SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT

REPORT
ON DETAILED STUDY OF COMBINED CYCLE GAS POWER GENERATION & COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH COAL POWER PLANT 1st June2011-25th July2011

SUBMITTED BY: PENUGONDA HARDEEP DAPARTHY SRI SATYA CHANAKYA B.Tech Power system engineering University of Petroleum & Energy Studies

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a great honor to take the responsibility to thank the distinguished personalities who have always accorded top priority to reform motivation and to carry out our mini project successfully.

We owe our sincere gratitude to Mr soumitra ray, Plant Head, REL-SPS for giving us this opportunity.

With respectful regards we would like to thank our guide Mr.Chetan Tanki ,HEAD(O&M), REL-SPS for his excellent guidance and support throughout our Internship.

We also express our profound thanks to all engineers in O&M , REL-SPS for helping us having a live exposure.

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. BRIEF DETAILS OF THE PLANT PART I OVERVIEW OF COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT Page No

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED CYCLE 2. GT POWER PLANT 3. COMPRESSOR 4. COMBUSTION CHAMBER 5. GAS TURBINE 6. GT SUPPORT SYSTEM 7. HRSG 8. GT FUELS 9. STEAM TURBINE 10. CONDENSER 11. DEARATOR 12. COOLING TOWER 13. EMISSION CONTROL 14. SWITCH YARD

6 8 9 11 12 19 27 31 33 34 38 39 40 41

PART- II
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15. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COAL THERMAL POWER PLANTS AND CCPP 15.1. INTRODUCTION 15.2. NEED FOR COMPARISON 15.3. METHODOLOGY 15.4 STEPS FOR CALCULATIONS 16. COMPARISON 16.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 16.2. BASED ON FUEL 16.3. BASED ON FUEL COST 16.4. BASED ON INITIAL SET UP 16.5. BASED ON RUNNING COST 16.6. BASED ON PLF 16.7. BASED ON FUEL HANDLING 17. BASED ON AUXILIARIES 18. BASED ON EFFECIENCY 19. BASED ON EMISSION CONTROL 20. ADVANTAGES OF COMBINED CYCLE 21. CONCLUSIONS III. REFERENCES 45 45 47 48 51 52 53 54 55 57 58 58 59 63 64 65 66 66

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INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED CYCLE

A gas fired combined cycle power plant also known as, combined cycle gas turbine power plant combines the strengths of two thermal cycles in an ideal fashion, electricity production with gas turbine along with the steam turbine. It is simply known as CCGT combined cycle gas turbine. A combined cycle power plant operates on the combination of two basic cycles. They are

Brayton cycle (Gas turbine) Rankine cycle (steam turbine) These two cycles are in series during the operation. The first cycle is the Brayton cycle (gas turbine) thereafter comes the use of Rankine cycle( steam turbine).

Therefore, simply a combined cycle power plant = Brayton cycle + Rankine cycle A combined cycle is basically a closed cycle in which there is a loss of only a minimum amount of heat, as the heat from the outlet of Gas turbine is utilized in the Steam turbine and the main objective is to utilize all the available heat energy in a power system. Hence a combined cycle power plant can achieve more efficiency when compared to that of other thermal power plants. A combined cycle encompasses a large range of capabilities for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz operating frequencies. The gas cycle efficiency can be calculated using the equation:
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Ncc = Nb + Nr (Nb*Nr) Where, Nb - Brayton gas turbine cycle efficiency Nr Rankine cycle efficiency The efficiency that is obtained theoretically is not perfect and contains some operational losses. Hence the efficiency obtained will be less than theoretically obtained The following diagram explains the basic operation of a combined cycle power plant with step wise description.

Figure 1

Energy flow diagram of combined cycle

1.1 ADVANTAGES OF COMBINED CYCLE:

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The combined cycle power plant is more beneficial than the conventional coal thermal power plant. The following are some advantages that are incurred with the use of combined cycle power plant operation.

