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(1) DESCRIBE FOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE IN DETAIL.

Linguistic Knowledge could be put as the ability to carry out the simplest conversation which requires the profound knowledge that most speakers are unaware of. It has four characteristics. First one is Knowledge of the Sound System. This is the part of knowing a language which means that you also know what sounds (or signs) are in that language and what sounds are not. Knowing the sound system of a language includes knowing which sounds may start a word, end a word, and follow each other. For example, in English, we do not have words or sounds which start with nk. When we see some word starting with nk, we would feel this is incorrect due to our knowledge of the sound system. Second one is Knowledge of Words. Knowing a language can be defined as also knowing that certain sequences of sounds imply certain concepts or meanings. When you say someone knows a language, that person will be aware of the specific meanings that are related to the sound sequences. For example, we know that toy and boy are words, but moy is not. When we know a language, we know the words in that language, which are sequences of sounds related to specific meanings and which are not. The relationship between speech sounds and the meaning which they represent is an arbitrary one, for the most part. The sounds of words are given meaning only by the language in which they take place. This is the arbitrary relationship between form (sound) and meaning (concept) of a word and particular sound sequences seem to relate to a particular concept. Third is The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge. Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences never spoken before and to understand sentences which youve never heard before. This is the creative aspect of language use. Our creative ability includes understanding of new or novel sentences. Knowledge of a language makes it possible to understand and produce new sentences. Simple memorization of all the possible sentences in a language is impossible in principle. Creativity is a universal property of human language. Last one is Knowing of Sentences and Non-sentences. Linguistic knowledge includes rules for forming sentences and making judgments, whether the strings of words are well-formed or not. For example, *what he thought was want a sports car does not look well-formed. When we know a language, we know the sounds, the words, and the rules for their combination.

(2) DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR VERSUS PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR.

In the Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms, you can find two definitions of grammar: the systematic study and description of a language and a set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures of a language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language. Descriptive grammar (first definition) can be defined as the systematic study and description of a language and refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar (second definition) refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar (such as linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the correct or incorrect use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise people not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness; like language. They say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear. For example, many people are using social networks now days. Everyone become friends with other people on internet pages such as facebook or myspace. What happens when they stop being friends with someone on social networks? Theres a new word, unfriend, which is to break the online friend relationship. Prescriptive grammarians prefer giving practical advice about using language which is straightforward rules to help people avoid making errors. These rules may be over-simplified at times, but they are meant to keep us out of trouble, but the kind of trouble that may distract or even confuse our readers. In the Renaissance a new middle class emerged who wanted their children to speak the dialect of the upper class. This desire led to the publication of many prescriptive grammars.

(3) DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMAN LANGUAGE VERSUS ANIMAL LANGUAGE BASED ON FOUR FACTORS (I.E., INNATEDNESS,

CREATIVITY, SOUND, AND DISCRETENESS). The differences between Human Language vs. Animal Language can be compared based on the four factors mentioned above. Firstly, in the innateness factor, Human Language and Animal Language dont really have a significant difference. For example, a child will grow up and use language like an adult in a few years time. This does not matter what environment they grow up in. Their rich environment or supply of affluent teaching does not make a different in the consequence of learning a language. In comparison, animals naturally use signaling communication systems which are used to show courtship displays, guard territories and show danger etc. Secondly, in the creativity factor humans and animals show an immense difference. Human language is highly creative while animal language is not. We humans use language to communicate, and its not used to produce responses from other factors like to warn danger. But animals are different. For example, bees dance is an effective system of communication for bees. It is capable, in principle, of infinitely many different messages, like human language. But unlike human language, the system is confined to a single subject which is food source. Thirdly, sound factor shows no difference between humans and animals in their use of language. Animals make sound like the chirping of the birds, the squeaking of dolphins, dancing of bees. Although they do not carry meaning like human language, but sound is not the basic element of language. Humans also make sound by using their vocal cords. Lastly, in the discreteness factor there are differences in the human and animal language. A child can learn and use the single and plural forms of a noun. They are able to use it as they want after acquiring the discrete unit. Animals which have higher IQs like monkeys and chimpanzees can somehow replicate human language in their own ways, but they are unable to learn discrete units.

(4) DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCES AMONG BROCAS APHASIA, WERNICKES APHASIA, JARGON APHASIS, AND ANOMIC APHASIA. DESCRIBE ALSO IMPLICATIONS OF APHASIC PATIENTS.

Aphasia is a defect or loss of the power of expression by speech, writing, or signs, or of comprehending spoken or written language, due to injury or disease of the brain centers. There are numerous kinds of aphasia. Most aphasia patients do not show total language loss. Rather, different aspects of language are selectively impaired, and the kind of impairment is generally related to the location of the brain damage. Because of this damage-deficit correlation, research on patients with aphasia has provided a great deal of information about how language is organized in the brain. Broca's Aphasia, also known as motor aphasia or agrammatic aphasics is a disease where a person is incapable to speak, or to produce spontaneous speech, as a result of an injury to the area of the brain that produces language. This area is known as Broca's area. Although people with Broca's aphasia cannot speak, they can understand others when they speak. To put this in terms of English linguistics, a person with Brocas aphasia has a disorder that affects the ability to form sentences with the roles of syntax. One of the most notable characteristics of Brocas aphasia is that the language produced by them is often agrammatic, and it frequently lacks articles, prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and other grammatical elements that we call function words. Wernicke's Aphasia patients have inability understanding spoken language due to the injury to the area of the brain that helps carry out this task which is known as Wernicke's area. In addition to the inability to understand spoken language, people with Wernicke's aphasia speak incoherently because they also lose the ability to understand their own words. Severe Wernickes aphasia is often referred as Jargon aphasia. Jargon aphasia is a fluent or receptive aphasia in which the patient's speech is incomprehensible, but appears to make sense to them. Speech is fluent and effortless with intact syntax and grammar, but the patient has problems with the selection of nouns. They will either replace the desired word with another that sounds or looks like the original one, or has some other connection, or they will replace it with sounds. Accordingly, patients with jargon aphasia often use neologisms, a newly-coined word, and may perseverate if they try to replace the words they can't find with sounds. Commonly, substitutions involve picking another actual word starting with the same sound. For example, clocktower for colander, or picking another semantically related to the first, for example, letter instead of scroll, or picking one phonetically similar to the intended one like lane instead of late. Anomic aphasia, also known as Anomia is a type of aphasia characterized by problems

recalling words or names. Patients with this disease often use circumlocutions and speak in a roundabout way, in order to express a certain word for which they cannot remember. Sometimes the patient can recall the name with given clues. Sufferers are often frustrated when they know that they know the name, but cannot produce it. However, the patients are able to speak with correct grammar, but the main problem is finding appropriate words to identify or describe an object or person. Sometimes the patients may know what to do with an object, but still not be able to give a name to the object. For example, if a subject is shown an orange, and asked what it is called, the subject may be well aware that the object can be peeled and eaten, and may be able to demonstrate this by actions or even verbal responses. However, whether such a subject could name the "color" of the orange is unknown.