AC Lab P

PACE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES, Ongole
LAB MANUAL
Analog communication
II B.TECH -IISEM
ECE DEPARTMENT
PACE INSTITUTE OF TECH & SCIENCES NH-5, ONGOLE.
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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, KAKINADA ANALAOG COMMUNICATION LAB EXPERIMENTS LIST
Minimum 12 experiments should be conducted :
1. Amplitude modulation and demodulation.
2. Diode detector characteristics.
3. Frequency modulation and demodulation.
4. Balanced modulator.
5. Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis.
6. Characteristics of mixer.
7. Digital Phase detector.
8. Phase locked loop.
9. Synchronous detector.
10. SSB system.
11. Spectral analysis of AM and FM signals using spectrum analyzer.
12. Squelch Circuit.
13. Frequency Synthesizer.
14. AGC Characteristics. Department of ECE Page 2
AMPLITUDE MODULATION &DEMODULATION

AIM:
To Study the function of Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation (under modulation, perfect modulation & over modulation) and also to calculated the modulation index. APPARATUS: 1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation trainer kit. 2. CRO. 3. Function Generator . 4. Connecting wires & probes CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
Fig 1(a): CIRCUIT FOR MODULATOR
Fig 1(b): CIRCUIT FOR AM DEMODULATOR
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THEORY: Amplitude modulation (AM) is defined as system of modulation in which the instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude (Ac) changes in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal(m(t)). An AM wave in time domain description may thus be described, in its most general form, as a function of time as follows, S (t) =Ac [1+Kam(t)Cos (2fct )] Where Ka- Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator S(t)-Modulated signal Ac Carrier Amplitude m(t)-Message signal When Kam(t) is greater than one, the modulated wave has to suffer from envelope distortion resulting in carrier phase reversals. This wave is called overmodulated amplitude modulated wave. For faithful recovery of modulating signal, the non-negative part of envelope must have same shape as modulating signal m(t).To achieve this it has satisfy two conditions:

The factor Kam(t) must be less than 1. The message bandwidth, , must be small compared to the carrier frequency fc . The absolute maximum value of Kam(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage modulation. m (or) percentage modulation=[Vmax-Vmin / Vmax+Vmin ]x100 PROCEDURE:1. Switch on the PHYSITECH Trainer kit. 2. Check the output of Carrier Generator on Oscilloscope without giving any External signal. 3. And fix the carrier frequency to 100KHZ (by varying Freq. & Ampli. Knobs on kit). 4. Apply Message signal around 3KHZ to 10KHZ with 2volts to AF I/P of modulator ckt by using Function Generator. 5. Connect the Carrier signal output at carrier input of modulator circuit. 6. Observe the modulator output signal at AM o/p terminal. 7. Vary the modulating Frequency & Amplitude and Observe the effects on the modulated waveform. 8. The depth of modulation can be varied using the variable knob provided at A.F I/P. 9. The percentage of Modulation & Modulation Index can be calculated using the following formula. Modulation Index =
Vmax-Vmin) / (Vmax+Vmin)
10. Connect the output of modulator to the input of Demodulator ckt and Observe the O/P signal i.e message signal.
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EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:-
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FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION AIM: To study the functioning of frequency modulation & demodulation and to calculate the modulation index. APPARATUS: 1. Frequency modulation & demodulation trainer kit. 2. CRO 3. Function generator . 4. Connecting chords & probes.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
Fig 2(a):FREQUENCY MODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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Fig 2(b): FREQUENCY DEMODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY: FM is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant while its frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating signal. By definition of FM, the amount by which the carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value, called the deviation is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage. The rate at which this frequency variation changes or takes place is equal to the modulating frequency. FM is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency f i(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t),as fi(t)=fc+Kfm(t)

