Namport Walvis Bay EIA 2010-Chap4

NAMPORT TENDER 674/ 2008 and EIA Study for Strategic Expansion of the Walvis Bay Container Terminal
4 Description Of The Affected Environment

This chapter provides an overview of the affected environment and local planning context for the proposed expansion of the container terminal at Walvis Bay, Namibia. The term environment, includes the biophysical and socio-economic dimensions. This chapter therefore assists the reader to understand potential impacts on the environment (positive or negative), and opportunities or constraints that it may present for the proposed project. This environmental baseline description is based on information extracted from sources referenced in the text and others listed in the bibliography in Chapter 6.
4.1
Location of proposed project
Walvis Bay is situated on the western coast of Africa midway between the northern and southern borders of Namibia (cf. Figure 1.1). The Bay is bounded to the west by a peninsula with a narrow sand spit up to Pelican Point that shelters the Port of Walvis Bay from the predominantly south-westerly offshore swell. It is the biggest town along the Namibian coast, in the coastal zone of the Erongo Region in Namibia, with a population of about 60 000. A lagoon seven kilometres long with 2 approximately 10 km of wetland conditions is a part of a Ramsar-protected site in the southern part of the Bay. It is home to a large population of flamingos and is a migration point for thousands of wading, resident and migratory birds. The port and proposed container terminal expansion are integrated into the town of Walvis Bay. The closest major road is the C14 that connects the town to Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, and the B2 that goes north along the coast. Human activities are on the eastern side of the Bay. The port is composed of the commercial harbour southward that handles both containerised and bulk cargo, and the fishing harbour northward that houses about 15 processing factories and their vessels. In the shallow south of the Bay salt works cover large areas of the inlet to the Lagoon. The area between Swakopmund and Walvis Bay is expected to achieve conservation status as a part of the NamibSkeleton Coast National Park. In terms of the Namibian Ports Authority Act 2 of 1994, the port is bounded by the high water marks at coordinates 23 05S to 25 52S, and 14 32E.
4.2
Biophysical environment
4.2.1 Climate
The coastal zone at Walvis Bay lies within a cool desert region of Namibia, a unique biophysical environment that is due to the specific climatic conditions in the area are influenced by the South Atlantic anticyclone, the northward-flowing Benguela Current and the divergence of the south-east trade winds along the coast.
Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010
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Climatic conditions in the region vary from cool, foggy, windy and hyper-arid conditions along the coast, to dry and hot weather towards the inland areas from which it is separated by the Great Escarpment.
4.2.2 Temperature
Namibia is considered to be hot; however, temperatures are highly variable daily and seasonally. Therefore, animals and plants have evolved to tolerate a broad range of temperatures. In the coastal area, temperatures are relatively constant, only exhibiting a slight decrease from north to south. The average temperature maximum varies between 24 an d 19.3 and the average minimum C C, between 9.1 and 16.5 Highest temperatures ar e recorded during Berg Wind episodes when C C. cold air from the interior flows towards the coast and is heated by compression (catabatic wind).
4.2.3 Rainfall and evaporation

The Bay has a mean annual rainfall of 13.5 mm. Most rain falls in summer between January and April, with the wettest month being March when about 50% of annual rainfall is recorded. Fog is a distinctive feature, and the Bay gets some moisture from 900 hours of coastal sea fogs per year. Monthly average humidity varies between 65% in December and 81% in January/March. Namibia, as a country, loses more water through evaporation than it receives in rain. Lower rates of evaporation at the coast are mainly due to cooler and more humid coastal conditions.
4.2.4 Surface Wind

The presence of the subtropical South Atlantic Anticylcone off the coast of Namibia strongly influences the wind pattern, generating gale force winds along the coast in all seasons, but being most frequent during mid-summer and spring. Although their strength decreases inland, their effect is noticeable for distances of up to 200 km from the coast. These strong coastal south-westerly winds carry sand inshore from the coast to the Namib Sand Sea and create upwelling cells which allow nutrient-rich water to be brought to the surface, therefore increasing fish resources. At the coast, the prevailing wind is southerly to south south-westerly with speeds that reach 10 m/s, while the predominant wind inland is north-easterly to easterly with speeds reaching approximately 3m/s (Figure 4.1). The coastal south-westerly winds bring cool, moist air into the coastal region. Occasional hot, dry and powerful easterly wind during winter (or Berg wind) causes large quantities of dust and sand to be blown offshore, affecting sediment input into the coastal marine environment. These powerful offshore winds can exceed 50 km/h, producing sandstorms that considerably reduce visibility at sea and on land. Although they occur intermittently for about a week at a time, they have a strong effect on the coastal temperatures, which often exceed 30 during berg wind periods. C Air quality in Walvis Bay changes between March and August, when there are emissions and odours from fish canneries and fish meal factories. The prevailing SW winds blow these emissions and dust towards the residential and industrial districts. Temperature inversions typically occur between 600 m and 1 800 m above ground, and these could adversely affect air quality by restricting dispersal through trapping and concentrating pollutants beneath the inversion layer.
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Direction from which the wind blows
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Figure 4.1: Voluntary Observing Ship (VOS) wind data for the area 22 -24S and 13 E -15 Source: Southern African Data Centre for Oceanography (SADCO)
4.2.5 Landscape
The study area is located on the Namib Central-western plains that stretch from the coast inland for about 450 km in places. The plains were largely formed by erosion cutting back into higher ground and carving out the catchment areas of several major rivers. The peneplain is dissected by numerous dry riverbeds, draining towards the coast. Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010 page 76
The coastline of central Namibia is dominated by sandy beaches, with rocky habitats being represented only by occasional small rocky outcrops. The largest dune seas occur in the central Namib south of Walvis Bay, but for approximately 250 km north of Swakopmund, the coastal area is relatively free of dunes. The coastal strip around Swakopmund is covered by a 2-3 m thick layer of very loose, medium to fine grained sea sand, which stretches for approximately 200 m inland. Only in the vicinity of Henties Bay is the shore backed by low sandy cliffs. Namibia is a hyper-arid country, with only 4 km of surface water produced internally, and a 3 groundwater recharge of 2 km . The central portion of Namibia is drained by a number of westward flowing ephemeral rivers that occasionally reach the sea when they flood after heavy rains in the interior. These include the Omaruru, Swakop and the Kuiseb rivers that are very important ecologically, as they support a diverse biota that depends on the groundwater associated with the river course.
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4.2.6 Geology
The study area is underlain by schist (with granitic intrusions) of the Swakop group which forms part of the Damara Supergroup and Gariep Complex, a group of rocks laid down approximately 850-600 millions years ago. Much of the geology is exposed, because the harsh climate limits soil development and vegetation growth. Extensive gypsum and calcrete deposits have developed where the relief is low. Gypsum plains are found within 60 km of the coast, coinciding with the zone of regular occurrence of fog. Calcrete crusts are a feature of the soils further inland in the eastern part of the central Namib and pro-Namib and represent a moister period of in situ formation of calcrete and calcareous soil. Groundwater reserves are limited to the Kuiseb and Omaruru alluvial bed aquifers, which supply Henties Bay, Swakopmund and Walvis Bay as well as Arandis, Rssing and Langer Heinrich Mines. These aquifers are situated within the alluvial beds of the Kuiseb and Omaruru rivers.
4.2.7 Physical Oceanography

