1

WkI1ING AND kLSLN1ING

SCILN1IIIC ALkS AND 1LCnNICAL kLCk1S


A MAnuAL lC8 AC8lCuL1u8AL SClLn1lS1S
Anu 1LCPnCLCClS1S


by

A uCnCvAn

9 Woodslde vlllage
norLon Way
8CnuL8CSCP 7700
SouLh Afrlca
Lony[sybaweb.co.za
SepLember 2011


2
CCN1LN1S

page
8LlACL ......................................................................................................................... 2
ln18CuuC1lCn - CCMMunlCA1lCn ............................................................................ 3

Ak1 1 - WkI1ING ......................................................................................................... 4
1he purposes of wrlLlng ........................................................................................ 4
CharacLerlsLlcs of sclenLlflc and Lechnlcal wrlLlng ................................................ 3
reparlng and plannlng a reporL or paper ............................................................ 6
WrlLlng Lhe flrsL drafL ............................................................................................ 7
1he sLrucLure and conLenLs of papers and reporLs .............................................. 8
8evlslon Lo produce Lhe second drafL .................................................................. 10
roduclng Lhe flnal drafL ....................................................................................... 11
Submlsslon of copy ............................................................................................... 11
WhaL edlLors wanL ................................................................................................ 12
SemanLlcs - Lhe meanlng and use of words ......................................................... 13
SynLax - Lhe formaLlon of senLences .................................................................... 13
ComposlLlon - bulldlng a Lheme .......................................................................... 16
uncLuaLlon .......................................................................................................... 18
AbbrevlaLlons ........................................................................................................ 20
names ................................................................................................................... 21
numbers ............................................................................................................... 21
1ables and flgures ................................................................................................. 21

Ak1 2 - kLSLN1ING ................................................................................................... 23
1he resenLaLlon lan .......................................................................................... 23
vlsual alds ............................................................................................................. 23
reparlng Lhe presenLaLlon .................................................................................. 23
resenLlng Lhe paper ............................................................................................ 26
1he owerolnL presenLaLlon of 20 slldes ........................................................... 28



kLIACL

1hls manual has grown ouL of semlnars presenLed Lo groups of agrlculLural sclenLlsLs and
LechnologlsLs who are requlred Lo wrlLe and presenL reporLs and Lo offer papers as a normal
parL of Lhelr duLles. 1he success of Lhe semlnars encouraged me Lo offer Lhem as a manual,
wlLh Lhe ob[ecLlve of helplng sclenLlsLs and LechnologlsLs lmprove Lhe cruclally lmporLanL
wrlLLen and verbal communlcaLlon of Lhelr work. 1he conLrlbuLlon made by AllsLalr uonovan
ls graLefully acknowledged.

8elng a manual, a laconlc sLyle of wrlLlng ls used because lL ls consldered mosL sulLable for
communlcaLlng sclenLlflc and Lechnlcal lnformaLlon.

3
IN1kCDUC1ICN - CCMMUNICA1ICN

ffective reseorch ond techno/oqy ore os much dependent on qood communicotion os they
ore on qood scientific or technico/ ski//s.

CommunlcaLlon skllls are needed Lo ensure LhaL a reader or llsLener recelves clearly and
undersLands unamblguously Lhe message or menLal lmpresslon LhaL Lhe wrlLer or speaker
wlshes Lo convey.

CommunlcaLlon conslsLs of Lwo ptocesses:
converLlng LhoughL lnLo words by a wrlLer or speaker,
converLlng words lnLo undersLandlng by a reader or llsLener,
uslng Lwo actloos:
sendlng a message by a wrlLer or speaker,
recelvlng Lhe message by a reader or llsLener,
Lhrough Lwo cboooels:
speaklng-llsLenlng,
wrlLlng-readlng.

1hese ptocesses, octloos and cboooels of communlcaLlon can be represenLed dlagram-
maLlcally as follows:




1x = wrlLer/speaker 8x = reader/llsLener


4
'nolse' ls any exLraneous sound LhaL dlsLurbs or dlsrupLs communlcaLlon ln elLher of lLs Lwo
channels and serlously reduces lLs effecLlveness. 1he arrlval of laLe-comers aL a meeLlng, Lhe
rlnglng of moblle phones, Lhe nolse of alr-condlLloners, background muslc, lnLerrupLlon by
messengers, are all 'nolses'. All Lypes of nolse should be prevenLed before Lhe presenLaLlon
of a paper or lecLure sLarLs.

1he wtltloq-teoJloq channel ls usually Lhe more lmporLanL communlcaLlon channel for
sclenLlsLs and LechnologlsLs who are requlred Lo record and communlcaLe Lhelr work ln
wrlLlng. Powever, good speaklng skllls are also lmporLanL for Lhem because Lhelr wrlLLen
work musL ofLen be presenLed effecLlvely ln speech form aL conferences, semlnars and
LuLorlals.

1he mosL lmporLanL reason for sclenLlsLs and LechnologlsLs Lo develop Lhelr communlcaLlon
skllls ls because Lhey are under an obllgaLlon Lo wrlLe and speak, noL only so LhaL Lhey are
undersLood buL, whaL ls more lmporLanL, so Lhey are noL mlsooJetstooJ.


Ak1 1 - WkI1ING

WrlLlng ls probably Lhe mosL underraLed and, afLer managemenL, Lhe leasL developed sklll
requlred by sclenLlsLs and LechnologlsLs. AlLhough modern communlcaLlon alds and
meLhods such as Lhe lnLerneL, personal compuLers, e-malllng and 'sms-lng' have faclllLaLed
Lhe sendlng and recelvlng of communlcaLlons, Lhelr 'language' and Lhelr brevlLy have
dlscouraged, and lndeed adversely affecLed, Lhe developmenL of good wrlLlng skllls.

lour toles for beLLer wrlLlng are:
(l) know Lhe sub[ecL maLLer before sLarLlng.
(ll) Arrange Lhe maLerlal loglcally.
(lll) use approprlaLe language.
(lv) WrlLe clearly and conclsely.

lour steps Lo beLLer wrlLlng are:
(l) 8ead good prose and llsLen Lo good Lngllsh.
(ll) racLlce Lhe arL of wrlLlng.
(lll) AccepL edlLors' crlLlclsms.
(lv) racLlce flndlng faulL ln Lhe wrlLlng of oLhers.

1PL u8CSLS Cl W8l1lnC
lor personal use:
Lo ald memory, eg dlary and llsLs,
Lo record observaLlons and resulLs, eg fleld noLes,
Lo lmprove plannlng and organlsaLlon, eg schedules and drafLs,
Lo lmprove creaLlvlLy and Lhlnklng, eg noLes on ldeas and concepLs.

3
lor wrlLLen communlcaLlon wlLh oLhers:

Letters whlch should be ptompt and cootteoos for offlclal purposes, or ftleoJly lf personal.
D|rect|ves for conveylng orders should be ln Lhe lmpetotlve, otJeteJ and ooomblqooos.
Memoranda are remlnders and should Lherefore be soccloct and lmpetsoool.
Art|c|es are exerclses ln publlc relaLlons or for conveylng non-Lechnlcal lnformaLlon. 1hey
should be slmple (conveylng a slngle or very few concepLs) and preferably wlLh plcLures, as
are found ln Lrade [ournals.
Advert|sements are wrlLLen Lo persuade and are usually characLerlsed by exoqqetotloo,
tepetltloo and seosotloo. Many examples are found ln newspapers and magazlnes.

Powever, Lhls manual ls parLlcularly concerned wlLh Lhe wrlLlng of Lwo klnds of
communlcaLlon: Lechnlcal reporLs and sclenLlflc papers.

1echn|ca| reports

1he wrlLlng of Lechnlcal reporLs ls an lmporLanL sLaff funcLlon ln Lechnlcal and sclenLlflc
organlsaLlons and lnsLlLuLes. 1echnlcal reporLs are wrlLLen for speclal purposes, accordlng Lo
house rules, for permanenL ln-house record and are noL usually publlshed. 1hey should be
occotote, cleot, cooclse, otJeteJ and styllseJ.

Sc|ent|f|c and techn|ca| papers

1he wrlLlng of sclenLlflc and Lechnlcal papers ls a very lmporLanL sLaff funcLlon for sclenLlsLs,
englneers and LechnologlsLs. 1hese papers are essenLlally records of observaLlons, LesLs,
experlmenLal resulLs, research or hypoLheses wrlLLen for publlcaLlon and for presenLaLlon aL
meeLlngs and conferences. 1hey should noL express unsubsLanLlaLed oplnlon and should,
llke Lechnlcal reporLs, be occotote, cleot, cooclse, otJeteJ and ofLen styllseJ.

CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl SClLn1lllC Anu 1LCPnlCAL W8l1lnC

SclenLlflc and Lechnlcal (S&1) wrlLlng ls ofLen abouL new ldeas and meLhods or proposals for
change ln esLabllshed paradlgms. eople are usually scepLlcal abouL new ldeas and generally
reslsL change, Lherefore S&1 wrlLlng needs Lo be coovlocloq wlLhouL belng vulgarly
persuaslve ('pushy').