Where fc frequency of the unmodulated carrier. Kf - frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/V) SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF AN FM SIGNAL: On considering the case involving a single-tone modulation, simplest case produces a narrow band FM signal more general case-FM wide band signal. In general ,a sinusoidal modulating signal is defined by m(t)=AmCos(2fmt) Instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal equals fi(t)=fc+Kf AmCos(2fmt) Cos(2fmt) = fc +f Where f= Kf Am, f is frequency deviation The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulation frequency is called the modulation index () of the FM signal. =f fm Depending on the value of the modulation index ,we may distinguish two cases of FM: If <1 radian, then Narrow band FM. If >1 radian, then wide band FM. We may define an approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM signal generated by a single-tone modulating signal of frequency fm as BT = 2f+2fm = 2f(1+1/) This relation is known as Carsons rule.
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PROCEDURE:1. Switch on the PHYSITECH Trainer kit. 2. Connect CRO to the FM o/p and observe that carrier frequency at that point without any AF I/P. 3. Apply around 3KHZ to 10KHZ with 2,4volts Sine wave (Message signal or AF signal) to the I/P of the Freq. Mod. by using Function Generator. 4. Now observe the Frequency modulation o/p on the CH1 of CRO & adjust the amplitude of AF signal to get clear frequency modulated waveform. 5. Vary the modulating frequency(AF signal)and amplitude & observe the effects on the modulated waveform. 6. Connect the FM o/p to the FM i/p pin of Demodulator & observe the effects of o/p at Demodulator o/p on CH2 of CRO.
7. Vary the potentiometer provided in the demodulator section and see the o/p. 8. Calculate frequency deviation by using following formula Frequency Deviation
=f/fm
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DIODE DETECTOR CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study the demodulation of Amplitude modulation using Diode Detector. APPARATUS: 1. Diode detector trainer kit 2. CRO 3. Probes & connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
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THEORY: A diode operating in a linear region of its characteristics can extract the envelope of an AM wave, such a detector is called envelope detector. This detector is extremely popular in commercial receiver circuits because it is very simple and less expensive, and at the same time provides satisfactory performance for the reception of broadcast programmers. The circuit diagram of a linear diode detector consist Tuned Transformer and RC (time constant) Network. The tuned transformer provides perfect tuning at the desired carrier frequency .RC forms the time constant network. When the modulated carrier at the input of detector is 1volt. The diode is by far the most common device used for AM demodulation (or) detection. The simple diode has the disadvantages that demodulated output voltage, also has dc component which represents the average envelope amplitude (i.e carrier
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strength) and a small R.F ripple. The unwanted components are removed in practical detector. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION: In this diode has been reversed, so that the negative envelope is demodulated .This has no effect on detection ,but it does ensure that negative AGC voltage will be available. Here two resistors are used to ensure that there is a series dc path to ground for the diode, but at the same time a low pass filter has been added in the form of R1-C1,this ha the function of removing any RF ripple that might still be present .Capacitor C2 is a coupling capacitor, whose main function is to prevent the diode dc output from reaching the volume control R4.The combination of R3-C3 is low pass filter designed to remove AF components, proving a dc voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the carrier strength and which may be used for automatic gain control. It can be seen from the fig. that the dc load is equal to R1+R2,whereas the audio load impedance Zm is equal to R1 in series with the parallel combination of R2,R3and R4,assuming that the capacitors have reactance which may be ignored. This will be true at medium frequencies, but at high and low audio frequencies Zm may have a reactive component, causing a phase shift and distortion as well as uneven frequency response.
PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the PHYSITECH Trainer kit and check the o/p of carrier generator at AM o/p without giving external generator should observe on CRO. 2. Connect around 1KHZ with 2volts A.F by varying freq.knob which is located on kit. Give o/p of AF to i/p of AF. 3. Observe the modulator o/p signal at AM o/p spring by making necessary changes in AF signal. 4. Vary the modulating freq. & amplitude and observe the effects on the modulating waveform. 5. The depth of modulation can varied using the variable knob. 6. Connect the o/p of modulator to the i/p of Diode detector i.e (AM i/p) ckt & observe the demodulated o/p. 7. Connect the o/p of demodulator to the i/p of amplifier ckt. And observe the amplified o/p.
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8. Now study the detector o/p applied i/p of over modulation & under modulation condition of the AM.
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BALANCED MODULATOR AIM: To study and observe Balanced modulator. APPARATUS: 1. Balanced modulator trainer kit. 2. Function generator 2No. 3. CRO 4. Probes and Connecting wires IC 1496 PIN CONFIGUTATION:
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:The Balanced modulator circuit is used to suppress the carrier wave from the AM signal. The inputs to balanced modulator are carrier and modulating signal.The ouputs of the balanced modulator are the upper and lower side bands, as shown in fig.
When two signals at different frequencies (carrier signal & modulating signal) are passed through a nonlinear resistance, the AM signal is generated with suppressed carrier. A device