The central Namibian coastline is influenced by major swells generated in the Roaring Forties, as well as significant sea waves generated locally by the persistent south-westerly winds. Apart from Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, wave shelter - in the form of west to north-facing embayments and coasts lying in the lee of headlands - is extremely limited. The Beguela Current Upwelling system is a major eastern boundary current system dominated by a wind-driven upwelling system. There is upwelling when frictional coupling of wind and water causes surface waters to move away from the coast, and water that wells up from below replaces these surface waters (Figure 4.2). This results in cold, nutrient-rich water from depths of 200 300 m reaching the surface along the coast. The nutrients support intensive primary production (phytoplankton) which provides food for zooplankton and, ultimately, the large biomass of pelagic fish.
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Figure 4.2: Formation of an upwelling cell (Source: TERC, USA) The largest upwelling cell centred on Lderitz (Figure 4.3) results in large amounts of phyto- and zooplankton off Walvis Bay. Much of this is not utilised and sinks to the seafloor, contributing to the anoxic conditions that are characteristic of the marine environment in the vicinity of Walvis Bay.
Figure 4.3: Positions of upwelling cells and formation zones of low oxygen water (Source: Shannon, 1985) 4.2.7.1 Waves
Voluntary Observing Ships (VOS) deep-sea wave data indicate that 73% of deep-sea waves originate from the SSE (165 to SW (225 sector (Figure 4.4 ). Median significant wave height is 1.1 m, and ) ) median peak wave period is 11.6 s. The water depth in Walvis Bay ranges from -20 m CD at Pelican Point to approximately -2,5 m CD at the entrance to the Lagoon. Although the mouth of the Walvis Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010 page 78
Bay Lagoon is protected from the south-westerly waves by Pelican Point, waves also occur in the shadow zone (Figure 4.5). The waves and the wave set-up progressively decrease in magnitude southwards in the shadow zone. This results in a southwards-setting longshore current in the harbour.
Figure 4.4: Voluntary Observing Ship (VOS) swell data for the area 22 -24S and 13 E -15 Source: Southern African Data Centre for Oceanography (SADCO)
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Figure 4.5: Walvis Bay sheltered against predominantly SW swell regime, with shadow zone Source: CSIR (1989) 4.2.7.2 Tides
In common with the rest of the southern African coast, tides in Walvis Bay are regular and semidiurnal, flushing the Bay twice daily with nutrient-rich water. From the list of mean tidal levels in Table 4.1 for Walvis Bay, it can be seen that mean spring tide range is 1.42 m (0.27 m 1.69 m), and for mean neap tide it is 0.62 m (0.67 m 1.29 m). An harmonic influence, with a period of 90 minutes and amplitude of 0.15 m, generates flows and velocities that are of the same order of magnitude, or even
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greater than the tide (CSIR, 1989). Variations in the absolute water level as a result of meteorological conditions such as wind and waves can, however, occur adjacent to the shoreline and differences of up to 0.5 m in level from the tidal predictions are not uncommon. Tidal currents are minimal with measurements of 0.1 m/s reported at Walvis Bay. Table 4.1: Tide statistics for Walvis Bay from SA Tide Tables (SAN 2007) All levels are referenced to Chart Datum.
Description Highest Astronomical Tide Mean High Water of Spring Tide Mean High Water of Neap Tide Mean Level Mean Sea Level Mean Low Water of Neap Tide Mean Low Water of Spring Tide Lowest Astronomical Tide HAT MHWS MHWN ML MSL MLWN MLWS LAT
Level in m +1.97 +1.69 +1.29 +0.98 +0.966 +0.67 +0.27 0.00
4.2.7.3
Currents
The Benguela current is part of the counter-clockwise circuit in the South Atlantic ocean and runs north-westerly along the Namibian coastline at a speed between 0.25 m/s to 0.35 m/s. The flows are predominantly wind-forced, barotropic and fluctuate between poleward and equatorward flow. Fluctuation periods of these flows are 3 to 10 days, although the long-term mean current residual, that is, net flow, is in an approximate NW (alongshore) direction. Current speeds in reverse flows observed between Walvis Bay and Henties Bay range between 0.02 m/s and 0.17 m/s. Near bottom, shelf flow is mainly poleward with low velocities of typically 0.05 m/s. Its deviation off the coast due to the Coriolis effect results in the deep water upwellings that make this part of the coast an area of high productivity. The dominant south-westerly winds create a clockwise water flow in the bay which travels southwards past the harbor. Waters enter the Bay through the bottom layer at Pelican Point, and exit through the surface layer at the same point. Current velocities are about 0.12 m/s, with occasional high flow velocities of 0.25 m/s. Water circulation takes place mainly in the upper layer, and depends on the direction of the wind. The current pattern is clockwise in the morning, towards the south, and reverses towards the north. At Pelican Point the current moves mostly northward for the whole day. The currents in the Lagoon have inflow and outflow velocities of the order of 0.30 m/s at the mouth of the Lagoon. Water depths within the Bay vary from about -16.5 m chart datum (CD) at Pelican Point to approximately -2.5 m CD at the mouth of the lagoon.
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4.2.8 Biotic Environment