SclenLlflc and Lechnlcal wrlLlng should, Lherefore, be characLerlsed by:

Accuracy. A reporL or paper should reflecL whaL ls called sclenLlflc meLhod, whlch ls cotefol
obsetvotloo ooJ pteclse meosotemeot followeJ by oobloseJ ossessmeot ooJ occotote
tecotJloq.

C|ar|ty. Clear undersLandlng by 8x (Lhe reader or llsLener) requlres clear Lhlnklng and clear
wrlLlng by 1x (Lhe wrlLer or speaker), whlch requlres ovolJloq omblqolty ooJ voqoeoess.


6
Cb[ect|v|ty. 1hls means Jlstloqolsbloq betweeo focts ooJ ossomptloos, lJeotlfyloq sootces,
ossessloq ettots and loJlcotloq llmltotloos ooJ Jlffeteoces fot slqolflcooce buL wlLhouL
underraLlng.

Crdered. 1hls means pteseotloq lofotmotloo ooJ coocepts lo loqlcol otJet, usually buL noL
necessarlly always ln Lhe order of occurrence or lmporLance.

S|mp||c|ty. AvolJloq jotqoo, tepetltloo, vetboslty, elobototloo ooJ pomposlty.


8LA8lnC Anu LAnnlnC A 8LC81 C8 AL8

1horough preparaLlon and careful plannlng are Lhe key Lo a successful, easlly wrlLLen and
easlly read reporL or paper. A well prepared plan also reduces Lhe rlsk of omlsslon or
excesslve lengLh and lmproves Lhe balance of Lhe paper.

SLeps ln Lhe preparaLlon and plannlng of a reporL or paper should be Laken ln Lhe followlng
order:

Step 1. know Lhe sub[ecL. 1hls lmplles Lhorough prellmlnary research of Lhe sub[ecL of Lhe
paper or reporL. 1hls ls especlally lmporLanL when papers are Lo be refereed before
accepLance for publlcaLlon or when reporLs are Lo lnform senlor managemenL.

Step 2. lollow lmpllclLly Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors'. ln Lhe case of sclenLlflc papers for
publlcaLlon Lhe relevanL [ournal usually has speclflc lnsLrucLlons lL requlres auLhors Lo
follow. ln Lhe case of ln-house reporLs, companles usually have Lhelr own rules on Lhe
sLrucLure and conLenL of Lhelr publlcaLlons.

Step 3. urafL a ComposlLlon CuLllne. 1hls ls a skeleLon of Lhe paper or reporL conslsLlng of a
llsL of Lhe headlngs, secLlons or paragraphs. Some of Lhese, and parLlcularly Lhe lengLh of Lhe
paper or reporL, are usually speclfled ln Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors'. 1he composlLlon
ouLllne should be used Lo allocaLe Lhe approxlmaLe lengLh, ln number of words or pages, Lo
each secLlon. 1hls wlll avold laLer Ledlous edlLlng and rewrlLlng Lo achleve Lhe paper's
requlred lengLh. An example of a shorLened composlLlon ouLllne ls shown ln Lhe box below.

Compos|t|on Cut||ne for a paper of 4 000 words (8 pages)

Words ages
1lLle, AuLhor(s), AbsLracL and keywords ................................. 200 0.4
lnLroducLlon............................................................................. 300 0.6
MeLhods, MaLerlals and rocedures ....................................... 1 000 2.0
8esulLs ..................................................................................... 1 000 2.0
ulscusslon ................................................................................ 600 1.2
Concluslons and 8ecommendaLlons ....................................... 300 0.6
Summary ................................................................................. 300 0.6
AcknowledgemenLs, 8eferences and Appendlces .................. 300 0.6

7
Step 4. ueflne Lhe purpose and scope of Lhe reporL or paper by drafLlng a LlLle and an
absLracL, and by chooslng Lhe keywords for Lhe reporL or paper. urafLlng Lhe absLracL and
chooslng Lhe keywords before wrlLlng ls a good LesL of Lhe auLhor's knowledge of Lhe
sub[ecL maLLer, as requlred ln SLep 1 above.

Step S. CollecL and collaLe all relevanL lnformaLlon requlred for Lhe paper or reporL. Pavlng
daLa and references aL hand before sLarLlng Lo wrlLe saves Llme, avolds lnLerrupLlng Lhe
LhoughL processes Lo look for lnformaLlon and makes composlLlon easler.

W8l1lnC 1PL ll8S1 u8Al1

AuLhorshlp of papers and Lechnlcal reporLs should be resLrlcLed Lo Lhose who make a
cooceptool conLrlbuLlon (see Lhe secLlon on AcknowledgemenLs).

Gu|de||nes for the task of wr|t|ng

lf posslble, wrlLe Lhe flrsL drafL aL one sesslon (eg ln one weekend).
8reak up all wrlLlng 'slLLlngs' lnLo spells of beLween one and Lwo hours wlLh exerclse or
menLal lelsure breaks of flve Lo Len mlnuLes.
uo noL allow 'slLLlngs' Lo be lnLerrupLed, eg by maklng or Laklng phone calls. use a
reLreaL away from Lhe phone and oLher dlsLracLlons.
uo noL revlse lndlvldual paragraphs or senLences nor check spelllng or lmprove words
and phrases durlng Lhe wrlLlng of Lhe flrsL drafL. 1hese lnLerrupLlons spoll Lhe flow of
lnsplraLlon. 8evlslon for Lhese purposes should be done laLer as a separaLe exerclse.
Adhere sLrlcLly Lo Lhe composlLlon ouLllne, parLlcularly ln Lerms of Loplc and concepL.
LengLh ls noL crlLlcally lmporLanL for Lhe flrsL drafL.
Whlle acLually wrlLlng, have a reader ln mlnd, posslbly a colleague.
1he lnLroducLlon ls dlfflculL Lo wrlLe - leave lL Lo lasL.
SLarL each chapLer or secLlon by comlng Lo Lhe polnL lmmedlaLely by sLaLlng a facL,
hypoLhesls or problem, and Lhen elaboraLe on Lhe Lheme.
1he flrsL and lasL few words, senLences or paragraphs are ofLen Lhe only parLs read, Lhey
should, Lherefore, be Lhe mosL meanlngful.
Lnd each paragraph, secLlon or chapLer by connecLlng lL loglcally Lo Lhe nexL. 1hls
malnLalns Lhe flow and relevance of Lhe Lheme or hypoLhesls.

1he ma|n reasons for poor|y wr|tten reports and papers

noL knowlng Lhe sub[ecL well enough.
noL regardlng wrlLlng as an lmporLanL Lask.
lnadequaLe plannlng of Lhe paper or reporL.
noL allowlng enough Llme for Lhe Lask.
Careless cholce of words.
Lack of pracLlce.
ulsLracLlons and lnLerrupLlons.


8
1he resu|ts of poor wr|t|ng

lmporLanL work may be lgnored because Lhe wrlLlng ls poor.
laulLy concluslons may be drawn from a reporL conLalnlng mlsLakes and lnadequacles ln
elLher Lhe research, or ln Lhe wrlLlng, and Lhese could be quoLed ln good falLh.
A poorly wrlLLen reporL or paper may be re[ecLed and Lhls means Lhe auLhor and Lhose who
have asslsLed hlm have wasLed Lhelr Llme.


1PL S18uC1u8L Anu CCn1Ln1 Cl AL8S Anu 8LC81S

1|t|e. 1he LlLle should be as shorL as posslble buL musL clearly lndlcaLe Lhe sub[ecL of Lhe
paper or reporL. ln formal papers and reporLs Lhe LlLle usually appears on a separaLe LlLle
page whlch should also lndlcaLe Lhe ofLen omlLLed daLe of lssue or publlcaLlon.

Authors. 1he names of Lhe auLhors are glven ln full ln more formal papers, especlally Lheses,
on a separaLe LlLle page and someLlmes also on Lhe cover. 1he AuLhors' deslgnaLlons are
seldom lndlcaLed Lhese days and usually only lf called for ln Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors'. ln
less formal reporLs and papers, deslgnaLlons are also noL commonly used and auLhors
names ofLen appear only on Lhe flrsL page of Lhe paper or reporL.

reface. A preface ls seldom necessary, parLlcularly for Lechnlcal reporLs.

keywords. Slx Lo (a maxlmum of) elghL words LhaL besL ldenLlfy Lhe conLenLs
of Lhe paper or reporL.

Abstract. An absLracL ls usually requlred only for papers Lo be publlshed ln a sclenLlflc or
Lechnlcal [ournal, lLs lengLh and locaLlon ls usually deflned ln Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons for AuLhors'
and usually follows Lhe auLhors' names.