having nonlinear resistance such as diode, JFET or transistor can be used in the balanced modulator to generate a AM signal with suppressed carrier.
Above fig. shows the balanced modulator circuit. It consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave. Here, two modulators are identical, except for the sign reversal of the modulating wave applied to the input of one of them. Therefore, the outputs of the two modulators can be given as, S1(t)=Ac[1+Ka m(t)] cos(2pi fct) and S2(t)=Ac[1-Ka m(t)] cos(2pi fct) Subtracting these two,we get S(t)=2Ka Ac Cos(2pi fct) m(t) Hence, except the 2Ka, the balanced modulator output is equal to the product of the modulating and carrier, as required. The methods used for the suppression of the carrier can be classified as I. II. Using the diode,ring or lattice modulator Using JFET modulator
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PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the PHYSITECH Trainer kit. 2. Connect 3KHZ to 10KHZ sine wave and 90KHZ to 100KHZ square wave signals and peak to peak is 3v applied to I/Ps of balanced modulator ckt by using function generators. 3. Adjust R1 (1K potentiometer),connect CRO to the o/p of the balanced modulator ckt. 4. Now observe the output of balanced modulator on CRO. 5. Disconnect the sine wave input to R1, the o/p should now close to be zero. 6. Set the vertical i/p control to 1V.Connect the sine i/p to R1 and adjust R1 for max. o/p without producing clipping. Measure the peak side band o/p voltage.
Epk
Sidebands=-----------------
7. Calculate the carrier suppression in dB
dB = -20 log (Epk sideband)/(Eout carrier only)