The major feature of the Benguela system is upwelling, that is, strong ocean currents that carry nutrient-rich deep-ocean water to the surface to nourish single-celled algae and bacteria known as phytoplankton, and other sea life. The consequent high nutrient supply leads to high biological production and large fish stocks. Red tides (dinoflagellate and/or ciliate blooms), also referred to as Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), low oxygen events and sulphur eruptions occur periodically in the Benguela system, with potentially catastrophic effects on the ecology of the system. 4.2.8.1 Bacteria in the lagoon
During a CSIR (1992) study an attempt to determine the bacterial productivity of the various parts of the lagoon was made. The bacterial study was based on the hypothesis that bacterial growth and productivity in the lagoon sediments are dependent on nutrient availability and thus may be expected to correlate positively with the organic content of the sediment. Bacterial production was expected to increase between the mouth of the lagoon and the upper reaches. The results, however, indicated a negative correlation between bacterial production and sediment organic content. The highest 6 production (6.34 x 10 cells/g dry wt/h) was within the lower reaches. The production in the middle and 6 6 upper reaches was 2.85 x 10 cells/g dry wt/h and 4,07 x 10 cells/g dry wt/h respectively. These results may be an artifact of the method used which may not have included the contribution by sulphate reducing bacteria. The results also highlight the complex nature of the lagoon ecosystem where salinity, nutrient supply, anoxia and temperature all interact. 4.2.8.2 Phytoplankton and Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)
An algal bloom is a rapid increase in the population of algae in an aquatic system. The sediments in Walvis Bay contain high concentrations of dinoflagellate cysts (Joyce, 2005) that are primary producers in the aquatic food chain. Dinoflagellates are free-swimming microalgae; most species are harmless but some produce toxins. Light onshore winds and stratification of the water column as a result of the strengthening of the thermocline are conditions conducive to the formation of phytoplankton blooms. The high primary production in the Benguela Current Upwelling System often results in the development of harmful algal blooms (HABs). HABs generally develop along the coast in quiescent periods following strong upwelling or in sheltered areas such as Walvis Bay. Although many blooms do not produce toxins, that is, they are not strictly HABs, they can collapse and place a high oxygen demand on the system with anoxic conditions resulting. These anoxic conditions can trigger sulphur eruptions (B Currie, MFMR, pers. comm.). HABs occur most frequently during late summer or early autumn when light, predominantly onshore, winds prevail. 4.2.8.3 Sulphur Eruptions
Sedimentation of phytoplankton that thrive on the upwelled nutrients is a natural process in the Bay and its offshore environs. Nutrients brought to the surface with the upwelling deep-water are taken up by phytoplankton. Some of the phytoplankton are not grazed by zooplankton and they settle before the surface nutrient-poor water moves west. Most of the settled particles are then metabolised in the sediment, to enrich the incoming deep-water and taken to the surface again by upwelling. These are primarily diatoms, a tiny blob of protoplasm enclosed in a transparent structure made of silica
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extracted from the surrounding seawater. Phytoplankton that die and decay sink to the seabed can decay further due to bacteria that break them down. This decay process depletes oxygen, and it continues with bacteria that do not require oxygen to digest the organic matter. Instead, they utilise sulphate ions in sea water for oxidation, reducing to sulphide that combines with hydrogen to produce hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas as a by-product. The gas accumulates on the ocean floor until it reaches a tipping point and rises to the surface, bubbling into the water column and turning it anoxic, known as "sulphur eruptions". It is a poisonous gas that smells like rotten eggs. When the hydrogen in the H2S combines with oxygen to form water, solid white sulphur precipitates into the water column. This phenomenon is not an isolated near-coastal feature. Satellite remote sensing has identified 2 eruptions that affect areas of ocean surface more than 20 000 km in extent that are more frequent and longer lasting than previously supposed (Weeks, et al, 2004). Figure 4.7 shows an eruption north-west of Walvis Bay photographed by the Space Shuttle in 1985. Figure 4.8, taken in 2004, shows milky green sections of ocean where the H2S gas is erupting. A phytoplankton bloom further offshore is a demonstration of the ocean productivity that underlies these eruptions.
Figure 4.6 Sulphur eruption north-west of Walvis Bay photographed from the Space Shuttle, 1985 Source: NSA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Centre
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Figure 4.7 High productivity underlies phytoplankton blooms and sulphur eruptions Source: NSA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Centre
This pollution due to natural causes is not flushed by the slow circulation in the Bay. These sulphur eruptions can lead to massive mortalities of fish and zoobenthos such as bivalves and crustaceans. Generally the less mobile organisms suffer most but in many cases fishes and crustaceans may be trapped against the shore by H2S-rich water, where they are fed upon by seagulls (Figure 4.9). Aquaculture farms are particularly vulnerable: in 2008 aquaculture operations in Walvis Bay were severely affected by a major sulphur eruption to the extent that some operators are considering relocation to Lderitz (B.Currie, MFMR, pers. comm.).
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Figure 4.8 Aggregation of seagulls that forage for fish and lobsters affected by sulphur eruption Source: NSA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center
4.2.8.4
Benthic Fauna
The relatively straight and exposed Namibian coastline provides few suitable habitats for marine organisms that require sheltered environments. Walvis Bay and its lagoon comprise one such area. These benthic communities are generally ubiquitous throughout the Southern African West Coast region, being particular only to substratum type, wave exposure and/or depth zone. The central Namibian coast is characterised by low species richness, but the high productivity supports large numbers of organisms. One result of the frequent anoxic conditions is that most of the sediment surface in the Bay is devoid of other than bacterial life below a water depth of a few meters and even in this zone the diversity is reduced to a few opportunistic species that can tolerate recurrent anoxic conditions or recover fast after oxygen depletion. Polychaete worms are the most important component, and fishes in the northern Bay are a subset of those found on the adjacent coastline. The lagoon supports a fauna characterised by large populations of a relatively small number of species (Kensley, 1978). Various studies of the benthic fauna of Walvis Bay lagoon have been undertaken since the 1970s. These range from the reconnaissance level studies by Kensley (1978) and Hockey and Bosman (1983) to the more detailed characterisation of the benthos by CSIR (1989, 1992a, 1992b) and COWI (2003). The general distribution of the benthic fauna in the lagoon is well-established but the lack of seasonal data means that little is known about the population dynamics of the various species that comprise the benthos. Glassom and Branch (1997a, 1997b) demonstrated the impact of predation on the benthic fauna by Greater Flamingos but did not show that this resulted in competition between these birds and other water waders (shore birds) i.e. at the time of their study (April 1989 to April 1990) the availability of benthos did not appear to limit the size of the bird population. Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010 page 85
The description of the benthic fauna of the lagoon that follows is based primarily on CSIR (1989, 1992a, 1992b) and COWI (2003). The mouth and lower reaches of the lagoon are characterised by an abundance of the bivalve Venerupis corrugatus, which is diagnostic of this community, sea anemones Anthothoe sp., tubeworms Diopatra sp. and a nereid polychaete worm. None of these species is exclusively present in the lower reaches of the lagoon, nevertheless they occur in considerably higher densities here than elsewhere in the system. Two sub-communities within the lower reach community may be identified: an Anthothoe Venerupis community in the deeper water and a Venerupis amphipod (species unidentified) in the mouth and intertidal areas. The crown crab Hymenosoma orbiculare dominates the mouth area of the lagoon, that is, an area characterised by coarser sediments and higher current velocities (Hockey and Bosman, 1983; CSIR, 1989; CSIR, 1992a, 1992b; COWI, 2003). The crown crab appears to be a key prey item of Grey Plovers Pluvialis squatarola. The middle reaches of the lagoon are characterised by the amphipod Ampelisca sp. That occurs primarily in the shallow periphery. In the deeper areas of the middle reaches there is an Anthothoe Ampelisca sub-community. In 1989 the mudprawn Upogebia capensis was recorded from this subcommunity (CSIR, 1989). It was not recorded during the 1991 survey (CSIR, 1992a) but was again recorded by COWI (2003) albeit closer to the lower reaches than hitherto. The upper reaches of the lagoon support insignificant populations of benthic fauna. The surface sediments are anoxic consisting of a silty mud with a high content of organic material. The strong southerly winds reduce the tidal penetration, particularly at neap tides, resulting in elevated temperatures and high salinities which may exceed the tolerance limits of the benthic species occurring in the lagoon. CSIR (1992a) produced a distribution map of the benthos in Walvis Bay lagoon (Figure 4.10). This distribution pattern was essentially confirmed by the COWI (2003) survey and the University of Namibia (UNam) survey (Tjipute and Skuuluka, 2006). The results of the UNam survey indicated a general decline in species density. However, the difference could be the result of natural population fluctuations or the time of the year when the surveys were conducted, namely, in summer by COWI and winter by UNam. Although some data are available on the population density of the various benthic species there is little or no information on their productivity. In other words information on the breeding cycles of these organisms is lacking. Some species may pass through a number of cycles within a year whereas others may breed annually or only when a particular set of conditions occurs. Besides transects surveyed by CSIR (1989 and 1992a), COWI and UNam surveyed a number of transects in the Second Lagoon and on Pelican Point immediately north of the saltworks intake structure. Only two of these sites yielded high densities of benthic organisms. Inspection of aerial photographs and Google Earth images suggests that only these sites are regularly tidally flooded.
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Sampling points Ampelisca dominated sub-community Ampelisca / Anthothoe spp sub-community Anthothoe / Diopatra spp sub - community Anthothoe / Diopatra spp sub - community No significant macrobenthos Ampelisca differentiates community from biota in lower reaches
Venerupis, Anthothoe, Diopatra and Nereid spp abundant in community
Figure 4.9 Distribution map of the benthos in Walvis Bay lagoon Source: CSIR (1992). 4.2.8.5 Fishes
No systematic surveys of the fish fauna of Walvis Bay and the lagoon appear to have been undertaken. Glasson and Branch (1997a) refer to the presence of the sand shark Rhinobatos annulatus in the lagoon which may compete with Greater Flamingos for benthic prey items. Mullet Liza richardsonii and Mugil cephalus enter the lagoon in large shoals often pursued by flocks of Great White Pelicans Pelecanus onocrotalus or Cape Cormorants Phalacrocorax capensis. Mullet are bottom feeders and thus also depend on the benthos as a food source. Other fish species reported as occurring in the lagoon include kabeljou Argyrosomus inodorus, west coast steenbras Lithognathus auretus and barbel Galeichthys feliceps.
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4.2.8.6
Birds
A unique and abundant birdlife is present in Walvis Bay as a consequence of high productivity of sea life and plankton, due to the nutrient-rich Benguela current. In the Lagoon wading birds, rather than seabirds, predominate. The salt pans support up to half of the birds in the Lagoon, where they like to feed in the shallow pans that have a steady artificial influx of particles and nutrient-rich water that fuels the benthic and pelagic food-chain. These pans, through their extensive land reclamation and physical barrier to changing tides, have changed the ecology of the Lagoon. The birds of Walvis Bay and its lagoon have been the subject of numerous reports and papers which have highlighted its significance to both Palaearctic migrant birds as well as those from southern Africa (Underhill and Whitelaw, 1977; Whitelaw et al., 1978; Hockey and Bosman, 1983; Williams, 1987, 1988, 1997; Simmons, 1997; Simmons et al., 2001). Despite these publications and the proclamation of Walvis Bay Lagoon as a Wetland of International Importance in terms of the Ramsar Convention, the area does not have a formal conservation status. Wearne and Underhill (2005) provide a comprehensive review of the importance of Walvis Bay and the Lagoon to waders and coastal birds in southern Africa based on the winter and summer counts undertaken between 1997 and 2005. A general pattern is evident, that is, numbers of Palaearctic migrants are highest in summer i.e. during the boreal winter whereas southern African species are most numerous in winter when the interior of southern Africa is dry. However, the numbers of these southern African species may remain high throughout the year whenever the interior undergoes a prolonged drought. During the period 1997-2005 reviewed by Wearne and Underhill (2005) counts of 25 species, eleven of which are waders, exceeded 1% of the East Atlantic Flyway population as estimated by Wetlands International (2002) (Table 4.2). Perhaps more importantly for 19 species the median counts exceeded the 1% threshold. Of the southern African birds the Chestnut-banded Plovers are arguably the most dependent on Walvis Bay: the median number in winter represents 50% of the estimated total population of the southern African subspecies (Table 4.2). The Chestnut-banded Plover, like the Greater and Lesser Flamingo, Black-necked Grebe and the Pied Avocet breed inland at the Etosha Pan, the Makgadikgadi Pans and associated wetland systems. They all use Walvis Bay as a dry season refuge and when the rains fail, or are inadequate for several years, they use it as a drought refuge. A consequence of this use of Walvis Bay as a drought refuge is that large populations of both Palaearctic migrants and southern African species may compete for food resources during the summer, with potential adverse effects on the ability of the Palaearctic migrants to build sufficient reserves for the flight to breeding grounds in the northern hemisphere. With respect to Palaearctic migrant waders, Walvis Bay is particularly important for Curlew Sandpipers and Sanderlings. It hosts 9% and 7% (summer medians) respectively of the flyway population of these two species Delany, et al., 2009). Walvis Bay is also important for Curlew Sandpipers in winter since most of the first-year birds do not migrate back to Siberia. The winter median counts of Curlew Sandpipers exceeds 1% of the flyway population. Juveniles of the African Black Oystercatcher Haematopus moquini spend 2-3 years in Walvis Bay which appears to serve as a nursery area for the species (Hockey et al., 2003). Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010 page 88
Table 4.2. Waterbird species for which maximum and median numbers at Walvis Bay exceed 1% of the East Atlantic Flyway population (the 1% thresholds) as defined in Wetlands International (2002). The percentages of the appropriate flyway populations are given. Values less than 1% are not shown. Source: Wearne and Underhill (2005) 1% threshold 150 200 120 2200 750 600 1750 55 230 190 2500 1900 180 110 1000 1200 10000 3300 700 300 4000 15 200 1700 6400 Summer maximum (%) 38.0 3.2 3.8 4.9 38.0 47.0 1.0 3.1 1.9 14.0 1.0 2.4 13.0 77.0 1.9 13.0 1.2 13.0 6.2 6.7 15.0 6.3 4.1 1.1 15.0 Summer median (%) 20.0 1.8 1.9 2.1 17.0 10.0 2.3 6.2 6.8 21.0 1.1 7.4 9.3 3.0 2.0 3.8 1.6 8.8 Winter maximum (%) 88.0 1.5 4.9 2.3 58.0 72.0 3.3 3.3 22.0 17.0 65.0 5.7 7.2 2.6 7.7 2.1 Winter median (%) 24.0 1.9 42.0 32.0 2.2 1.1 8.2 8.4 50.0 1.5 2.2 3.1 2.1 1.0
Species Black-necked Grebe Great White Pelican White-breasted Cormorant Cape Cormorant Greater Flamingo Lesser Flamingo Cape Teal African Black Oyster Catcher Black-winged Stilt Pied Avocet Grey Plover Ringed Plover White-fronted Plover Chestnut-banded Plover Ruddy Turnstone Sanderling Little Stint Curlew Sandpiper Kelp Gull Hartlaubs Gull Black Tern Caspian Tern Swift Tern Sandwich Tern Common Tern
Tye (1987) investigated the importance to waders, primarily Palaearctic migrants, of the wetlands along the East Atlantic Flyway. south of the Equator, Walvis Bay ranks as the most important coastal wetland for waders followed by Sandwich Harbour and in South Africa, Langebaan and the Berg River estuary. The density of waders occurring at Walvis Bay (50 waders/ha) is comparable with that at the far larger Banc dArguin in Mauretania (40 waders/ha) (Hagemeijer et al., 2004). It is possible, therefore, that Walvis Bay is close to its maximum carrying capacity and any further reduction in the extent of productivity of the intertidal area may have an adverse effect on both the Palaearctic and southern African birds using the system.
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4.2.8.7
Whales and Dolphins
Some 27 species of whales and dolphins are known to occur off the coast of Namibia (Findlay et al., 1992; Best, 2007). This total includes species which are only known to occur in offshore waters. Five cetacean species, three of baleen whales and two of dolphins, are of relevance to Walvis Bay. The humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae, and the southern right whale Eubalaena australis may be encountered within Walvis Bay itself, usually on the western side of the bay. The West African populations of both these species were heavily exploited during the whaling era. Since the moratorium on the hunting of these species their populations have begun to increase. In the case of the southern right whale this is most evident along the southern coast of South Africa, However, the numbers of this species are expected to start increasing along the Namibian coast as well. Southern right whales have been observed along the entire coast of Namibia but no calving has been observed north of the Luderitz area (Dr J-P Roux, MFMR, Luderitz, pers.comm.). The population of humpback whales is showing a similar recovery but has been slower than that of the southern right whale. This slower rate of recovery has been attributed to illegal hunting by the Russians after the introduction of the ban on hunting this species. A third species of baleen whale, the pygmy right whale Caperea marginata, is also found in Walvis Bay where a number of individuals have been stranded, apparently trapped by the falling tide. Walvis Bay appears to be a "hot spot" for the pygmy right whale, about which little is known (Dr J-P Roux, MFMR, Luderitz, pers. comm.). The two species of dolphin associated with Walvis Bay are the Benguela Current endemic Heaviside's dolphin Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, and a local population of the common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus. The latter species appears to have an isolated inshore population that ranges from Walvis Bay to Cape Cross (Best, 2007). At times the bottlenose dolphin enters Walvis Bay lagoon in pursuit of mullet, primarily the southern mullet Liza richardsonii but also the flathead mullet Mugil cephalus. There have been a number of strandings of pygmy sperm whales Kogia breviceps along the inshore side of Pelican Point (Findlay, et al. 1992; Dr A J Williams, independent consultant, pers. comm.). However the pygmy sperm whale is a deepwater species and thus is not of relevance to the Walvis Bay ecosystem.
4.2.9 Physical Environment