Summary. A summary ls requlred for all buL Lhe shorLesL or very lnformal reporLs.
Summarles used Lo be aL Lhe end of a paper (and may sLlll be requlred Lhere) buL Lhe
modern Lrend ls Lo call Lhe summary Lhe 'LxecuLlve Summary' and have lL elLher lnsLead of
an absLracL or followlng lL. 8ecause Lhe summary ls ofLen Lhe only parL of a reporL read, hlgh
prlorlLy should be glven Lo wrlLlng lL. A summary should:

be brlef, noL more Lhan 10 of Lhe lengLh of Lhe paper lLself.
be wrlLLen afLer Lhe reporL has been compleLed and ln plaln language, le noL ln [argon or
'shorLhand'.
cover Lhe same ground and ln Lhe same order as Lhe reporL lLself.
noL conLaln any maLerlal noL menLloned ln Lhe paper or reporL.

1ab|e of Contents. A Lable of conLenLs ls requlred for longer reporLs and papers whlch have
a number of chapLers, secLlons and headlngs.


9
Introduct|on. An lnLroducLlon should lndlcaLe Lhe purpose or Lhe moLlvaLlon for wrlLlng Lhe
paper or reporL. lL should also glve Lhe auLhorlLy, Lerms of reference or cllenL's
requlremenLs lf lL ls a commlsslon. 1he lnLroducLlon should also lnclude:

a brlef descrlpLlon of Lhe reasons, or sequence of evenLs, leadlng Lo Lhe problem or
lnvesLlgaLlon. Cnly sufflclenL hlsLorlcal deLall should be lncluded Lo ensure LhaL readers
can undersLand Lhe resL of Lhe reporL.
a descrlpLlon, or ouLllne, of how Lhe sub[ecL of Lhe reporL wlll be developed.

Method and rocedures. ln longer reporLs, especlally Lhose of an lnvesLlgaLlve klnd, lL ls
usually necessary Lo descrlbe Lhe meLhods of lnvesLlgaLlon, Lhe procedures used and
someLlmes also Lhe lLlnerarles and purposes of [ourneys made ln carrylng ouL Lhe research
or complllng Lhe reporL.

kesu|ts and I|nd|ngs. 1hese should be descrlbed ln loglcal (noL necessarlly, Lhough usually,
ln chronologlcal) order and balanced. ln longer reporLs sub-headlngs may be necessary. lL ls
lmporLanL noL Lo lnclude resulLs or flndlngs ouLslde Lhe Lerms of reference of Lhe
lnvesLlgaLlon or sLudy excepL perhaps for comparaLlve purposes.

Conc|us|ons. Concluslons are Lhe lnferences drawn from Lhe resulLs and flndlngs. 1hey musL
be glven as deflnlLe, unquallfled sLaLemenLs even lf Lhey were sLaLed ln earller secLlons. no
descrlpLlve maLerlal should be glven ln Lhls secLlon.

kecommendat|ons. lL ls common pracLlce and usually preferable Lo lnclude
recommendaLlons ln Lhe Concluslons secLlon, buL ln some reporLs lL may be necessary for
pollcy or dlplomaLlc reasons, Lo have Lhem ln separaLe secLlons. 1hey should be made as
deflnlLe, unquallfled sLaLemenLs.

Summary. ln very long papers and reporLs, such as Lheses, a summary ls usually requlred
and should be locaLed ln Lhls poslLlon (buL see Lhe earller paragraph above on Lhls sub[ecL).

Acknow|edgements. ersons or organlsaLlons who asslsLed Lhe auLhors wlLh Lhe reporL
cooceptoolly should be acknowledged ln Lhls secLlon. 1here ls a modern Lendency Lo lnclude
ln Lhls secLlon all Lhe names of Lhose whose asslsLance was ln Lerms only of physlcal lnpuL,
eg asslsLanLs who may have rendered lnvaluable help by managlng Lrlals or daLa collecLlon
buL who made no concepLual conLrlbuLlon. 1hls pracLlce should be avolded or kepL Lo a
mlnlmum.

keferences. CLher publlshed work quoLed or used ln wrlLlng Lhe reporL or paper musL be
llsLed ln Lhe 8eferences secLlon. 1he form and sLyle ln whlch Lhey are presenLed ls usually
deflned ln Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors' of Lhe parLlcular [ournal and Lhese should be
followed sLrlcLly. lf no such lnsLrucLlons are avallable lL ls lmporLanL Lo consulL a llsL of
abbrevlaLlons used ln sclenLlflc wrlLlng. 1he modern Lendency ls Lo omlL full sLops.



10
Lxamples of references:

1hompson Cu (1980). 1he economlcs of sugarcane ferLlllzaLlon. lett 5oc 5 Aft I 2: 47-33.
kealey 1 (1996). 1be cooomlc lows of 5cleotlflc keseotcb. Macmlllan ress LLd.
Slngels A, SmlL MA, 8edshaw kA and uonalsdon SA (2003). 1he effecL of crop sLarL daLe,
crop class and culLlvar on sugarcane canopy developmenL and radlaLlon lnLercepLlon. llelJ
ctops keseotcb 92: 249-260.

When a person's verbal sLaLemenL or oplnlon ls quoLed, or when one refers Lo unpubllshed
daLa, Lhls should be acknowledged ln Lhe LexL and as a fooLnoLe, eg (personal
communlcaLlon
1
) or (unpubllshed daLa
2
) and should noL be shown ln Lhe references secLlon.

8|b||ography. Longer reporLs, especlally Lheses and books, someLlmes lnclude a
blbllography. 1hls ls a llsL of source maLerlal used ln Lhe wrlLlng of Lhe reporL or book, or
maLerlal LhaL ls recommended for wldenlng sLudenLs' or readers' lnLeresL ln Lhe sub[ecL.

Append|ces. ueLalled lnformaLlon and daLa LhaL would lnLerrupL Lhe flow of a paper's
narraLlve buL whlch musL be presenLed Lo supporL Lhe flndlngs or concluslons reached,
should be placed ln an appendlx. lf Lhere ls more Lhan one, each appendlx should have a
number and be llsLed numerlcally ln Lhe Lable of conLenLs, eg Appendlx 1. ArLhropod specles
found ln lleld 24, Appendlx 2. uaLes of sampllng ln lleld 24.

8LvlSlCn 1C 8CuuCL 1PL SLCCnu u8Al1

8evlslng ls an essenLlal parL of good wrlLlng and can Lake as much Llme as wrlLlng. lL ls noL
enough Lo read Lhrough Lhe flrsL dafL, maklng Lhe necessary correcLlons and lmprovemenLs,
revlslon ls besL done by carrylng ouL Lhe followlng four revlslon sLeps separaLely and ln Lhls
order:

Check Lo ensure Lhe conLenL and order comply wlLh Lhe planned composlLlon ouLllne of
Lhe paper.
use Lhe C Spell-check, or preferably Lechnlcal and sclenLlflc dlcLlonarles, Lo check
spelllng, especlally of unfamlllar words.
lmprove your use of words and phrases uslng Lhe Lhesaurus.
Ad[usL Lhe lengLh Lo comply wlLh Lhe composlLlon ouLllne and 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors'.
(noLe: 1o faclllLaLe Lhls Lask mosL Cs provlde a 'number-of-words' funcLlon.) apers
offered for publlcaLlon LhaL exceed Lhe speclfled lengLh can resulL ln Lhe paper belng
re[ecLed or shorLened by Lhe edlLors.
An alLernaLlve Lo drasLlc shorLenlng ls Lo offer Lhe paper ln Lwo parLs, each complylng ln
Lerms of lengLh. Powever, Lhls needs Lhe prlor approval of Lhe publlshers.

1
A Singels, SA Sugarcane Research Institute, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa, 2011,
abraham.singels@sugar.org.za
2
B Jones, Borer numbers on Estate No. 1, Internal Report No. AAA, Fictitious Sugar Co, Physical address if
necessary, 2010, brian.jones@whatever.com

11
8CuuClnC 1PL llnAL u8Al1

Check all formaLs for compllance wlLh 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors', especlally llne and
margln spaclng, page numberlng poslLlon, headlngs and locaLlon for Lables and flgures,
and sLyle for references.
8ead Lhrough Lhe whole paper aloud Lo yourself, or preferably Lo a colleague, Lo ensure
balance and euphony.
Ask a colleague Lo read and crlLlclse Lhe second drafL and lncorporaLe hls/her accepLable
correcLlons, changes and lmprovemenLs.

llnally, check Lhe followlng:

age marglns should be conslsLenL LhroughouL.
no 'sLyles' should be asslgned Lo LexL or headlngs, as Lhese can lnLerfere wlLh Lhe
publlsher's meLhod of layouL. 1hls would lnclude space above/below paragraphs,
lefL/rlghL lndenLaLlons and llne spaclng.
ages should be numbered correcLly and ln Lhe rlghL order.
1ables and flgures musL be correcLly numbered and annoLaLed, and locaLed ln Lhe rlghL
places ln Lhe LexL, or, where requlred, on separaLe sheeLs.
1lLles, headlngs and capLlons musL be clear and undersLandable wlLhouL needlng
reference Lo Lhe LexL.
1he use of brackeLs ( ) [ ] should be conslsLenL LhroughouL Lhe LexL.
1here should be no unnecessary caplLallsaLlon.
1he use of lLallcs for emphasls should noL be overdone.
'lfs' and 'buLs' do noL look good ln sclenLlflc papers where preclse flndlngs are reporLed,
and 'probably' and 'maybe' should noL be used.
Lnsure LhaL Lhe references are clLed accuraLely (check orlglnals ln Lhe llLeraLure agaln),
are llsLed ln Lhe correcL order (check Lhls Lhrough Lhe LexL) and are ln compllance wlLh
Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors'.