A combined cycle power plant handling is easy when compared to coal thermal power plant

The efficiencies that are obtained in a combined cycle are better when compared to other means of power generation.

The waste heat evolved from the gas turbine is further utilized in steam generation from the HRSG, thus become highly beneficial economically also.

The pollution contents evolved are also less when compared to coal power plants thus keeping the environment safe.

2. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: A gas turbine converts the kinetic energy of the air and fuel into the mechanical energy. 2.1 ADVANTAGES:

The condition from no load to full load is achieved in few minutes and not in hours. Initial set up cost is easy The gas turbine produces more useful power from the same unit size and weight. The gas turbine has high efficiency.

2.2 DISADVANTAGES:

The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling water is required for pre cooling.

The response to the load variation is poor comparatively.

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3. COMPRESSOR
3.1 DESCRIPTION: A compressor is a rotating device which is mainly used to compress the air which is taken from the air inlet system. A compressor consists of rotor and stator, likewise in turbine, in which the rotor blades rotate and each row of rotor blades are followed by the row of stator blades. 3.2 OPERATION: A compressor uses air as its working medium. It compresses the air and increases its pressure energy. Later it will discharge air in to the combustion chamber. It works on the conservation of energy principle. It imposes pressure energy the air. 3.3 TYPES: There are two types of compressor. They are centrifugal type and axial flow type compressors. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR: Centrifugal compressor consists of an impeller and a diffuser. The impeller imparts high kinetic energy to the air whereas the diffuser converts that high kinetic energy into pressure energy. The pressure ratio of 2 to 3 can be obtained for a single stage compressor, where as it can be up to 20 for a three stage compressor. The compressors can have single or double inlet. The single inlet compressors can have an air flow of 15 to 300m3/min where as for double inlet compressors the air flow can be above 300 m3/min. the efficiency of a centrifugal compressor may be 80-90%. The efficiency of a multi stage compressor is generally less than the single stage compressor on account of more pressure losses. AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR: The axial flow compressor consists of a series of rotor and stator stages with the circumferences gradually decreasing along with the air flow direction. The blades are fixed on the rotor and rotor blade is fixed on the shaft. The shaft blades are fixed on the stator casing. The air flows along the

axis of the rotor. The kinetic energy is given to the air as it passes through the rotor and part of it is converted into the pressure. The no of stages required for maintaining a pressure ratio 5 are more than 16. An air filter is imparted before the air enters in to the compressor for the purpose of cleaning because the deposition of dust on the rotor blades reduces the efficiency of the compressor. Advantages:

The axial flow compressors have high isentropic efficiency when compared to the centrifugal type compressors.

These have high flow rate and can handle more air flow for same weight and size of machine.

3.4 COMPONENTS OF COMPRESSOR: The compressor is having 16 stages, in which two extractions are made at 5 th stage and 10th stage for blow off system. A compressor contains following parts in it. STATOR: The stator consists of the stationery or fixed blades which are located just after the row of rotor blades. Thus each set of stator blades with rotor blades constitute a stage. Likewise, there are 16 stages in the compressor. ROTOR: The rotor is the rotating device on which the blades are fixed. The blades are the moving blades which are helpful in increasing the pressure of the air, which will be discharged into the gas turbine. INLET SECTION The front portion of the compressor consists of comparatively large size of blades which takes air from the inlet section. The total compressor has 16 stages.