The complex nature of the sedimentary environment within present-day Walvis Bay is a result of both fluvial and marine deposition over the past 6 000 years. This has resulted in tongues of silt, aeolian and marine sand and diatomaceous material being interdigitated and in places rapping organic rich material with naturally high concentrations of heavy metals. Parts of the sea bottom in Walvis Bay consist of a thick dark green diatomaceous mud (ooze) over bottom sediments of fine to medium sand that has accumulated in sheltered parts of Walvis Bay at depths below about 3 - 4 m. This rich organic sediment has a high oxygen demand and is usually anoxic.
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The present configuration of Walvis Bay is illustrated in Figure 4.11. It is probable that the lagoon was formed when a sheltered water body was created by the northward advancing sand spit taht came to be known as Pelican Point. An interpretation of aerial photography indicates that Pelican Point is continuing to advance northwards along the -30 m MSL contour, at an annual rate of 17 m (CSIR, 1984). This process will continue unless the longshore sediment supply is reduced. An interruption in the supply of sediment could occur if the Sandwich Harbour embayment, which lies to the south of Walvis Bay, continues to remain open for an extended period. Shoreline erosion is presently occurring immediately to the north of Sandwich Harbour as a result of a sediment deficit (Ward, 1991) and the erosion is likely to continue until the embayment is closed off again by the breached sandspit. The refraction of waves around the point of the sandspit into Walvis Bay generates a southward longshore current (CSIR, 1984). This transports sediment, including material derived from floods and introduced into the bay via the northern arm of the Kuiseb delta, and has further contributed to the shallowing process in the low energy environment behind the sandspit. Up to about 80 years ago, sedimentation within the embayment between points A and B in Figure 4.11 below occurred as a result of a combination of the following processes: The influx of aeolian sediment off the sandspit due to the predominant south-westerly winds; The constant input of aeolian material derived from the southern delta of the Kuiseb; and The longshore deposition of fluvial sediment derived from occasional flooding via the northern arm of the Kuiseb delta.
Due to its shallowness and dynamic nature, the lagoons temperature and salinity differ in different parts and at different times. It is characterised by two main habitats, namely, extensive shallow, sandy shores that are regularly covered and exposed by tidal action, and the sub-tidal deeper (up to 5 m) waters of the southern harbour area. Coarse and medium sands are found near the mouth, with fine, muddy sediments at the central and southern end. The inter-tidal flats have increased, and sub-tidal areas have decreased, due to progressive siltation. This has affected population composition in different parts of the lagoon. No saltmarshes surround it. There is a relatively large degree of mixing of lagoon and bay water, and nutrients are imported from the Bay through tidal flux. No macroalgae or emergent macrophytes are found there; the largest biomasses are found in the central and northern third of the Lagoon. The inter-tidal flats are nearly devoid of zoobenthos and the sub-tidal part of the southern end of the Bay close to the intake (second Lagoon) is sparsely populated. It has no endangered or rare species of benthic and planktonic invertebrates.
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Figure 4.10 Present configuration of Walvis Bay, the lagoon and the Kuiseb delta. Source: CSIR (1992)
4.2.9.1 4.2.9.1.1
Sediment Regime in the lagoon Fluvial sediment inputs
The Kuiseb River has reached the sea only 15 times since 1837 (Stengel, 1964). These floods occurred in 1837, 1848, 1849, 1852, 1864, 1881, 1885, 1893, 1904, 1917, 1923, 1931, 1934, 1942 and 1963. The 1934 flood is noteworthy in that the river flowed via its northern arm through Walvis Bay town. A large amount of sediment could have been introduced into the lagoon system during this flood but this cannot be confirmed as there is no available air photography prior to 1934 on which to base an analysis. The construction of the diversion barrier at Rooibank resulted in the 1963 flood following the southern arm of the Kuiseb River delta. These floodwaters never reached the Atlantic Ocean directly and a large body of water formed in the Kuiseb delta behind the beach ridge south of the area now occupied 6 3 6 3 by the saltworks. The total volume of water damned up was 100 x 10 m and 16 x 10 m of sediment was deposited in the delta; the floodwaters did not flow into the lagoon itself. Unless a flood considerably larger than the flood of 1963 reaches the Kuiseb delta it is unlikely to add sediment directly into the lagoon. It is anticipated that, during the next major flood, the Kuiseb River will break out to sea over the beach ridge between the Kuiseb delta and the Atlantic Ocean and not into the bay
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via the lagoon. A secondary effect of flooding, however, is the large amount of fine sediment that can be transported into the lagoon from the Kuiseb delta by the south-westerly winds. 4.2.9.1.2 Aeolian sediment inputs
In a study conducted by the CSIR (1992a) estimates of the aeolian transport rates for sediment having the potential to enter the lagoon were made (Table 4.3). The saltworks to the south-east, south, south-west and west of the upper lagoon and Walvis Bay town to the east of the lower lagoon have effectively cut off any significant wind-blown sand supply from these areas. The only remaining area from which wind-blown sand can enter the lagoon includes the dunes to the east of the road to the saltworks south of Lovers Hill, and around Lovers Hill up to the vegetated shelter belt immediately south of the residential area. Along the eastern margin of the middle and upper reaches of the lagoon, only south-easterly, easterly 3 and north-easterly winds can move sand towards the lagoon; the potential rate of 41 m /m/year towards the north-west is the most significant. The volume of sand trapped by barrier fences erected on the undeveloped area located between Lovers Hill and the residential area is indicative of the 3 significant volume of sand blown from the dunes. This volume is probably in the order of 56 m /m/year (Table 4.3). Table 4.3 Potential annual aeolian sediment transport rate. Direction South bound South-west bound West bound North-west bound North bound North-east bound East bound South-east bound m /m/year 5 11 21 41 56 46 20 4
3
In the area east of the road to the saltworks and south of Lovers Hill, a system of culverts and nonreturn flap valves has been installed to ensure that the interdune slacks remain wetted by water entering during spring high tides (cf. Figure 4.13). This has effectively limited much of the influx of sand to the lagoon. However, sand blown from the exposed dune ridges separating the slacks or ponds will, in time, cause the surface level of the wetted area to rise. A level will be reached where the tidal penetration will be insufficient to provide an effective control and the potential aeolian sand supply to the lagoon will increase unless water is pumped into the ponds or the accumulated sand is removed from between the dunes. At the time of writing it appears that no maintenance of the culverts and flap valves has been undertaken, hence the effectiveness of the system has been compromised.
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4.2.9.1.3
Surface sediment distribution
The nature of the inter- and sub-tidal sediments plays a significant role in determining the character of the benthic fauna inhabiting it. The CSIR (1989) produced a series of maps showing the distribution of sediments within the lagoon. These show a gradient in sediment particle size from the finest in the upper reaches of the lagoon to the coarsest in the mouth. Using aerial photographs, CSIR (1989) identified significant changes to the lagoon shoreline configuration over the 37 year interval between 1943 and 1980 (Figure 4.12). The greatest change is the loss of intertidal flats along the eastern shores, finally culminating in the formalisation of the shoreline along the Esplanade. The eastern margin of the channel within the lagoon between the existing ski boat clubhouse and Lovers Hill, has moved between 40 m and 100 m towards the west; this may be attributed to aeolian sediment influx. The development of the suburb of Meersig and the formalisation of the shoreline in the form of the Esplanade has restricted aeolian sediment input to the lagoon south of Lovers Hill (Figure 4.13). Little significant spatial change in the flood and ebb deltas within the mouth region of the lagoon has occurred. The slight changes due to reworking of sediments are considered to be largely as a result of the formalisation of the eastern sandspit, the effect of harbour dredging and the creation of a western channel entrance to the lagoon. Development and dune stabilization have cut off the influx of aeolian sediment only to the lower reaches of the lagoon and not to the upper reaches, where sedimentation is still occurring.
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Figure 4.11a Lagoon mouth configuration 1943 Source: CSIR (1989) A large intertidal expanse between mobile barchan dunes south of the town.
Figure 4.11b Lagoon mouth configuration 1969 Source: CSIR (1989) Loss of intertidal area as eastern shoreline is formalized to become part of the harbor.
Figure 4.11c Lagoon mouth configuration 1980 Source: CSIR (1989) Dredged channel is west of the main channel. Eastern shore more formalized.
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Figure 4.12 Formalization of the eastern lagoon shoreline with urban development Source: Google Earth, 27 February 2005
4.2.10 Water quality