Su8MlSSlCn Cl CC?

1he flnal verslon of Lhe paper ls usually senL elecLronlcally Lo Lhe publlsher or Lo an edlLor
nomlnaLed by Lhe publlsher. lf, however, lL ls requlred on dlsk or as a hard copy, lL ls
lmporLanL Lo ensure LhaL lL ls flrsL saved, preferably on a separaLe dlsk so LhaL changes
requlred by Lhe edlLors can be effecLed qulckly and easlly.

8eglsLered mall or courler should be used for sendlng dlsks or hard coples.

Crlglnals of flgures are someLlmes requlred by publlshers, lf so, Lhey should, afLer copylng,
also be senL by reglsLered mall or courler and packed Lo avold belng benL or damaged ln
LranslL.



12
WPA1 Lul1C8S WAn1

Interna| ed|tors of |ndustr|a| and commerc|a| compan|es are usually requlred Lo Lake lnLo
conslderaLlon a publlcaLlon's:

sulLablllLy from Lhelr cusLomers' polnL of vlew,
effecL on Lhe lndusLry's or company's lmage,
compaLlblllLy wlLh company pollcy,
poLenLlal for causlng cusLomer or flnanclal loss, and
resLrlcLlons lmposed by, or lnfrlngemenL of, paLenLs.

lnLernal edlLors are llkely Lo be more concerned wlLh Lhelr organlsaLlon's lmage Lhan wlLh Lhe
sLandard of Lhe reporL's semanLlcs, synLax and composlLlon. 1hey are also llkely Lo make
more edlLorlal changes Lhan exLernal edlLors. 1hese can lnclude shorLenlng where Lhe lengLh
ls excesslve, alLhough Lhe paper or reporL ls usually reLurned Lo Lhe auLhor for LhaL Lo be
done.

SclenLlflc papers and reporLs offered for publlcaLlon rouLlnely go Lo exLernal edlLors and
referees, appolnLed by Lhe relevanL sclenLlflc or Lechnlcal [ournal, for edlLlng and assessmenL.

Lxterna| ed|tors and referees are prlmarlly lnLeresLed ln a paper's:

orlglnallLy (especlally ln docLoral Lheses).
ob[ecLlvlLy, lnLegrlLy and veraclLy.
compleLeness, as well as Lhe paper's sulLablllLy for Lhe [ournal's speclallsed or speclflc
readershlp.
compllance wlLh Lhe 'lnsLrucLlons Lo AuLhors'.

LxLernal edlLors or referees wlll Lhemselves seldom make more Lhan mlnor changes ln a
paper buL Lhey may reLurn a paper Lo Lhe auLhor wlLh suggesLlons for lLs lmprovemenL. lf
Lhey conslder a paper worLhy buL only wlLh ma[or changes, Lhey may (and ofLen do) reLurn lL
for approprlaLe rewrlLlng.

LxLernal edlLors pay aLLenLlon Lo Lhe semootlcs, syotox and composltloo of a paper. lf Lhese
characLerlsLlcs of a paper are good Lhey make for easy readlng and undersLandlng,
lnfluenclng edlLors favourably. lf Lhey are noL good, Lhe effecL on edlLors can be
unfavourable and may resulL ln a paper's re[ecLlon. AuLhors should Lherefore pay speclal
aLLenLlon Lo Lhese lmporLanL maLLers.

1he followlng ls an exLracL of a badly wrlLLen reporL re[ecLed and reLurned by Lhe edlLor and
Lhen accepLed afLer rewrlLlng by Lhe auLhor:


13

Cr|g|na|, returned to author for ed|t|ng:
1he resu|ts are |nterest|ng. Cur sun proves
to be about average we|ght, or perhaps
somewhat over. 1aken as a who|e, the stars
show on|y a sma|| range |n we|ght, |f we
compare the sun to a man of average
we|ght, most of the we|ghts of the stars ||e
between those of a boy and a heavy man.
et a few stars have qu|te except|ona|
we|ghts. A co|ony of four stars, 27 Can|s
Ma[or|s, |s be||eved to have a tota| we|ght
Ld|ted vers|on accepted by the ed|tor:
1he resu|ts are |nterest|ng. 1hey |nd|cate
that the sun |s a star of average mass.
Stars genera||y have a sma||er mass
range, for examp|e, no greater than the
range found between the mass of a man
and the mass of a boy. 1he four
components of the system 27 Ma[or|s
Can|s |s thought to be near|y a thousand
t|mes heav|er than the sun.
near|y 1000 t|mes that of the sun.


SLMAN1ICS - 1nL MLANING AND USL CI WCkDS

1he use of words ln wrlLlng and speaklng ls preceded by Lhlnklng, whlch can be as much
lnhlblLed by a lack of vocabulary as wrlLlng and speaklng are. An adequaLe vocabulary ls
Lherefore lmporLanL for sclenLlsLs and LechnologlsLs, all of whom are requlred Lo Lhlnk, wrlLe
reporLs and papers, and occaslonally Lo presenL Lhem aL meeLlngs and conferences.

Cnly abouL 2000 words are necessary for good sclenLlflc and Lechnologlcal communlcaLlon ln
Lngllsh, whlch ls now Lhe language mosL used worldwlde for Lhls purpose.

1o develop a vocabulary, when readlng have a dlcLlonary aL hand and look up every word Lhe
meanlng of whlch you do noL know. lL ls also helpful Lo use a Lhesaurus Lo flnd a word wlLh a
beLLer meanlng, because no Lwo words have exacLly Lhe same meanlng and uslng Lhe wrong
word can change or obscure Lhe message.

Some ru|es for the use of words

As a general rule prefer shorL words Lo long, eg eose lnsLead of focllltote, oeeJ lnsLead of
oecessltote, stott for commeoce, sbow for exblblt, oboot for coocetoloq, ose for otlllse,
expect for ootlclpote.

uo noL use forelgn words, especlally legalese, and LaLln words unless lL ls unavoldable, eg
for lotet ollo prefer among oLher Lhlngs, for cltco 1999 prefer abouL 1999, for stotos poo
prefer condlLlon or slLuaLlon.

use sLandard Lngllsh words noL dlalecL, colloqulal Lngllsh or slang whlch may be undersLood
only locally, eg for qoys prefer meo, boys, people, for klJ(s) prefer cbllJ, cbllJteo, for cotcb
oo prefer ooJetstooJ, for petets oot prefer eoJs.



14
8eware of buzz-words and phrases, word hablLs and favourlLe words, eg:

boslcolly can usually be omlLLed alLogeLher, for obsolotely prefer yes, replace footostlc
wlLh qooJ, bettet, best or excelleot
for ot tbls polot lo tlme prefer oow or ot pteseot
prefer ovet Lo otoooJ ln tbe ptotest otoooJ blqb ptlces
replace lo octool foct wlLh lo foct or octoolly
prefer we expect or we ote ploooloq Lo, wete lookloq ot
pettololoq to or wltb teqotJ to ls mosL ofLen beLLer replaced wlLh oboot
replace wbot we JlJ wos we weot bome wlLh we weot bome
prefer oo tbot sobject Lo lo tbot teqotJ
ot tbe weekeoJ noL oo tbe weekeoJ buL oo tbe bollJoy weekeoJ.

Avold pomposlLy and arrogance, Lhelr use suggesLs self-lmporLance and ls preLenLlous.
8eplace '1be oltlmote ylelJ of tbe ctop wlll JepeoJ oo fovootoble pteclpltotloo wlLh '1be
ctop ylelJ wlll JepeoJ oo qooJ tolos.

1he use of long or obscure words ls noL scholarly or clever and shows dlsrespecL of Lhe
reader, eg replace:
5clotlllote, sclotlllote llttle qlobole ootlflc,
folo woolJ l fotbom tby ootote speclflc,
loftlly polseJ lo tbe etbet copocloos,
sttooqly tesemblloq o qem cotboooceoos.
wlLh
1wlokle, twlokle llttle stot,
bow l wooJet wbot yoo ote,
op obove tbe wotlJ so blqb,
llke o JlomooJ lo tbe sky.

uo noL quallfy a word whose meanlng ls already clear, eg omlL Lhe lLallclsed word ln Lhe
followlng phrases:
olmost unlque, Lhe octool number, absolotely perfecL, coocloslve proof, polte lmposslble,
vety Lrue.