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PRE-EMPHASIS DE-EMPHASIS AIM: To study Frequency response of Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis. APPARATUS: 1. Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis trainer kit. 2. Function generator 2No. 3. CRO 4. Probes and Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS :
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THEORY: Frequency modulation is much more immune to noise than amplitude modulation and is significantly more immune than phase modulation. The threshold effect is more serious in FM as compared to AM, because in FM,the signal to noise ratio at the input of a detector, at which threshold level, better is the system because threshold can be avoided at a comparatively lower ratio, and a small signal is needed to avoid threshold for an equivalent noise power. Hence, it is desirable to lower the threshold level in the FM receivers. The process of lowering the threshold level is known as threshold improvement, or threshold reduction. Two methods are used for the improvement of threshold: Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis circuits. FMFB(Frequency modulation with Feedback)
The noise triangle shows, noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on the lower ones.Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and correspondingly cut at the receiver, an improvement in noise immunity could be expected, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise ratio. This boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in accordance with a prearranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and the compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis. PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the PHYSITECH Trainer kit. 2. Give the i/p from function generator to AF i/p of Pre-emphasis ckt. By varying the amplitude knob see the i/p voltage to some milli volts say (4mv,6mv etc..), set the frequency to 4KHZ. 3. Observe the o/p waveform on CRO on CH1,by connecting either 75mH or 50mH. 4. The o/p of Pre-emphasis ckt must be below to audio frequency range i.e 20HZ to 20KHZ.
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5. Connect the o/p of Pre-emphasis to the i/p of De-emphasis ckt and Observe the o/p waveform on CRO CH1 by connecting either 75k or 50k ohms. 6. Observe the De-emphasis o/p at AF O/P of De-emphasis ckt. 7. Measure the o/p voltage in CRO for each frequency & note down the values. 8. Calculate the attenuation and F values. 9. Plot the graph b/w freq. on X-axis and attenuation on Y-axis to show the emphasis curve. 10. Various values of R and C are available so that, the time constant is suitably selected depending upon the application. Observations: For Pre-Emphasis: S.NO FREQUENCY(HZ) Input Voltage(Vi)=
Vout(V)
Gain
Gain in dB=20log(Vo/Vi)
For De-Emphasis:
Input Voltage(Vi)= Gain in dB=20log(Vo/Vi)
S.NO FREQUENCY(HZ)
Vout(V)
Gain
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MIXER CHARACTERISTICS AIM: To Observe the Characteristics of Frequency Mixer and to measure its conversion gain. APPARATUS: 1. Frequency Mixer trainer kit. 2. Function generator 2No. 3. CRO 4. Probes and Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY: A mixer is a non -linear device that mixes the incoming signal of frequency (fc)with a local oscillator voltage of frequency (fl)and generates an output voltage of an intermediate frequency (fl-fc).The non linear mixer circuit produces the sum and difference frequency components((fl+fc) (or) (fl-fc))along with the input frequencies and their harmonics. The desired intermediate frequency fi=(fl-fc) is selected by a tuned circuit know as input
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intermediate frequency transformer (IFT).The IFT is tuned by adjusting the core of the transformer. The process is known as inductive tuning. The mixer is also known as first detector .Some mixer circuits use separate devices for mixing and generating local oscillator voltage. Such circuits are referred to as separately converters. The frequency converters and mixers perform the job of frequency changers. The output of the signal is a distorted combination of the two input signals. Let the two input signal contains signal frequencies and there harmonics. In addition to the harmonics, a frequency signal with frequency = (Fx-Fy) and also appear across output terminals. PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the PHYSITECH Trainer kit. 2. Connect the circuit as shown in the ckt diagram. 3. Apply 90KHZ signal to the Base of the Transistor and 100KHZ to the Emitter of the Transistor by using Function generators. 4. Now, Observe the sinusoidal signal with difference of10KHZ frequency across o/p terminals of frequency mixer circuit by using CRO. 5. By Varying the different frequency ranges take the frequency of the o/p signal in CRO. 6. Now we calculate the Conversion gain. Conversion Gain= (Output Voltage)/(Base signal Voltage) Observations: INPUT S.No Vi(v) OUTPUT CONVERSION GAIN=(Output Voltage)/(Base signal voltage)
Fx
Freq.(KHZ) Vi(v)
Fy
Freq.(KHZ) Vo(v)
F(x-y)
F(x-y)KHZ
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DIGITAL PHASE DETECTORS AIM: To Study the Digital Phase detectors using EX-OR gate, R-S flipflop and Dual D-flipflop.. APPARATUS: 1. Digital Phase Detector trainer kit. 2. CRO 3. CRO Probes & Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the Power supply. 2. Give the square wave inputs to EX-OR gate. 3. Give the O/P of EX-OR gate along with input signals to CRO and the phase difference.