DISCHARGE SECTION: The discharge section of the compressor is tapered towards the gas turbine inorder to increase the pressure of the inlet air. BLOW OFF SYSTEM: The blow system is mainly designed when the turbine runs less than its rated speed. This is done inorder to avoid the phenomenon of surge in the compressor. It consists of a tank, from which the air is blown off through two lines, one from the 5th stage of compressor and other from the 10th stage of compressor. These two lines are provided with some valves and filters before admitting the air in to the compressor. 4. COMBUSTION CHAMBER 4.1 PROCESS: The combustion is the process in which a substance is oxidized to give heat which is an important factor for high output in a power plant. As the gas turbine is a continuous flow process the combustion has to occur continuously. In a combustion chamber chemical reaction takes place between the fuel and the air which yields many products, out of which some are used for turbine expansion where the rest will be discharged in to the atmosphere. In a combined cycle power plants, generally two combustion chambers are located on each side after the compressor, which exhausts in to the turbine. There are 8 burners in each combustion chamber. 4.2 CLASSIFICATION Generally combustion chambers are of different types. The mostly used types are silo type and axial type. But the mostly used combustion chambers are silo type chambers which are elevated sideways to the gas turbine. These are generally two in number.

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5. GAS TURBINE 5.1 INTRODUCTION: Gas turbines are relatively new in generation of electricity. The first practical gas turbine used to ran for electricity generation was used in 1939 at neuchatel, switzerland and was developed by Brown bovery company. Gas turbines are classified into 2 types based on their application. They are 1) air craft engine 2) land based gas turbine The aircraft engine finds its application in air craft engines, as the name indicates where as the land based gas turbine finds its application in power plants. Generally one will assume that gas turbines use gas as its fuel. How ever, a gas turbine uses compressor to suck in the air and compress, a combustor to add fuel to it and a turbine to expand and to give a rated output. Gas turbines ar IC engines. For a gas turbine to expand the steam ,there must be a pressure ratio developed along its ends. So for creating a pressure ratio there should install the air compressor before it compresses the air adiabatically (no exchange of heat between system and the surroundings). Generally ,more stages of a turbine are always preferred in a gas power plant as this reduce the stresses on the blades. But if, after the compressor the air is directly fed to the turbine for its rotation, the turbine may rotate, but the energy output is almost same as that of the compressor output. So there is no useful output of work from the turbine. For getting the higher output from the same input, the working fluid should be expanded to raise its temperature. This could be done by the combustion chamber where the working fluid is expanded by increasing its temperature . then if it fed to the turbine the output obtained will be more than the inout, the net output will be the useful work. The performance of the Gas Turbine mainly depends on the 2 factors. They are Efficiency of the components in it Turbine working temperature
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For the cycle to perform more efficiently, the pressure ratio should be maintained as 20:1 and the turbine inlet temperature be 1350k.

Fig: Gas turbine in power plant 5.2 FEATURES OF GAS TURBINES: The gas turbines have the following opearational features. They are 1. The gas turbines produce a large amount of useful work from the relatively small input
2. The mechanical life is long when compared to apiston driven engine.

3. The start up time to a full load for a gas turbine is in minutes VS for a steam turbine 4. Gas turbines can operate utilizing various types of fuels. But generally natural gas is been used in it.
5. Atmospheric air is typically the working fluid for the gas turbine and doesnot require any

coolant for basic power generation.

5.3 BRAYTON CYCLE:

A gas turbine is basically not simply a turbine. It comprises of 3 different sections. Altogether constitutes the gas turbine. The 3 sections are
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Compressor Combustion chamber Turbine

Gas turbines may operate either on a closed or on an open cycle. The majority of gas turbines currently in use, operate on the open cycle in which the working fluid, after completing the cycle is exhausted to the atmosphere. The air fuel ratio used in these gas turbines is approximately 60:1. The ideal cycle for gas turbine is Brayton Cycle or Joule Cycle. The Brayton cycle was developed in the year 1876. This cycle is of the closed type using a perfect gas with constant specific heats as a working fluid. This cycle is a constant pressure cycle and is shown in Fig. 9.24. On P-V diagram and in Fig. 9.25 on T- diagram. This cycle consists of the following processes: The cold air at 3 is fed to the inlet of the compressor where it is compressed along 3-4 and then fed to the combustion chamber where it is heated at constant pressure along 4-1. The hot air enters the turbine at 1 and expands adiabatically along 1-2 and is then cooled at constant pressure along 2-3.