Avold LauLology, LhaL ls, repeaLlng Lhe same Lhlng ln dlfferenL words. ln Lhe followlng
examples, leave ouL Lhe words ln lLallcs, Lhey are unnecessary:
1be teosoo fot tbls ls because. ln my owo petsoool oplnlon.

Avold uslng Lhe abbrevlaLlons & and ln LexL, raLher spell ouL ln words.

Avold uslng nouns as verbs (even when dlcLlonarles allow lL). Lg replace looo me o book wlLh
leoJ me o book.



13
SN1Ak - 1nL ICkMA1ICN CI SLN1LNCLS

Long, lnvolved senLences lmply lnadequaLe and careless Lhlnklng, as well as causlng
dlfflculLy for Lhe reader ln boLh readlng and ln undersLandlng. SenLences of more Lhan 20
words are dlfflculL Lo read and senLences of more Lhan 30 words are very dlfflculL Lo read.
roper consLrucLlon of senLences and puncLuaLlon can make long senLences easler Lo read,
buL lL ls beLLer Lo break up long senLences lnLo shorLer senLences. varlable senLence lengLh
makes for beLLer prose whlch ls easler Lo read and Lo comprehend.

Some synLax guldellnes:

refer few words Lo many, eg for 1be sptloq stlll bos o cettolo omooot of flexlblllty wrlLe
1be sptloq ls stlll flexlble, and lo otJet to flex tbe sptloq wrlLe 1o flex tbe sptloq.
refer a word Lo a phrase, eg for 'lo tbe mojotlty of coses wrlLe lo most coses.

1he followlng ls an example of edlLlng durlng revlslon Lo achleve Lhe ob[ecLlves of Lhe lasL
Lhree guldellnes:

Cr|g|na| compos|t|on: lo tbe fltst ploce, tbe Jevelopmeot of fotmloq systems tbot ote so
ptoJoctlve tbot loJlsctlmloote teclomotloo of vltqlo looJs coo be ovolJeJ ls o oecessoty
cooJltloo to coottol fottbet JeqtoJotloo of tbe sotfoce of tbe eottb ooJ tbe Jesttoctloo of
oototol ecosystems. (42 words, one senLence)

Ld|ted vers|on: 1o coottol fottbet JeqtoJotloo of oototol ecosystems, lt ls oecessoty to
Jevelop fotmloq systems tbot Jo oot explolt vltqlo looJs. (20 words)

use shorL senLences for lnLroduclng and concludlng new Loplcs, and longer senLences for
developlng a Lheme.

8eware of word repeLlLlon, lL ls effecLlve for emphaslslng a polnL buL can dlsLracL a reader.
Powever, word repeLlLlon ls ofLen necessary for Lechnlcal accuracy and ls beLLer Lhan uslng a
less accuraLe word for Lhe sake of eleganL varlaLlon.

1he followlng are some examples of common errors ln Lhe use and meanlng of words and ln
phraseology, wlLh suggesLed beLLer alLernaLlves.

Common errors 8eLLer alLernaLlves
S|ngu|ar and p|ura|
lt ls o pbeoomeoo of tbe system lt ls o pbeoomeooo of tbe system
tbe Joto ls ovolloble tbe Joto ote ovolloble
tbe tesolts soqqests tbe tesolts soqqest
bls tesolts ls cooslJeteJ qooJ bls tesolts ote cooslJeteJ qooJ
tbe teom ote ployloq well tbe teom ls ployloq well


16
Word cho|ce
o vost omooot of people o vost oombet of people
lt JlJ oot compote so qooJ lt JlJ oot compote well
or, lt wos oot o qooJ compotlsoo,
or, tbe compotlsoo wos oot qooJ
lt complles to tbe teqolotloos lt complles wltb tbe teqolotloos
tbe people wblcb otteoJeJ tbe people wbo otteoJeJ
tbe Jlscossloo otoooJ tbe sobject tbe Jlscossloo oo (ot of) tbe sobject
less vlsltots come to tbe sbow fewet vlsltots come to tbe sbow
tbe pteclsloo of tbe colcolotloo tbe occotocy of tbe colcolotloo
tbe occotocy of tbe meosotemeot tbe pteclsloo of tbe meosotemeot

Word order
wbot tlme ls lt? wbot ls tbe tlme?
sbeep moscle ptotelo moscle ptotelo of sbeep
o lotqe veblcle fleet o lotqe fleet of veblcles
tbe wotJ ooly sboolJ be oseJ
to coovey Joobt tbe wotJ sboolJ be oseJ ooly to coovey Joobt
me ooJ Iobo weot bome ot ooce Iobo ooJ l weot bome ot ooce

hraseo|ogy
wbot we bove to Jo ls wtlte tbe tepott we bove to wtlte tbe tepott
oootbet lJeo soqqests ltself to me l bove oootbet lJeo
we ote bosy to close tbe cose we ote closloq tbe cose
foctots wblcb mltlqote oqolost foctots wblcb mllltote oqolost
ot tbls polot lo tlme oow
lo tbe eveot of my cbepoe beloq tetotoeJ lf my cbepoe ls tetotoeJ
llke l solJ os l solJ
lf ot oll posslble lf posslble
socb ls by oo meoos tbe cose tbot ls oot so
be ployeJ o stooJoot qome be ployeJ oo ootstooJloq qome
lo otJet to be effectlve to be effectlve


CCMCSl1lCn - 8ulLulnC A 1PLML

A good composlLlon ls one LhaL holds Lhe reader's lnLeresL and ls easy Lo read. 1hls ls
achleved by uslng Lhe followlng guldellnes:

SLarL effecLlvely by comlng Lo Lhe polnL qulckly wlLh an accepLed sLaLemenL of facL or of Lhe
problem.

MalnLaln a balance by careful plannlng and a Lhorough knowledge of Lhe sub[ecL.

8e conclse, Lhe lmporLance of lengLh has been sLressed earller.

17
Lmphaslse Lhe maln polnLs, maklng Lhem sLand ouL from Lhe necessary supporLlng deLall or
argumenL by:

sLaLlng Lhe cruclal concepLs ln Lhe flrsL and lasL senLences and paragraphs.
uslng approprlaLe LlLles, headlngs and sub-headlngs.
leavlng ouL lrrelevanL deLall or unnecessary lnformaLlon.
uslng more forceful words for lmporLanL polnLs, buL beware of [argon.

8epeaLlng, numberlng and lndenLlng helps Lo emphaslse, buL beware, uslng Lhese Lo excess
can lrrlLaLe.

8eware of numberlng wlLhouL purpose and mlxlng symbols, all of whlch dlsLracL Lhe reader's
aLLenLlon.

Achleve rhyLhm, whlch ls Lhe poollty of soooJloq well. lL ls proper and dellberaLe ln poeLry,
deslrable buL should noL be conLrlved ln prose (le ln reporLs and papers). 1esL rhyLhm by
readlng Lhe reporL or paper aloud. 8hyLhm can be lmproved by avoldlng where posslble:

unlnLenLlonal alllLeraLlon, eg tototeJ totbet teqolotly.
graLlng repeLlLlon of words, syllables or words, eg opptoptlote opptoocb.
repeLlLlon of sound, eg socb o soccess stoty, oo elobotote lobotototy.
repeLlLlon of cognaLe forms of dlfferenL parLs of speech, eg locol locollty, follow tbe
followloq.
repeLlLlon of a word wlLh dlfferenL meanlngs, eg o polot to polot oot, except fot tote
exceptloos.
excesslve puncLuaLlon also lnhlblLs rhyLhm.

uevelop sLyle Lo achleve readablllLy. SLyle ls ptopet wotJs lo ptopet ploces and ls Lhe basls of
good prose. lL can also be deflned as wltboot oooecessoty otoomeot, lttelevoocles,
llloqlcolltles ot omblqolty. SLyle comes wlLh pracLlce and can be lmproved by readlng good
books.

1he essenLlal characLerlsLlcs of good prose are:

lacklng encumbrances for qulck readlng.
euphonlous when read aloud.
conslsLenL ln Lhe use of language.
ordered, wlLh each senLence a slngle sLep ln Lhe bulldlng of paragraphs, and each
paragraph ln loglcal order ln Lhe consLrucLlon of Lhe narraLlve or argumenL.



18
8elow ls an example of Lhe edlLlng of a Lechnlcal reporL Lo lmprove composlLlon.

Crlglnal verslon of Lhe reporL.
1he farm was vlslLed by Mr lM Molder and
Mr u8 Mayhem, lrrlgaLlon ConsulLanLs, and
Lhe farmer accompanled Lhem.
1he soll of Lhe farm ls derlved from dolerlLe
parenL maLerlal on Lhe wesLern slde. 1he
remalnder of Lhe farm ls alluvlum. 1he farm
ls roughly dlvlded lnLo Lwo parLs by a
sLream. 1he norLhern slde of Lhe farm ls very
flaL wlLh average slopes of 1. Cn Lhls
secLlon a flood lrrlgaLlon meLhod ls used.
1he farm's souLhern secLlon ls sLeeper wlLh
an overhead sprlnkler lrrlgaLlon sysLem and
Lhe maln problem are weL areas ln Lhe flelds
ln Lhe norLhern secLlon. All Lhe roads are
well bullL up and gravelled and culverLs
provlded where Lhe maln lrrlgaLlon channels
cross Lhe roads. uurlng Lhe vlslL Lhe farmer
lndlcaLed LhaL aL Lhls polnL ln Llme he could
noL afford Lo change Lhe sysLem Lo overhead
lrrlgaLlon. uue Lo Lhe varlable changes ln Lhe
slopes lL would be necessary Lo change Lhe
fleld boundarles so as Lo accommodaLe Lhe
changes ln row dlrecLlon LhaL would be
requlred for Lhe necessary lrrlgaLlon
channels.