EX-OR GATE TRUTH TABLE Y=B+BA INPUTS OUTPUT A B Y L L L L H H H L H H H L
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PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the Power supply. 2. Give the square inputs i.e from fo & f1 on kit ,Observe these square wave inputs on CRO. 3. Give the square inputs to R-S Flipflop. 4.Give the output of R-S flip flop along with inputs signals to CRO and Observe the phase difference on CRO.
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PROCEDURE:1. Switch ON the Power supply. 2. Give the square wave inputs i.e from fo & f1 which is indicated on kit, Now observe these inputs on CRO. 3. Give the square wave inputs to Dual D-Flip flop inputs. 4. Give the output of D-flip flop along with input signals to CRO & observe the phase difference on CRO.
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SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR
AIM: To Study about detection of DSB-SC (Synchronous detector) . APPARATUS: 1. Synchronous detector trainer kit. 2. Function generator. 3. CRO. 4. Probes & Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY: The synchronous detector, also called the coherent detector, is used as a demodulator for DSBSC signal. Synchronous detection requires a carrier recovery circuit, which is used to generate a local carrier component exactly synchronized to the transmitted carrier. Here, modulating signal m(t) is recovered from a DSBSC wave by first multiplying DSBSC signal with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then the low pass filtering the product ,as shown in the fig.
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For faithful recovery of modulating signal m(t),the local oscillator output should be exactly coherent or synchronized, in both frequency and phase with the carrier wave c(t) used in the product modulator to generate s(t).This method of demodulation is called coherent detection or synchronous detection. PROCEDURE: 1. Switch ON the power supply. 2. Observe the Carrier signal at the terminal provided on the kit, set it to 100KHZ(for synchronous ckt) without giving any external input. 3. Connect 3KHZ with 3V peak to peak AF signal externally from the Function generator to the AF input terminal provided on the kit. 4. Observe the AM output at the knob provided on the kit. 5. Connect the carrier output to the carrier input of synchronous detecter. 6. Connect AM output to the AM input of synchronous ckt. i.e DSB input. 7. Observe the synchronous detector output on the CRO i.e message signal.
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SSB SYSTEM AIM: To study the process of Single Side Band System. APPARATUS: 1. SSB Trainer kit 2. CRO 3. CRO probes2No. 4. Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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THEORY: To make AM more efficient it can simply done by suppressing the carrier .Since the carrier does not carry any useful information, there is no reason why it has to be transmitted. If it considers being the fact that, two sidebands carry same information, DSB signal is redundant i.e in DSB the basic information is transmitted twice, once in each sideband.Therefore, there is absolutely no reason to transmit both sidebands in order to convey the information. One sideband may be suppressed .The resulting signal is a single sideband commonly referred to as single sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC or SSB). The phase shift method makes use of two balanced modulators and two phase shift networks as shown in fig. One of the modulators receives the carrier signal shifted by 90 and the modulating signal with 0 (sine)phase shift ,whereas the other receives modulating signal by 90(co-sine)and the carrier (RF)signal with 0 phase shift voltage. Both modulators produce an output consisting only of sidebands. It will be shown that both upper sidebands leads the input carrier voltage by 90.One of the lower sidebands leads the reference voltage by 90, and the other lags it by 90.The two lower sidebands are thus out of phase, and when combined in the adder, they cancel each other .The upper sidebands are in phase at the adder and therefore they add together and gives SSB upper sideband signal. When they combined in the subtractor, the upper side bands get cancelled because in phase and lower sidebands add together and gives SSB lower sideband signal. PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON the power supply. 2. Observe the output of RF generator on CRO. There are two outputs from the RF generator, one is direct output and another one is 90 degree phase shift with the direct o/p. 3. Connect 0 degree phase shift of RF generator to Balanced Modulator X and 90 degree phase shift of RF generator to Balanced Modulator Y. 4. Observe the output of AF generator on CRO. There are two outputs from the AF generator, one is direct output and another one is 90 degree phase shift with the direct o/p. 5. Adjust the AGC potentiometer to get required waveforms. 6. Connect 0 degree phase shift of AF generator to Balanced Modulator Y and 90 degree phase shift of AF generator to Balanced Modulator X. Department of ECE Page 34