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5.4 TYPES OF GAS TURBINE: MAIN ELEMENTS:

1) ROTOR:

It is the rotating element in the gas turbine, up on which blades are fixed on its pheriphery.

2) STATOR:

The stator consists of the stationery or fixed blades which are located just after the row of rotor blades. Thus each set of stator blades with rotor blades constitute a stage. Likewise, there are 4 stages in the gas turbine. COOLING ARRANGEMENT: The blades of the gas turbine are cooled by the extractions from the compressor at the stages 5 and 10. The air which is taken as extraction from these stages 5.5 STARTING SEQUENCE OF GAS TURBINE: Initially the turbine shaft should be lifted inorder to make it rotate. For that, lift oil system will be used. Lift oil system lifts the turbine shaft in to the air inorder to reduce the friction between the shaft and the gear There are 4 bearings present in total .all these bearings are providing with lub oil system. There is also a turning gear for initial rotation of turbine and for its protection during start up and shut down.

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Whenever turbine is under cold start up condition, for its starting turning gear should be used to increase its speed from 0 rpm to 100rpm. This much speed will be attained with the help of turning gear. Then start command: Before giving start command to the turbine the following parameters should be checked initially. 1) Check whether the lub oil system is started or not (it should be started).
2) Lift oil system should be ready 3) Turning gear system should be ready

4) Hydraulic oil system should be checked. 5) Air inlet damper should be opened(if not, it should be opened)

If any of the above things gone wrong, then they will be corrected first before giving start command to the turbine. After attaining 100-120 rpm for turbine starting frequency converter (SFC) come into action. This helps in increase the speed of the turbine slowly and continuously till 2100 rpm thereafter it will cut off. SFC takes its supply from the RYB phases of the station transformer. After SFC comes into action, at 450 rpm, actual firing will occur in the combustion chamber (the fuel valve will be opened and the gas enters the combustion chamber.

5.6 How firing will occur? When gas enters the combustion chamber, ignition gas control valve will be opened and a sudden spark will be generated for a time of 2 sec only that too with the help of spark ignition plug.

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When the speed reaches 500 rpm, lift oil support will cutoff. But SFC is still working .when it attains the speed 600 rpm, main oil valve (MOV) will be closed and now the diffusion gas enters and gas quantity increases gradually based on the lifting rate of the shaft. At 2100 rpm, SFC will cutoff but the turbine is self sustainable to attain the required speed(3000rpm) at 2850 rpm, blow out valve will be closed and finally the gas entering the turbine can individually be responsible for attaining the speed of 3000 rpm. The important Parameters that are to be considered are 1) Bearing temp and vibration 2) Lub oil pressure 3) Hydraulic oil pressure. Total time taken to bring turbine from 0 rpm to 3000rpm is normally 10-14 min. For synchronization the following parameters should be taken into account 1) Matching the voltage It will be done by the AVR 2) Matching the frequency It will be done by the control valve 3) Phase angle matching It will be done by the synchronoscope
4) Phase sequence (it should be constant)

All the above mentioned parameters should be matched in the sequential order as given above. 1) Speed controller 2) Load control and load set

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Based on the load rise rate the gas flow will be regulated by means of the gas control valve. But the load rise rate should be normally maintained at 11 mw/min. Till now the turbine is under load control mode 3) TETC mode ( Turbine Exhaust Temperature Calculated): When the Igniter Gas Valve is 95% opened, then the TETC will come into operation in the place of the load control. The TETC itself calculates the flow based on the parameters like temperature and pressure from time to time. 4) Compressor pressure ratio limiter ( beta limiter): When frequency suddenly decreases pressure will be decreased and there will be a back flow of gases from the turbine which causes the surge (vibrations in the machine), then b-limiter will reduce the load accordingly and close the IGV 5) Load limiter: It will reduce the load to the rated load. Mal operation of this will lead to decrease in the life of the machine (plant). All the above discussed will come under Turbine Governing system 6. GAS TURBINE SUPPORTING SYSTEMS 6.1 INTRODUCTION: A gas turbine support system includes the systems which are employed for the efficient operation of gas turbine. These may include fuel inlet system, air intake system etc. 6.2 FUEL INLET SYSTEM: The gas that is taken to GRS will be supplied to the combustion chamber for the production of steam which will be used to produce electricity. This will be done through the pipelines.