The water quality of the harbour changes seasonally as a result of organically polluted sea- and freshwater discharges from the fish processing industry. Water transparency declines from Pelican Point toward the Bay, into the harbour and further into the Lagoon. Measurements for suspended matter at Pelican Point is approximately 5 mg/l, and rises to 60 mg/l in the southern part of the Lagoon (COWI, 2003). Other data indicate a high variation on water turbidity. Effluent and waste discharges from the fish processing industry require oxygen for neutralisation, which diminishes oxygen levels in the water. This forces mobile fauna to migrate away, and is a cause of sessile and sediment-dwelling organism mortality. In these oxygen-poor conditions, microbial communities such as anaerobic sulphate-reducing species take over and cause more emissions of sulphide that contribute to sulphur eruptions. Average effluent is 1.7 times higher in chemical oxygen demand (COD) than the influent (COWI, 2003). Though it seems that measurements show the fishing processing industry contributes about 700 mg COD/l against a maximum discharge limit of 75 mg COD/l in the Water Act of 1956, caution Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010 page 96
should be exercised when interpreting these results. This is because there is a high level of uncertainty about correcting for chloride in seawater in the measuring of COD in marine water. Tributylin (TBT) is commonly used for antifouling in shipping industries; however, because of the toxicity of TBT the chemical is phased out in many countries. Concentrations have ranged from < 2.5 ng/l to 205 ng/l, with values exceeding guidelines around Berths 1 and 8 (COWI, 2003). The concentrations of metals in the sediment are generally of the same order of magnitude as the BCLME recommended guideline values. This compares favourably with sediment from other harbours around the world. Cadmium levels are elevated; its toxicity is inversely related to salinity, and in an anoxic environment like Walvis Bay, its potential impact is reduced. Its been found that cadmium is enriched in the surface waters of areas of upwelling, leading to elevated levels in plankton unconnected with human activity (Martin & Broenkow, 1975; Boyle et al., 1976). Oceanic sediments underlying these areas of high productivity can contain markedly elevated cadmium levels as a result of inputs associated with biological debris (Simpson, 1981). It is not surprising, therefore, that isolated sediment samples taken from drilled cores at specific points in the port basin in 2009 were found to have levels of cadmium that exceeded the BCLME guideline values and Prohibition Levels of the London Convention. Leachate or elutriation tests, where the sediment is shaken up in water, and the latter analysed for the metal were conducted. These gave values for cadmium that were below detection limits. It is evident, then, that the metal contaminants are bound in the sediments of Walvis Bay and not available to be mobilised into the water column. This means that, apart from increased turbidity in the water column, dredging will not affect water quality when bottom sediments are resuspended. The Lagoon sediment is high in organic matter, with a potential for higher levels of environmental contaminants. Chemicals like phthalic anhydride, phenol, methylphenols, and indole have been found in lagoon sediments, but the amounts are too low to have any environmental effect. None of the highly persistent, bioaccumulative or toxic substances normally of concern (e.g. TBT, PAHs or chlorinated substances) occur in the lagoon, and lead, mercury and cadmium levels are low.
4.2.11 Conservation
Until March 1994 Walvis Bay was an enclave of South African territory on the Namibian coast. This situation had its roots in the Scramble for Africa of the late Nineteenth Century. Under the South African administration Walvis Bay lagoon was a Provincial Nature reserve managed by the then Cape Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation. When sovereignty was transferred to Namibia in March 1994 the Walvis Bay and Offshore Islands Act of 1994 made no provision for the conservation status of the lagoon to be perpetuated. Thus, despite having been designated as a Wetland of International Importance in terms of the Ramsar Convention (Figure 4.14), the lagoon currently has no formal conservation status. It is planned, however, to accord the marine component Marine Protected Area (MPA) status and the terrestrial area outside of the Walvis Bay Municipal area will be incorporated into the cabinet-approved Namib Skeleton Coast National Park (R. Braby, NACOMA, pers. comm.). The Walvis Bay Ramsar Site is recognised as an Important Bird Area (NA013) by BirdLife International (Fishpool and Evans (eds), 2001; Simmons et al., 2001). The Important Bird Area (IBA) Programme of BirdLife International is a worldwide initiative aimed at identifying, documenting and protecting a network of rites critical for the conservation of the worlds birds.
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Figure 4.13 The Walvis Bay Ramsar site
4.2.12 Built Environment