LdlLed verslon of Lhe reporL
1he farm was vlslLed by Messrs Molder
and Mayhem, lrrlgaLlon consulLanLs. 1hey
were accompanled by Lhe farmer. 1he
solls on Lhe wesLern slde of Lhe farm are
derlved from dolerlLe, Lhe remalnder are
alluvlums. 1he sLeeper souLhern secLlon ls
lrrlgaLed by a sprlnkler sysLem. All roads
are well made, gravelled and have
culverLs for lrrlgaLlon canal crosslngs.
oor dralnage due Lo changes of slope on
Lhe norLhern secLlon, can be lmproved by
alLerlng fleld boundarles, road and lrrl-
gaLlon canal allgnmenL. When Lhe farmer
can afford Lo make Lhese expenslve
changes, Lhe consulLanLs would be
pleased Lo deslgn a flood lrrlgaLlon layouL
LhaL wlll lmprove waLer use efflclency and
dralnage.
unC1uA1lCn

1he purpose of puncLuaLlon ls Lo clarlfy meanlng and lmprove readablllLy. Lxcess puncLuaLlon
dlsrupLs and Loo llLLle hlnders readlng. WrlLlng wlLh good sLyle needs less puncLuaLlon Lhan
wrlLlng wlLh poor sLyle.

lull sLop or perlod
A full sLop ls used Lo end senLences. lL should be omlLLed ln LlLles, headlngs and legends,
le (for l.e.), ulp 1ecb (for ulp.1ech.), 85c (for 8.Sc.), and musL noL be used afLer Sl unlLs,
eg o moss of 15.6 kq (noL 13.6 kg.).
A perlod ls no longer obllgaLory afLer abbrevlaLlons, excepL oo. for oombet, and, ln Lhe
unlLed SLaLes, flq. for flqote. Where lL ls avallable on keyboards, # ls now generally
accepLed as Lhe abbrevlaLlon for oombet.



19
Comma
A comma ls used Lo lndlcaLe a brlef pause and Lo separaLe groups of words, phrases and
clauses for clarlLy, eg tbe wbeels, eocb welqbloq o too, wete bolsteJ loto ploce.
A comma should noL be used when lndependenL clauses are [olned by ooJ, bot, wbeo,
oeltbet, ot or oot.
1o avold confuslon wlLh Lhe Sl declmal polnL (,) commas should noL be used ln
equaLlons, formulae or Lo dlvlde a number lnLo Lhousands, eg for one Lhousand flve
hundred and slxLy seven, wrlLe 1 567 (noL 1,367).

Semlcolon
1he semlcolon ls a mark of coordlnaLlon used Lo [oln clauses LogeLher whlch are noL [olned ln
oLher ways, and ln clauses conLalnlng lnLernal puncLuaLlon, lL emphaslses slmllarlLy and
separaLeness of meanlng beLween clauses, as have been used ln Lhls senLence.

Colon
A colon ls used Lo lnLroduce a long quoLaLlon or llsL, a comma ls used for shorL quoLaLlons
and llsLs.
A colon ls used Lo separaLe long descrlpLlve clauses, parLs of raLlos, (eg 2:1) and ln llsLs of
references Lo separaLe volume, parLs and page numbers, when LhaL ls requlred, eg 5 Aft I 5cl
60(3): 360-362.

CuesLlon mark
ls used afLer a dlrecL quesLlon, eg ls o cbooqe tepolteJ? buL should noL be used afLer an
lndlrecL or rheLorlcal quesLlon, eg 1be poestloo wos oskeJ wbetbet o cbooqe wos tepolteJ.

LxclamaLlon mark
ls rarely [usLlfled ln sclenLlflc and Lechnlcal wrlLlng excepL, of course, as Lhe facLorlal symbol
(!).

uashes
use Lhe em (long) dash Lo lndlcaLe an abrupL break or shlfL ln LhoughL, as parenLheses or
as brackeLs wlLhln brackeLs, eg be JeclJeJ - oo tbe spot of tbe momeot - to tetoto.
use Lhe en (shorL) dash Lo lndlcaLe Lhe range beLween numbers, or Lo mark phrases for
emphasls and as a hyphen, eg 9-19, two-tbltJs.

Pyphen
A hyphen should be used as llLLle as posslble, eg no hyphen ln tolofeJ, keywotJ, soqotcooe,
no hyphen ln words beglnnlng wlLh te, unless anoLher 'e follows, eg telocote buL te-eotty, or
lf Lhe word looks odd wlLhouL a hyphen, eg co-wotket.

arenLheses or brackeLs
Are used Lo seL off commenLs or explanaLlons LhaL are lndependenL of Lhe senLence, eg
tbe Jlseose (wblcb ls ptevoleot lo Aftlco) ls fotol, oll Jtlvets (especlolly womeo) sboolJ be
testeJ.
1o group maLhemaLlcal expresslons, eg (jo - b]) - (jc - J]), buL Lhelr use for Lhls purpose
should be avolded whenever posslble.

20
Avold uslng brackeLs for marklng paragraphs, especlally when uslng lower case leLLers
and roman numerals, eg a), b), ll), xv), eLc.

AposLrophes:
Should be used for Lhe possesslve, eg tbe commlttees opptovol, buL should noL be used
for Lhe possesslve ln place names, eg llqqs leok noL lgg's eak.
Should noL be used ln sclenLlflc and Lechnlcal wrlLlng Lo lndlcaLe omlLLed leLLers, eg for
coot, woot wrlLe coooot, wlll oot.

CuoLaLlon marks
uouble quoLaLlon marks are used around dlrecL quoLaLlons, new Lechnlcal Lerms or old
Lerms used ln a new sense, and ln some LlLles, eg l om oot, he sald, vety boppy wltb
tbe Jeclsloo.
Slngle quoLaLlon marks are used around a word, LlLle or Lerm (especlally a forelgn, slang
or unusual Lerm) wlLhln a quoLaLlon whlch ls ln double quoLaLlon marks, eg 1he crlLlc
sald, 1be book, eotltleJ 1be ellow ulomooJ ls excelleot.

Slash
A slash ls used Lo lndlcaLe raLlo when only Lwo Lerms are lnvolved, eg: 2/5 buL because
Lhls can be confused wlLh a fracLlon, prefer 2.5.
Slashes should noL be used for raLlos wlLh more Lhan Lwo lnLegers, eg for 2/J/4 prefer
2.J.4.
Some lnsLlLuLes use slashes Lo lndlcaLe 'pet, oLhers use Lhe perlod and negaLlve
exponenLs, eg: g/m
2
/day or q.m
2
.Joy
-1
.


A888LvlA1lCnS

LlmlL Lhe use of abbrevlaLlons Lo noLes, Lable headlngs, appendlces and references, eg
tc/bo/o ls accepLable for noLes, buL for Lable headlngs wrlLe cooe t/bo/o.
rovlded lL has been deflned prevlously ln Lhe LexL lL ls accepLable Lo use an abbrevlaLlon
for a unlL when lL follows a number, eg 30 bo, 12 q, 15 c. noLe Lhe space beLween
number and Lhe unlL, excepL ln 1X, >15 and <2.
lL ls accepLable Lo use abbrevlaLlons for phrases used frequenLly ln a Lechnlcal reporL
provlded Lhey have been deflned prevlously. 1hls ls done by wrlLlng ouL Lhe phrase ln full
followed by Lhe abbrevlaLlon ln brackeLs when lL ls used for Lhe flrsL Llme, eg: estlmoteJ
tecovetoble soqot (ets) or (k5), LhereafLer Lhe abbrevlaLlon can be used on lLs own.
use only Lhose abbrevlaLlons LhaL are accepLed ln Lhe relevanL 'losttoctloos fot Aotbots,
or offlclal llsLs of Sl unlLs.
uo noL use Lhe abbrevlaLlons of forelgn words and phrases or of slang.

noLe: letceotoqe ls one word buL pet ceot ls Lwo words.




