plir ~,olta,oedivider network.

Fig. 32-Bias rtet~cork risirrg voltagedivider arrarrgenrerrt for irrcreascd smbilitp.

required forward bias across t h e base-emitter junction. The value of

Fig. 35-Bins trrr~vorks irrclrrditrg ( a ) a ~lter~riistor ( 6 ) a voltage-cott~pcnsa!ing: arid : diode.

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

f r o ~ n the room-ten~l)erat~t valucx, re a s follows:

Fig. 36-Bins-sfabi1il)-factor rqrtnfions l o r tlrree typical circrrit configrtratio~rs.

Fig. 37-Tra11sJorn1er-cori~~led conlmonetnilter slage.

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

The effect of the emitter parasitic inductance is t o reduce t h e power gain.

RCA Transistor, Thyristor, & Diode Manual

capucitotrce as f~tirc~iorzf collector-to-base volta,yc /or o n typical rf ponper trarrsttor.