4.2.12.1 Town The first European settlers established a small settlement on the shores of Walvis Bay lagoon in 1844 and by the 1880s a formal town layout was implemented (Silverman, 2004). Development of Walvis Bay was limited by the lack of freshwater. The incorporation of Rooibank into the Walvis Bay enclave in 1911 secured fresh water supplies for the town. Walvis Bay acquired municipal status in 1931. In terms of the present study the town had little direct impact on the lagoon until the proclamation of the suburb of Meersig along the eastern shores of the lagoon in 1971. The shoreline of the lagoon between the yacht club and Lovers Hill has been formalised into the Esplanade which has considerably reduced the intertidal area of the part of the lagoon (cf. Figure 4.13).
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4.2.12.2 Port The first wharf with a depth alongside of 3 m at low tide was built in 1898. Larger vessels had to use the anchorage in the bay approximately one nautical mile from the wharf. Between 1923 and 1926 the port facilities were extended, an approach channel dredged, and a new quay built. These improvements allowed ocean-going vessels to tie-up alongside. Over the years the quay has been extended to the present 1400 m in length. The fish factories with their jetties all lie to the north of the commercial port. It is important to note that since both the commercial quays and the fishing harbour are aligned approximately with the orientation of the original shoreline they have had little impact on the circulation patterns in the bay and the lagoon. 4.2.12.3 Saltworks (Information supplied by Mr R Stanton, Managing Director, Walvis Bay Salt Holdings (Pty) Ltd). The saltworks were established in 1964 and the evaporation ponds were filled with brine pumped from a number of boreholes in the vicinity. These original saltworks did not intrude onto the tidal flats. A major expansion took place in 1976/77 with an extensive area covered by three large and four smaller evaporation ponds (Figure 4.15, shaded blue). In addition five concentration ponds (Figure 4.15, shaded green) and ten crystallisers (Figure 4.15, shaded pink) were created. Pre-evaporation pond included some previously tidal areas. Oyster ponds were built in, and adjacent to, Preevaporation Pond #1 in 1989/90. Smaller additions e.g. additional crystallisers were built in the early 1990s. In 2000 a further major expansion was undertaken by constructing a further five pre-evaporation ponds between the western edge of the saltworks and the sea. Until 1995 Pre-evaporation Pond #1 was filled by opening flood gates on the embankment facing Second Lagoon. These gates were only really effective when the high tide was greater than 1.80 m or at a slightly lower level if there was a strong northerly wind blowing at high tide. The flood gates were replaced by the intake pump in order to improve efficiency and to have an accurate measure of the intake volumes. While the saltworks have undoubtedly resulted in a loss of intertidal area the pre-evaporation ponds have provided extensive habitat for many bird species: at times more than half the birds counted in the Walvis Bay Ramsar site have been in the saltworks.
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Figure 4.14 Walvis Bay saltworks Source: Walvis Bay Salt Holdings (Pty) Ltd
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4.2.13 Beneficial uses of the living natural environment