21
nAMLS

1he use of correcL boLanlcal or sclenLlflc names ls essenLlal ln wrlLlng Lechnlcal and
sclenLlflc reporLs and papers because dlfferenL common or local names are ofLen used
for Lhe same Lhlng, eg '5tem botet means Lhe cbllo stem botet of coto ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes buL means Lhe lJooo stem botet of soqotcooe ln SouLh Afrlca.
edanLlc and repeaLed use of full sclenLlflc names should however be avolded. use Lhe
common, accepLed or shorLened sclenLlflc name afLer uslng Lhe full sclenLlflc name when
lL ls flrsL menLloned. Lg afLer flrsL wrlLlng lJooo soccbotloo Walker (LepldopLera:
yralldae), lL can be wrlLLen as Lldana, elJooo or eldana (ln lower case) ln laLer LexL.
1rade names should be avolded, or used clrcumspecLly, because Lhe same producL may
have more Lhan one Lrade name, eg Clypbosote, koooJop, klJJet, and are someLlmes
changed even when Lhe producL remalns essenLlally Lhe same or wlLh only mlnor
alLeraLlon Lo Lhe acLlve lngredlenL.
When a Lrade name ls used lL musL sLarL wlLh a caplLal leLLer and should have lLs paLenL
reglsLraLlon lndlcaLed, aL leasL Lhe flrsL Llme lL ls menLloned.
1he upper case or caplLals Lend Lo be used Loo frequenLly, Lhey should be used only for
Lhe beglnnlng of senLences, for proper names and for LlLles, eg lts oome ls tbe lobllc
neoltb uepottmeot buL tbe wotk ls cottleJ oot by tbe stoff of tbe pobllc beoltb
Jepottmeot.


nuM8L8S

Lxpress numbers ln words aL Lhe beglnnlng of a senLence and for numbers under 9, buL
ln numerals for numbers over 10, eg 1weoty of tbe somples wete ooolyseJ, elqbt wete
foooJ to be oJoltetoteJ ooJ tbe temololoq 12 wete foooJ to be pote.
use numbers, noL words, before symbols or abbrevlaLlons, eg 12 kq/bo.
Always use a zero preflx for numbers less Lhan 1, eg 0.49.
Always deflne Lhe unlLs used wlLh numbers, eg 15X by volome, oot 15X vv (excepL on
labels).
PyphenaLe cardlnal and ordlnal numbers, eg tweoty-ooe somples, and Lhe tweoty-fltst
somple.
Choose noL Lo use consecuLlvely Lwo numbers nor Lwo words for numbers (excepL ln Lhe
uS for Lhe daLe), prefer 29 lebtooty 2012 Lo lebtooty 29 2012.
8eware when roundlng-off numbers: whereas 109.1 rounded-off Lo 109 may represenL
an accepLable error of less Lhan 0.1, 1.9 rounded-off Lo 2.0 represenLs a probably
unaccepLable error of over 3.


1A8LLS Anu llCu8LS

1ables and flgures (le graphs, dlagrams and lllusLraLlons) should be as clear and as slmple
as posslble because Lhelr purpose ls Lo ald undersLandlng.
llgures sLlmulaLe lnLeresL and can lmprove preclse descrlpLlon.

22
uo noL repeaL ln words ln Lhe LexL Lhe lnformaLlon glven ln a Lable or flgure.
1able headlngs should be above Lables buL flgure headlngs should be below Lhe flgures.
Peadlngs and capLlons should be ln lower case (excepL Lhe flrsL leLLer), clear, conclse and
compleLe ln Lhemselves, le noL needlng elaboraLlon or explanaLlon ln Lhe LexL.
1ables and flgures should be numbered (for laLer reference or publlcaLlon) and locaLed
ln Lhe LexL Lo mlnlmlse lnLerrupLlon ln Lhe flow of LhoughL whlle Lhe LexL ls belng read.
lL ls ofLen requlred LhaL Lables and flgures are submlLLed for publlcaLlon on separaLe
sheeLs wlLh numberlng and capLlons on Lhe back ln pencll, ln whlch case Lhelr poslLlon ln
Lhe LexL musL be lndlcaLed clearly.
1ables LhaL have Lo be exhausLlve or compllcaLed should be ln an appendlx.
Craphs and bar charLs should noL conLaln a headlng LhaL mlmlcs Lhe flgure capLlon.
Care ls needed Lo avold mlsrepresenLaLlon by Lables, flgures and especlally by
phoLographs, as lndlcaLed by Lhe dlagrams LhaL follow.

1he flrsL Lwo dlagrams below suggesL, mlsleadlngly, LhaL Lhe cotcbes pet mootb for Lhe Lwo
specles A and 8 are of slmllar order. 1hls ls because Lhe scales for Lhe y-axes have probably
been chosen dellberaLely Lo glve LhaL lmpresslon.









ln Lhe nexL Lwo dlagrams lL ls lmmedlaLely clear LhaL Lhe caLches per monLh are of a very
dlfferenL order, Lhls ls because Lhe y-axes scales have been chosen approprlaLely Lo glve Lhe
correcL lmpresslon.

















23
Ak1 1WC - kLSLN1ING

1here are Lhree klnds of presenLaLlon: to petsooJe, eg adverLlsemenLs ln whlch facLs are
ofLen dlsLorLed, to eotettolo, whlch may be flcLlonal, humorous or sarcasLlc, and to lofotm.
SclenLlflc and Lechnlcal reporLs and papers are wrlLLen Lo lnform and should Lherefore be
facLual noL flcLlonal, wlLhouL dlsLorLlons and [okes, albelL wlLh humour lf LhaL ls Lhe naLural
sLyle of Lhe presenLer.

A sclenLlflc paper for publlcaLlon ln a [ournal ls wtltteo Lo lnform readers of deLalled
research or revlew of research ln Lhe sLyle and form requlred by Lhe publlshlng [ournal.
Powever, Lhe purpose of a pteseototloo aL a conference or congress ls Lo sommotlse for
delegaLes Lhe ob[ecLlves, background, maln flndlngs and concluslons of Lhe research or
revlew descrlbed ln a paper. lL ls cerLalnly noL Lo read Lhe full paper Lo Lhe audlence.

1he sLyle and form of presenLaLlon are seldom prescrlbed by conference organlsers buL Lhe
Llme allowed for presenLaLlon ls usually very speclflcally deflned and lnvarlably enforced
sLrlcLly by conference chalrpersons.

lor mosL sclenLlsLs and LechnologlsLs whaL Lo say ls noL a problem and saylng lL may be
daunLlng buL Lhe maln dlfflculLy ls usually how besL Lo convey Lhe lnformaLlon effecLlvely ln
Lhe llmlLed Llme avallable. 1o achleve Lhls lL ls necessary Lo plan and pracLlse Lhe
presenLaLlon carefully.

1PL 8LSLn1A1lCn LAn

ln arL 1 of Lhls manual, on Lhe wtltloq of a paper or reporL a ComposlLlon CuLllne,
allocaLlng pages, llnes or words, Lo each headlng, secLlon or parL of Lhe paper was
recommended.

lor pteseotloq Lhe same reporL or paper aL a conference or congress a resenLaLlon lan
should be used Lo allocaLe tlme (noL pages, llnes or words) Lo Lhe maLerlal Lo be presenLed,
bearlng ln mlnd a presenLaLlon ls a summary and should noL aLLempL Lo cover all Lhe
maLerlal ln Lhe wrlLLen paper, nor necessarlly ln Lhe same order.

1he form a resenLaLlon lan Lakes ls a maLLer of personal cholce, buL one successful
example of a resenLaLlon lan for a sclenLlflc paper Lo be dellvered ln a prescrlbed Llme ls
owerolnL, lllusLraLed on Lhe lasL page of Lhls gulde. lor a LwenLy mlnuLe presenLaLlon lL
conslsLs of LwenLy blocks, one for each sllde pro[ecLed for one mlnuLe. Lach block conLalns
only headlngs as remlnders for Lhe presenLer of Lhe maLerlal and of any graphlc(s) he wlshes
Lo dlscuss or descrlbe ln LhaL mlnuLe.

vlSuAL AluS

A verbal presenLaLlon ls much more effecLlve lf lL ls supporLed by vlsual alds and Lhe mosL
approprlaLe klnd of vlsual ald Lo use ln a presenLaLlon depends on Lhe klnd of audlence. lor

24
small and lnformal groups, chalk, marker and magneLlc boards or fllp sheeLs may be
sulLable. lor larger and more formal groups Lhere ls llLLle alLernaLlve Lo a owerolnL
presenLaLlon. (lor lnsLrucLlons on produclng a owerolnL sllde presenLaLlon consulL a
MlcrosofL Cfflce manual.)

Adv|ce on us|ng v|sua| a|ds
Cbservlng Lhe followlng hlnLs on uslng vlsual alds wlll lmprove an audlence's undersLandlng
of Lhe presenLaLlon.

LlmlL each vlsual ald Lo a slngle concepL, Lo make a number of polnLs raLher use a serles of
slldes Lhan one complex and confuslng sllde.
uo noL lnclude anyLhlng ln a vlsual ald LhaL you do noL lnLend Lo menLlon or dlscuss ln Lhe
presenLaLlon.
Mlnlmlse Lhe use of declmals ln Lables, roundlng-off whenever LhaL ls posslble wlLhouL
affecLlng meanlng or accuracy (see secLlon on nuM8L8S).
1ake a vlsual ald off Lhe screen as soon as Lhe message has been dlgesLed or dlscussed
oLherwlse Lhe audlence's aLLenLlon wlll remaln on lL and noL on Lhe nexL sllde or sub[ecL
already belng lnLroduced.
1ables should have a maxlmum of four columns and four rows.