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The gas will enter the main path that leads to the combustion chamber. There after it is passed through the ESV (Emergency Stop Valve), there after there will be a bypass system provided (to remove the gas during GT shutdown to the atmosphere). From there it will be divided into the 2 streams, each provide with the pressure gauge individually to check out the inlet pressure for combustion. This whole system is in PREMIX mode to reduce the NOx emissions. After that, the gas enters the pilot valve in two streams through which it enters the two combustion chambers form the main path. Before that there are two paths from the main path that leads to the each combustion chamber. These two paths are provided with two control valves respectively for premix mode and diffusion mode. Basically there are two modes of operation, namely PREMIX mode DIFFERENTIAL mode

In premix mode, the flame is an oxidizing flame; hence the temperature will be less, which will reduce the NOx formation. In this mode, air will be added to the gas before entering the combustion chamber there by temperature can be controlled inside the combustion chamber.( O2 is more in this mode). In diffusion mode, first gas will enter the combustion chamber and thereafter the air is mixed to it Hence premix mode is preferable generally. But if TETC< 490c, the mode will automatically changes over from PREMIX to DIFFUSION mode and also until the GT load is < 50 MW, the system is in DIFFUSION MODE. AIR FILTERS: Air also plays an important role in the combined cycle power plant as it supports the phenomenon of combustion through the intake system.
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Air intake system consists of three pads namely, primary filter, coallescer pads and fine filters which will reduce the solid dust particles from the incoming air through the air receiver.primary filter is mainly used to remove the large particles.coallescer pads are used to remove the moisture form the air for the atmosphere where as the fine filters are used mainly to remove the fine particles of dust from the air. After the air receiver there will be an air plenum which directs the air into the combustion chamber. Before admitting to the compressor there will be a silencer to remove the noise of the air. It contains the vertical baffles to reduce the pressure across these baffles. Inside the air plenum, there is an air damper at the inlet of the combustion chamber which regulates the air flow into the combustion chamber according to the load. From there the air will enter the combustion chamber through the annular space in the combustion chamber. During the time of start up, this diverted damper is opened slowly according to the load.this diverted damper is hanged by means of two levers on its one side.

6.2 LUB OIL SYSTEM: The lub oil is mainly used for protection of bearing system. The lub oil avoids the wearing of the bearings contact surfaces by reducing the friction between the contact surfaces. The lub oil inturn cleans the surfaces there by removes the deposits of dust on the inner surfaces. The lub oil is a continuous system. For this there is a lub oil system associated individually to each system. It consists of tank, AOP, MOP, lub oil filters and lub oil coolers. Along with these there are also level indicators and temperature and pressure maintaning devices and valves associated with the system.

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Fig :

PARTS: OIL FILTER(STRAINER): These are mainly used to purify the lub oil before entering the required system. In these filters, there is a mesh like network which seperates the solid dust particles from entering the system.