7. Now, observe the outputs of the both Balanced Modulators simultaneously using Dual Trace of CRO. And adjust the balanced control until you get the output waveforms. 8. To get SSB lower band signal, Connect balanced modulator O/Ps (X&Y) to Subtractor I/Ps. 9. Record the SSB signal frequency at subtractor output i.e SSB (LSB). 10. To get USB upper band signal, Connect balanced modulator O/Ps (X&Y) to Summer I/Ps. 11. Record the SSB signal frequency at Summer output i.e SSB (USB). 12. Now connect SSB signal from the Summer or Subtractor to the input of Synchronous Detector (SSB Demodulation). 13. Observe the detector output on CRO & compare it with the modulating signal (AF).
OBSERVATIONS:
At RF Generator Amplitude Time period Frequency Amplitude Time period Frequency At AF Generator 0'Degrees ___ Amplitude ___ Time period ___ Frequency 90'Degrees ___ Amplitude ___ Time period ___ Frequency
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
BALANCED MODULATOR 'X' Vmax(v) ___ Vmin(v) ___ Frequency (HZ) ___ SUBTRACTOR:
BALANCED MODULATOR 'Y' Vmax(v) ___ Vmin(v) ___ Frequency (HZ) ___ ADDER
SSB DEMODULATION Amplitude (V) _______ Time period(ms ) _______ Frequency(HZ) _______
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LSB=RF Freq. - AF Freq. USB=RF Freq. + AF Freq.
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
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SQUELCH CIRCUIT AIM: To Study Squelch Circuit. APPARATUS: 1. Squelch circuit trainer kit. 2. Function generator. 3. CRO. 4. Probes & Connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
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THEORY: When no carrier present at the input of a receiver,i.e in the absence of transmission on a given channel or between stations, a sensitive receiver will produce a disagreeable amount of loud noise. This is because AGC disappear in the absence of any carrier. The receiver acquires its maximum sensitivity and amplifies the noise present at its input. Squelch, enables the receivers output to remain in cut off unless the carrier is present. Apart from eliminating inconvenience, such a system must naturally increase the efficiency of the operator. Squelch is also called muting or quieting circuit. The squelch circuit is provided with, a dc amplifier to which AGC is applied and which operates upon the first Audio amplifier of the receiver. When the AGC is low or Zero, the dc amplifier, Q2 is in conduction and draws current so that bias voltage of Q1 drops and cut of the A.F amplifier. Thus no signal or noise is passed. When the AGC voltage becomes sufficiently negative to cut off Q2, this dc amplifier no longer draws current, so that the only now on Q1 is its self bias. The audio amplifier now functions as though the squelch were not there. Resistor R3 is dropping resistor, whose function is that the dc voltage supplied to the collector and base potentiometer of Q1 is higher than the dc voltage supplied to its emitter .Manual adjustment of R3 will allow the cut in bias of to be varied so that quitting may be applied for a selected range of AGC values. This facility must be provides otherwise weak stations, not generating sufficient AGC, might be cut off. The squelch circuit is normally inserted immediately after the detector. PROCEDURE: 1. Switch ON the trainer kit. 2. Using Function generator, apply 1KHZ AF signal to AF input Knob. Now observe the output of AM generator. 3. Now connect AM output to input of the Detector, which is provided on board. And observe output of AF & AGC (Mesure the AGC o/p using DC voltmeter). 4. Now connect AF output from detector to AF input of AF amplifier & connect AGC output to AGC input of DC amplifier. 5. You can study the effect of the squelch circuit by varying the amplitude of the AM & adjust the sensitivity of squelch by varying the POT provided at the base of the 2nd transistor.
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OBSERVATIONS:
At AF Signal:-- Amplitude= Frequency=.. AM signal:-- At detector :AF signal O/P: Amplitude= Frequency=.. Voltage=..
V max=. V min=.
AGC O/P:---
Squelch ckt O/P: .. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
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AGC CHARACTERISTICS AIM: To Study the AGC Characteristics of a Radio receiver. APPARATUS: 1. AGC Characteristics trainer kit 2. CRO 3. Probes & Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE: 1. Switch ON the AGC trainer. 2. Select the carrier frequency 1000HZ & AF frequency 3KHZ and apply AM signal to the input of receiver. 3. Connect the CRO at the output of the Audio amplifier.
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4. Tune the Mixer-Local Oscillator (by using knob provided) for maximum AF Signal output at detector output and measure the audio signal. 5. Increase the RF level in appropriate steps and note down corresponding output AF signal amplitude. 6. Plot the AF output vs RF input on graph which will be as shown below. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
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PHASE LOCK LOOP USING LM 565 AIM: To Study Phase lock loop and its capture range, lock range and free running VCO frequency. APPARATUS: 1. PLL trainer kit 2. Function generator 3. CRO 4. Probes & Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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THEORY: The Phase Locked Loop [PLL] is a negative feedback system. It can be used to track the phase and frequency of the carrier component of an incoming signal. Hence it is useful device for the demodulation of angle-modulated signals, especially when signal-to noise ratio is poor. For this reason PLL is used in such applications as space-vehicle to earthdata links where the signal loss on the transmission link is very large.PLL is used now-a-days in commercial FM receivers, because of their low cost and superior performance. A PLL has three basic components: A Voltage-controlled Oscillator[VCO] A multiplier serving as a phase detector or a phase comparator A loop filter, which is a low-pass filter.
The frequency of the VCO can be controlled by the external voltage. In a VCO, the oscillation frequency varies linearly with its input voltage .The output of the multiplier is passed through o low-pass filter [loop filter] and then applied to the input of the VCO.This voltage then changes the frequency of t he VCO and keeps the loop in locked condition. Initially, the condition voltage to VCO is Zero, then VCO is adjusted so that: The frequency of the VCO is exactly made equal to the unmodulated carrier frequency fc . The VCO output has a phase shift of 90 with respect to the unmodulated carrier wave.
Thus, PLL goes through 3 states:
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Free Running State : Whose frequency in the absence of any synchronizing input, which is also called free running frequency fo is given by fo=1.2/4R1C1 in Hz Phase Lock State : It is the range of frequencies in the vicinity of fo over which the VCO,once locked to the input signal, will remain locked and is given by Fl = 8fo/Vcc in Hz Capture Range : The range of frequencies in the vicinity of fo over which the loop acquire lock with an input signal initially starting out of lock and is given by
Fc=1/2.
PROCEDURE: 1. Switch ON the trainer.
(2fL/3.6x10 xC )
3 2
2. Using function generator apply 1KHZ input signal at 10k of pin2 and observe the signal at CH1 of CRO. 3. Connect VCO output to CH2 of CRO. 4. By varying the frequency (1KHZ to 7KHZ) in different steps, observe that one frequency the waveform will be phase locked. 5. Change RC component to shift VCO center frequency and see how lock range of the input varies. 6. Now compare the theoretical values & practical values using the given formulas.
Fo=1.2/(4R1.C1)
Where Fo=Free Running Frequency R1=External Resistor C1=External Capacitor
FL=8Fo/Vcc
Where
FL=Lock Range
Fc=1/2.
Where
(2fL/3.6x103xC2)
Fc=Capture Range , C2=The filter capacitor in farad


FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER USING LM 565 AIM: To Synthesize very large number of stable frequency with in same design range while generally employing only one single stable soure. APPARATUS: 1. Frequency Synthesizer Trainer 2. CRO 3. Probes & Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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THEORY: PLL has emerged as one of the fundamental building block in electronic technology. It is used in many ways : frequency multiplication FM stereo detector FM demodulator Frequency shift keying decoders Local oscillator in TV and FM tuner
It consists of a phase detector, a LPF and a voltage controlled oscillator.
The frequency of the VCO can be controlled by the external voltage. In a VCO, the oscillation frequency varies linearly with its input voltage .The output of the multiplier is passed through o low-pass filter [loop filter] and then applied to the input of the VCO.This voltage then changes the frequency of t he VCO and keeps the loop in locked condition. Initially, the condition voltage to VCO is Zero, then VCO is adjusted so that: The frequency of the VCO is exactly made equal to the unmodulated carrier frequency fc . The VCO output has a phase shift of 90 with respect to the unmodulated carrier wave. Thus, PLL goes through 3 states: Free Running State : Whose frequency in the absence of any synchronizing input, which is also called free running frequency fo is given by fo=1.2/4R1C1 in Hz
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Phase Lock State : It is the range of frequencies in the vicinity of fo over which the VCO,once locked to the input signal, will remain locked and is given by Fl = 8fo/Vcc in Hz Capture Range : The range of frequencies in the vicinity of fo over which the loop acquire lock with an input signal initially starting out of lock and is given by
Fc=1/2.
PROCEDURE:
(2fL/3.6x10 xC )
3 2
1. Switch ON the trainer. 2. Using function generator apply 1KHZ input signal at 10k of pin2 and observe the signal at CH1 of CRO. 3. Connect VCO output to CH2 of CRO. 4. By varying the frequency (1KHZ to 7KHZ) in different steps, observe that one frequency the waveform will be phase locked. 5. By varying the frequency knob of Function generator in anti clockwise direction we get Capture Range. 6. Change RC component to shift VCO center frequency and see how lock range of input varies. 7. Now compare the theoretical & practical values using the given formula.
Fo=1.2/(4R1.C1)
Where Fo=Free Running Frequency R1=External Resistor C1=External Capacitor
FL=8Fo/Vcc
Where
FL=Lock Range
Fc=1/2.
Where
(2fL/3.6x103xC2)
Fc=Capture Range
C2=The filter capacitor in farad
Department of ECE
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Department of ECE
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PACE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES, Ongole

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1. Amplitude modulation and demodulation.

2. Diode detector characteristics.

3. Frequency modulation and demodulation.

5. Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis.

7. Digital Phase detector.

8. Phase locked loop.

10. SSB system.

11. Spectral analysis of AM and FM signals using spectrum analyzer.

12. Squelch Circuit.

13. Frequency Synthesizer.

14. AGC Characteristics. Department of ECE Page 2

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AMPLITUDE MODULATION &DEMODULATION

Fig 1(b): CIRCUIT FOR AM DEMODULATOR

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Fig 2(b): FREQUENCY DEMODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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7. Calculate the carrier suppression in dB

dB = -20 log (Epk sideband)/(Eout carrier only)

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Input Voltage(Vi)= Gain in dB=20log(Vo/Vi)

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Squelch ckt O/P: .. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

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