Ecosystem services is a term which is increasingly used to describe beneficial uses derived from the living natural environment. There are five main categories of ecosystem services provided by Walvis Bay and the Lagoon: Receptor for discharges from fish processing plants; Artisanal fishing; Conservation Eco-tourism; and Aquaculture (mariculture).
4.2.13.1 Fish factories The fish processing plants in Walvis Bay draw process water from the bay and also discharge effluent into it. However, because of the frequently anoxic status of the receiving waters, the discharge of high BOD waste has become problematic. While it is advantageous for these factories to discharge into the bay it is clear that the effluent is compounding the already oxygen-stressed condition of the bay, particularly along its eastern shore. 4.2.13.2 Artisanal fishing Artisanal scale beach purse-seine fishing takes place from the beaches immediately north of Walvis Bay town. The catch, mainly mullet, is intended mainly for own consumption but the surplus may be sold (Batty, et al., 2005). 4.2.13.3 Conservation Walvis Bay Lagoon, the saltworks and the southern part of the bay west of the lagoon, are the key components of the 9 000 km Ramsar site (Wetland of International Importance). It is important both as an over-wintering area for Palaearctic migrant wader species as well as for African species such as Greater and Lesser Flamingos, Great White Pelican and Chestnut-Banded Plovers. There are proposals to elevate the Ramsar site from a municipal nature reserve managed by the Walvis Bay Municipality to national status, perhaps as part of the Namib Skeleton Coast National Park 4.2.13.4 Ecotourism In recent years Walvis Bay and the Lagoon have become increasingly important for ecotourism. Boat tours to view seals, dolphins and whales, pelicans and the guano platform north of Walvis Bay have become increasingly popular. The esplanade along the eastern shore of the lagoon affords the opportunity to view flamingos, pelicans, waders and other coastal birds from close range. 4.2.13.5 Aquaculture As a matter of policy the Third National Development Plans sub-KRA of Sustainable Utilisation of Natural Resources - the Namibian government has been promoting aquaculture. At present the main interest is in farming oysters for local consumption and for export to South Africa. One oyster farm is located in the primary evaporation pond of the saltworks while others are in the designated marine
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farm area in the lee of Pelican Point. While the flesh quality and growth rate of the oysters has been high, the risk of losses as a result of sulphur eruption is also high. Major losses were experienced in 2008 with the result that both existing and new farmers are considering that Lderitz is a more suitable location for investment (B. Currie, MFMR, Swakopmund, pers. comm.).
4.2.14 Socio-economics of Walvis Bay

Walvis Bay is situated in the Erongo region. Social and economic trends in the Erongo region are presented first in this section, followed by a brief overview of Walvis Bay. 4.2.14.1.1 Demography of Erongo The Erongo Region is one of the most affluent regions in Namibia, with the second highest per capita income in Namibia of N$ 16 819 per annum. Only 0.4% of households in the Erongo Region spend more than 80% of their income on food while 5.3% of households spend 60 79% of their income on food. In comparison to this, 0.6% of households in the Khomas Region spend more than 80% of their income on food while 3% of households spend between 60 and 79% of their income on food, and in the Kunene Region, 11.2% of households spend more than 80% of income on food while 25.7% spend between 60 and 79% on food. Excluding the figures for Walvis Bay, the regional population grew from 55 470 to 79 722, at an annual rate of some 3.7%. If this is compared to the national growth rate of 2.6%, and a fertility rate that is lower than the national average, the high rate of population growth in the region should clearly be contributed to in-migration to the main coastal towns. The mining development in the Region resulted in an increased in-migration to the coastal towns. Its sex ratio is 115 males for every 100 females, and the average number of children per woman declined from 5.1 in 1991 to 3.2 in 2001. Average household size is 3.8, and the mortality index declined from 51 per 1000 live births in 1991 to 42 in 2001. Males head 65% of all households in the Erongo region. The literacy rate for 15 years and older is 92%, 7% more than the 85% recorded in 1991 and higher than the national average of 81%. Walvis Bay town is the most populous with 26% of the total regional population. About 20% of the population in the Erongo region were born in other regions; 65% of these are male, indicating the migration of mainly male workers from the other regions to the coast in search of employment. 4.2.14.1.2 Employment in Erongo The economy of the region is mainly based on natural resources and is slowly becoming more diversified due to expansion in the mining industry. The largest industry in the region is the fishing industry, mostly based at Walvis Bay, followed by the mining and exploration industry. The third biggest income generating activity of the Erongo Region is tourism. In 1998 three times as many foreign tourists visited the Erongo region than Namibians. Corresponding figures for 2008 are not yet available. Over a ten-year period to 2001, there was an increase in the proportion of the population inside the labour force who were unemployed, which suggests that not all migrants to the region succeed in finding gainful employment. The proportion of employed females is 58 % compared to 72% for males. Over this same period, though wages and salaries decreased by 6 %, business activities increased by Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010 page 102
5 %. This indicates that more people in the region are establishing their own businesses, with the economy slowly diversifying. 4.2.14.1.3 Access to Services in Erongo Access to safe water and proper sanitation are two indicators for development and poverty. From 1991 to 2001 there was no increase or decrease of access to safe drinking water. However, the Regional Poverty profile of the Erongo region for 2005 indicates that 3% of the population has to cover 1 km or more to get water. One out of 5 households in the rural areas relies on unsafe water for drinking and cooking. From 1991 to 2001, the proportion of the population that did not have access to toilet facilities increased by 11%, showing that access to proper sanitation in the Erongo region is decreasing instead of improving. The medical services in the Erongo region is provided by three state hospitals, two private hospitals and 6 health centres. In urban areas, 90% of households have their garbage regularly collected, while 1 out of 5 people in rural households dump their garbage at the roadside. 4.2.14.1.4 Settlement Patterns in Erongo About 80 % of the population in the Erongo region live in the urban areas. Only 20% of households live in improvised housing (shacks). Compared to other regions in the country, relatively little land has been acquired for resettlement purposes, mainly because the Erongo Region has an arid landscape which is not suitable for resettlement purposes. 4.2.14.1.5 Socio-economic overview of Walvis Bay The Port of Walvis Bay has a potential for considerable expansion; more than 70% of the industries in Walvis Bay are either directly or indirectly dependent on the fishing industry. The container terminal expansion is likely to diversify the industry base and have a positive impact on the development of Walvis Bay. Walvis Bay has about 15 operating fish processing industries. Potential negative impacts from dredging include spreading of pollutants to aquaculture farms, and clogged factory intakes if turbidity levels are high. Aquaculture is promoted in the Bay because of the benefits associated with the general high productivity of the upwelling Benguela current and protection from its high energy by the Pelican Point spit. Oyster farming is the most commercially successful. Aquapark was established in the Bay by MFMR as part of its objective to have a fully established aquaculture industry by 2030. The first phase of the Aquapark consists of 26 allotments, of which 25 are for aquaculture. The population of Walvis Bay was 60 000 in 2006, and it is expected to double within 11 to 12 years mainly through in-migration. Most people are employed by Namport, in the fishing industry and the processing of sea salt. Its population increases by up to 10 000 in the period March to August when workers come to Walvis Bay for jobs in the fishing industries. With cargo handling expected to increase after the expansion of the container terminal, this will most likely result in increased employment levels.
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4.2.15 Walvis Bay and sea level rise