OIL COOLERS:

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These are employed to cool the lub oil after its use in the system. For this cooling, the cooling water is circulated in the tubes which take over the heat from the hot lub oil thus making it cool and make it useful again. Generally two oil coolers are employed in the lub oil system, one is in service and the other in stand by position. Along with the above equipments, there are many other accessories in the lub oil system which include, Auxiliary oil pump, Main oil pump, Drain valve, Air vent, pressure relief valve etc. Whereas the auxiliary oil pump is used to pump the oil during startup when the pressure is not upto the mark. Pressure relief valve is used to reduce the pressure which may cause overheating of the system. 6.3 STARTING SEQUENCE OF LUBE OIL SYSTEM: 1) Check the oil level in the oil reservoir (tank). If the oil is above the minimum level then only the pump will start. The level switch will take care of it. 2) When the oil level is above the minimum level, then the AOP (Auxiliary Oil Pump) will start.
3) Gradually it will build up the pressure above the 2 bar and then the MOP will start along

with the BFP. This will be done by the 1st pressure switch. 4) Then both pumps will start running and when the pressure becomes >3bar, AOP automatically trips. Then only the MOP will be running.
5) When MOP is running, if the pressure drops <1.5bar, then the AOP will start again and

both MOP and AOP will run to build the pressure above 3bar and thereafter, AOP will cutoff. This will be done by the 3rd pressure switch.
6) When the MOP is not able to maintain the pressure up to 1 bar then the BFPs will be

tripped to normalize the condition. This will be done by the 2nd pressure switch.

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7) The oil strainers will be used to maintain the pressure. The temperature will be measured by the thermometer and the flow rate is measured by flow meter. 8) Oil filters are used to remove the dust from the oil and keep it clean. 9) During change over from one to the other pump, make sure that oil is filled otherwise the system will be damaged.
10)

Check for the smooth flow in the system

11) Check for vibrations and noises in the system 12) Finally check any leakages are there in the system. 6.4 HYDRAULIC OIL SYSTEM: TASKS OF THE HYDRAULIC OIL SYSTEM:

Generation of high-pressure control fluid flow to operate the valve actuators Transforming the electric input signal from the turbine control to a hydraulic control signal

Adjusting the fuel supply control valves to the required fuel quantity Supplying the individual actuators with the high pressure control fluid Collecting and returning the leakage and return fluid quantities occuring at the control units and the control actuators

Continuous cooling and filtration of control fluid

A hydraulic oil system contains the following parts in it Control fluid tank High-pressure Hydraulic pump Pressure control valve
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Circulating pump Hydraulic Accumulator Air cooler and fluid filter

6.5 IGNITION GAS SYSTEM: The ignition gas system is mainly useful in the time of GT start up. This system helps in establishing the flame initially at a specific speed range of GT. This system consists of pressure reducing valves , pressure relief valves and ignition gas valves that are internally connected to the gas turbine ignition system. 6.6 COOLING AIR SYSTEM: The cooling air is provided by the compressor which enters the blades axialli from the downwards and leaves the tips in each stage. 6.7 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM: Complete fire protection system for the entire power station including all buildings, power transformers, fuel oil handling systems shall be provided. Extinguishers shall also be provided. For fire protection, fire fighting system runs along the eauipment in the power plant. The fire fightiing system mainly contains of water in it, which acts immediately, when the fire takes place. The water is mainly the water from water reservoir. Along with this, cylinders of carbon dioxide are readily available for fire fighting . 6.8 COMPRESSOR WASH SYSTEM: The compressor is a complicated system in which the performance is greatly effected by the proper functioning of compressor blades. But sometimes the moisture from the air intake system may deposit on the blades. These may damage the blades by corrosion. Hence the blades should be washed frequently. For this compressor washing system is employed. this consists of tank which contain demineralised water and some deterent added to it. This water is sprayed on the blades of the
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compressor through two nozzles namely, jet nozzles and spray nozzles by the water pump. The flow to the nozzles is controlled by the control valves. Generally the compressor washing is online done. For this only the jet nozzles are used. The compressor washing can be done during the operation of turbine also. Whereas for offline washing of compressor system, both the jet nozzles and spray nozzles are used 6.9 CHEMICAL TREATMENT LABORATORY: A suitable chemical laboratory shall be provided in the power plant to enable testing of fuel, water, flue gas, etc. as required for normal operation of the power plant. The following equipment shall be provided in the chemical laboratory: Equipment for Water Analysis Equipment for liquid fuel oil Analysis General Equipment Environmental Laboratory Equipment Pollution Control Monitoring Equipment Pumps shall be centrifugal, multistage and barrel type. Steam turbine driven feed pump set shall comprise of main pump and booster pump.