Craphs lndlcaLe tteoJs, keep Lhem slmple wlLh shorL labels, preferably noL more Lhan Lhree
curves per graph.
Craph llnes should be Lhe rlghL Lhlckness and colour, eg yellow does noL show up well on a
whlLe background.


23
8ar charLs lndlcaLe moqoltoJe, Lhere should noL be more Lhan slx bars ln each charL.


le charLs lndlcaLe ptopottloo, and should have a maxlmum of slx, and preferably noL more
Lhan flve, segmenLs per charL.



8LA8lnC lC8 1PL 8LSLn1A1lCn

1he fullness of presenLaLlon noLes used aL Lhe podlum depends on Lhe presenLer's
experlence, confldence and on Lhe klnd of occaslon.

1he teoJloq of a presenLaLlon ls undeslrable buL may be [usLlfled only on very formal
occaslons, for very complex sub[ecLs or for maLerlal whlch may be legally senslLlve. under
normal clrcumsLances a paper or reporL should be JellveteJ verbally ln Lhe spoken ldlom,
from presenLaLlon noLes or pro[ecLed slldes, wlLhouL uslng slang or [argon.

As parL of Lhe plannlng and rehearsal process, well ln advance of Lhe conference and
dependlng on Lhe amounL of Llme allocaLed, Lhe presenLer wlll have, converLed Lhe
presenLaLlon plan lnLo a 10 or 20 sllde owerolnL presenLaLlon Lo be pro[ecLed aL an
average of one sllde per mlnuLe durlng Lhe presenLaLlon. Lach sllde conLalns Lhe headllnes
of Lhe maLerlal Lo be dellvered or a vlsual ald Lo whlch Lhe presenLer wlshes Lo refer, or Lo
elaboraLe on, durlng LhaL mlnuLe.

An advanLage of Lhls ooe-sllJe-o-mloote meLhod ls LhaL Lhe audlence focuses on whaL Lhe
speaker ls saylng aL Lhe Llme and when Lhe nexL sllde comes up Lhelr aLLenLlon moves on

26
lnsLead of sLlll Lhlnklng of whaL was sald before. 1he owerolnL meLhod also makes lL
easler for Lhe presenLer Lo keep Lo Llme. Powever, Lhe success of Lhe owerolnL meLhod
depends on Lhe presenLer knowlng hls presenLaLlon noLes so well LhaL he ls able Lo dellver
hls message from memory wlLh only headllne remlnders on each sllde. 1hls ls greaLly
faclllLaLed by Lhoroughly rehearslng Lhe presenLaLlon noLes LhaL have been prepared.

kehears|ng
1here are slx good reasons for rehearslng:

1o be able Lo make a verbal presenLaLlon wlLhouL readlng noLes.
1o make Lhe presenLaLlon wlLhln Lhe allowed Llme.
1o make posslble a smooLh and lucld presenLaLlon aL Lhe podlum.
1o dellver a comprehenslble summary of Lhe paper or reporL.
1o do [usLlce Lo Lhe paper, especlally lf lL ls belng presenLed by a co-auLhor or on behalf
of anoLher auLhor.
8ecause a well rehearsed dellvery reduces Lhe lnevlLable nervousness of Lhe occaslon.

8ehearslng ls a mosL lmporLanL and generally underraLed parL of Lhe preparaLlon for a
presenLaLlon. 1he amounL of rehearslng LhaL should be done depends on Lhe lmporLance of
Lhe occaslon, buL mosL of all on Lhe presenLer's experlence and confldence. ln rehearslng
Lhe presenLaLlon Lhe noLes should flrsL be read slowly (as lf dellverlng Lo an audlence) and
Llmed, Lhen edlLed Lo comply wlLh Lhe Llme resLrlcLlon. 1he nexL rehearsal would preferably
be anoLher Llmed dellvery Lo a colleague or on a Lape recorder and Lhen edlLed (Lo lnclude
Lhe colleague's commenLs or suggesLlons) and agaln Lo flL Lhe Llme allowed.

1haL mlghL be Lhe mlnlmum amounL of rehearslng needed by an lnexperlenced or nervous
presenLer buL could be a llLLle Loo much for a really experlenced presenLer.

8LSLn1lnC 1PL AL8

uL lL Lo Lhem btlefly, so LhaL Lhey wlll hear lL cleotly, so LhaL Lhey
wlll appreclaLe lL plctotespoely, so LhaL Lhey wlll remember lL
and above all occototely, so LhaL Lhey wlll be gulded by lLs llghL."
!oseph ullLzer

A paper recelved from colleagues ls used here (wlLh Lhelr permlsslon) as an example of how
Lo presenL a paper ln Lhe LwenLy mlnuLes usually allowed, uslng a owerolnL presenLaLlon.

1he conference secLlonal chalrperson wlll sLarL proceedlngs by announclng Lhe LlLle of Lhe
paper and usually also Lhe names of Lhe auLhors as well as Lhe name of Lhe presenLer, ln Lhe
case of Lhls example:

AJvooces lo soqotcooe soll fettlllty teseotcb lo 5ootbeto Aftlco
by In Meyet ooJ k voo Aotwetpeo
to be pteseoteJ by In Meyet

27
As Lhe chalrperson has named Lhe auLhors, Lhere ls no need for Lhem Lo be repeaLed by Lhe
presenLer hlmself. Pe only needs Lo sLarL hls dellvery wlLh a saluLaLlon such as 'Cood
Mornlng' or 'Cood AfLernoon', as Lhe case may be. Pe wlll Lhen pro[ecL Lhe LwenLy slldes of
Lhe owerolnL resenLaLlon (shown on Lhe nexL page), one every mlnuLe, Lo remlnd hlm of
Lhe sub[ecL maLLer he memorlsed and rehearsed, and whlch he now dellvers.

1he presenLer may prefer Lhe Llme remlnder (ln brackeLs afLer each flve slldes) noL Lo be
lncluded on Lhe pro[ecLed slldes. lf so, Lhe Llme remlnders should be lncluded on Lhe hard
copy of Lhe owerolnL plan whlch Lhe presenLer needs Lo have ln fronL of hlm on Lhe
lecLern.

1o emphaslse agaln Lhe lmporLance of keeplng Lo Llme, Lhe presenLer should also have a
clock or Llmer wlLhln hls slghL on Lhe lecLern.

Pow Lo end a presenLaLlon ls always a problem, lf Lhe conference programme makes
provlslon for lL, Lhe presenLer can end hls presenLaLlon by leLLlng Lhe chalrperson know LhaL
he would welcome quesLlons and commenLs. AfLer LhaL lL ls Lhe chalrperson who can effecL
a sulLable endlng wlLh Lhanks Lo Lhe presenLer and auLhors. lf Llme has noL been provlded ln
Lhe programme for quesLlons, an approprlaLe endlng ls more dlfflculL, many presenLers [usL
end by saylng '1hank ?ou', buL lL ls Lhe presenLer and noL Lhe delegaLes who should be
Lhanked.

A convenlenL and approprlaLe endlng for a presenLaLlon ls for Lhe presenLer Lo acknowledge
and Lhank co-auLhors and oLhers who have conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe wrlLlng of Lhe orlglnal paper
and Lo Lhe presenLaLlon.


28
1nL CWLkCIN1 kLSLN1A1ICN CI 20 SLIDLS

1
Cb[ecLlves

8ackground Lo
Lhe sLudy
2
Crop nuLrlLlon
research

varleLles and n
use efflclency
3
oLasslum,
phosphorus and
llme
requlremenLs
4
Show, dlscuss
llCu8L 1

nlLrogen
managemenL
S
Show, dlscuss
llCu8L 2

Soll-speclflc n
recommendaLlons

(S MINU1LS)
6
lmproved n use
Lhrough
ferLlgaLlon

Slllcon
7
Show, dlscuss
1A8LL 1

Show, dlscuss
llCu8L 3
8
Crganlc carrlers

Lconomlcs of
ferLlllser use
9
lmproved
ferLlllser
managemenL
Lhrough leaf
analysls
10
lerLlllser Advlsory
Servlce

MonlLorlng long
Lerm Lrends

(10 MINU1LS)
11
Advances ln soll
managemenL
pracLlces

Soll crusLlng
12
Mlnlmum
Llllage

Lroslon
13
Soll
conservaLlon

Creen
manurlng
14
1rash
managemenL

CompacLlon
1S
SallnlLy

SodlclLy


(1S MINU1LS)
16
?leld decllne
and
soll healLh
17
?leld decllne
conL.

Crganlc maLLer

Mlcroblology
18
Soll/cane
managemenL

WaLer use
efflclency
19
SysLems
agronomy
20
Concluslons

AcknowledgemenLs



(20 MINU1LS)