The science of climate change is an arena of contestation, and the media has recently highlighted 4 procedural and data errors in this field . Changes to sea levels in recent decades are ten times what they were in the thousands of years leading up to our present time. Most studies predict that sea levels will rise less than one metre this century. An important research target for climate scientists is to improve their estimates of spatial variability (Milne, et al, 2009) and, with it, reduce uncertainties for decision making. An example of projections of sea level rise continually being refined is a recent reconstruction of sea level fluctuations in response to changing climate (Siddall, et al, 2009) that was th st withdrawn because the authors no longer have confidence in their projections for the 20 and 21 centuries (Siddall, et al, 2010). Governments are aware that such scientific projections of sea level rise are continually being refined, and their challenge is to decide how much risk, with its attendant costs, they are prepared to accept when making decisions at a particular time on behalf of the citizenry. An adaptive, risk-based approach will allow Government planning particularly at local authority level to account for risk as well as uncertainty. An assessment was done on the impact of continued sea level rise for 84 developing countries; it revealed that Sub-Saharan Africa shall be least impacted (Dasgupta, et al, 2007). Table 4.4 provides details of its findings for 6 impact elements in the region, and in Table 4.5 a comparison of how Namibia, Angola and South Africa are ranked, from most-affected to least affected. Table 4.4 Impacts of sea level rise (SLR) on Sub-Saharan Africa (Dasgupta, et al, 2007:23) 1 m SLR 0.12 0.45 0.23 0.39 0.04 1.11 2 m SLR 0.17 0.79 0.45 0.68 0.08 1.68 3 m SLR 0.26 0.93 0.74 1.16 0.16 2.56 4 m SLR 0.37 1.83 1.13 1.69 0.27 3.61 5 m SLR 0.48 2.38 1.42 2.24 0.38 4.70
% total area % total population % total GDP % total urban extent % total agricultural extent % total wetlands area
Climate change emails between scientists reveal flaws in peer review, The Guardian, 2 February 2010.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/feb/02/hacked-climate-emails-flaws-peer-review
New errors in IPCC climate change report, The Telegraph, 6 February 2010.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/climatechange/7177230/New-errors-in-IPCC-climate-change-report.html
Climate wars damage the scientists but we all stand to lose in the battle, The Guardian, 23 February 2010.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/cif-green/2010/feb/23/climate-scepticism-hacked-emails
World may not be warming, say scientists. Sunday Times, 14 February 2010.
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article7026317.ece
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Table 4.5 Country ranking of impacts of sea level rise, from most-affected to least affected, for Namibia and its coastal neighbours. Total number of countries: 29 (Dasgupta, et al, 2007:23-27) Namibia 22 16 27 22 26 26 Angola 23 19 13 16 17 22 South Africa 24 27 24 27 23 18
% total area % total population % total GDP % total urban extent % total agricultural extent % total wetlands area
Namibias water sector is most vulnerable to global change, followed by agricultural productivity and marine fisheries (MET, 2002). Changes in rainfall and temperature will significantly affect biodiversity and ecosystems; there would be an impact marine biodiversity if there are changes in the Benguela Current large marine ecosystem. Impact on human health is a secondary effect of these changes. Sea level is projected to rise by 30 to 100 cm by the year 2100, relative to the 1990 level (MET, 2002). The rate is projected to be relatively steady, accelerating slightly over time, with storm surges as the main source of damage to coastal infrastructure. The most vulnerable towns to sea level rise in Namibia are Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay. Walvis Bay is located between 1 and 3 m above sea level, and a sea level rise of 0.3 m will flood significant parts of the town. With a 1 m rise, most of the town would be inundated during high tide. Inundation is predicted to be greater during storms (Met, 2002). This will pose a problem for the maintenance of all underground services in the town, namely, water, sewerage and electricity - the Town Engineer would probably have to consult tide tables before digging up the road to access these services. For its water, the town relies on coastal aquifers that are already susceptible to seawater intrusion. Such intrusion would be further exacerbated by sea level rise. On the other hand, more regular tidal flooding of the southern flats in the Lagoon will benefit the ecosystem, particularly in terms of increased foraging area for birds and fishes. Sea level rise cannot be separated as an issue for the container terminal only; it has the potential to affect the whole of Walvis Bay. The following are current predictions of changes for Walvis Bay (Nambahu, 2009): Permanent breach of the Pelican Point sandspit; Contamination of the freshwater wells in the Kuiseb River; The harbour and its transport services continually rebuilt on higher ground or forced to curtail operations; Portions of the town relocating or retreating further back, instead of coastal defence options; Businesses and organizations forced to stop operations; Significant monetary impact, of the order of N$26b (20,000+ properties); Loss of municipal infrastructure such as road, water and sewer, electrical, community facilities.
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Figure 4.15 Areas in Walvis Bay affected by sea level rise of 1 m (black line) Source: Nambahu (2009)
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Namport Walvis Bay EIA 2010-Chap4

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Namport Walvis Bay EIA 2010-Chap4

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NAMPORT TENDER 674/ 2008 and EIA Study for Strategic Expansion of the Walvis Bay Container Terminal

4 Description Of The Affected Environment

Location of proposed project

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.3 Rainfall and evaporation

4.2.4 Surface Wind

Direction from which the wind blows

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.7 Physical Oceanography

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Level in m +1.97 +1.69 +1.29 +0.98 +0.966 +0.67 +0.27 0.00

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.8 Biotic Environment

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Venerupis, Anthothoe, Diopatra and Nereid spp abundant in community

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Whales and Dolphins

4.2.9 Physical Environment

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Sediment Regime in the lagoon Fluvial sediment inputs

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Surface sediment distribution

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.10 Water quality

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Figure 4.13 The Walvis Bay Ramsar site

4.2.12 Built Environment

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.13 Beneficial uses of the living natural environment

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.14 Socio-economics of Walvis Bay

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

4.2.15 Walvis Bay and sea level rise

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

Final Environmental Impact Report January 2010

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