6.10 CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMPS: 3x55% capacity condensate pumps for each unit shall be provided. Pumps shall be vertical canister type. 6.11 HP-LP BYPASS SYSTEM: The HP-LP bypass system shall be designed to safely and reliably control the flow, pressure and temperature of steam bypassing the HP and intermediate/low pressure sections of steam turbine during the steam turbine trip and during major load rejections so that the steam generator can
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safely be kept on-line. The HP bypass capacity at HP bypass valve inlet shall be 60% TG MCR capacity. 6.12 CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEM: Common LP dosing system shall be supplied to maintain the condensate and feed water chemistry. Chemical dosing shall be at boiler feed pump suction, condensate extraction pump discharge and at boiler fill pump suction. Dosing system shall be complete with tanks, pumps, piping, valves and fittings.

6.13 CONDENSATE POLISHING UNIT: The Condensate Polishing System will be designed to remove dissolved and suspended solids corrosion products & other impurities from condensate during startup, normal operation and periods of condenser tube leakage to maintain the feed water and steam purity requirements of the boiler and turbine respectively.

7. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR(HRSG)

7.1 INTRODUCTION: The HRSG is a heat exchanger which is mainly used in a combined cycle power to recover the waste heat from the Gas turbine outlet and is further utilized in generation of power from the Steam turbine. HRSGs are generally unfired and modular in design with finned tube heat transfer surfaces and natural or forced circulation evaporators.

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Generally combined cycle power plants have many common features and some are unique and site specific. In general combined cycle power plants, one HRSG for one Gas turbine unit is followed.but the latest designs are in such a way that, two gas turbines will exhaust through a single HRSG.

7.2 WASTE HEAT POTENTIAL: In a HRSG the energy transfer takesplace between the GT exhaust gas and the HRSG water/steam. The pressurised water is converted in to the super heated steam by adding the sensible heat of the gas turbine exhaust temperature. This occurs because the energy level of the exhaust gas is greater than the energy level of the water. The difference in the energy level is measured in the terms of temperature differential. Higher the temperature differential,greater the energy transfer.
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This enegy transfer takesplace in the form of forced convection. Convection is nothing but the enegy exchange between a stationery surface and a fluid moving over the surface. Forced convection requires some mechanical devices like fans etc for heat exchange. 7.3 CLASSIFICATION: HRSG s are generally divided into two types based on the firing phenomenon, whether it takesplace inside HRSG or outside. The classification is as follows Fired HRSGs Unfired HRSGs

FIRED HRSG: In these HRSGs , firing takes place inside the HRSG. These are generally used in the cogeneration type of power plants. UNFIRED HRSG: In these HRSGs firing does not take place inside the HRSG, but it helps to add the sensible heat to the steam from the outlet of gas turbine. The unfired HRSGs are mainly used in the combined cycle power plants.

7.4 COMBINED CYCLE: HRSG ARRANGEMENTS: HRSG- the name itself indicates that it recovers the waste heat form the gas turbine exhaust. HRSG consist of two circuits, namely, HPcircuit and LP circuit

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Each circuit consists of a drum, economizer, evaporator and a super heater. For HP circuit, there are 2 super heaters, 2 evaporators, 2 economizers and 1 drums whereas, for LP circuit, all are one in number only. The output of the gas turbine is having an exhaust temperature of 560c. At this temperature there will be a heat content present in the exhaust gases. Therefore these exhaust gases are recovered in the HRSG(Heat Recovery Steam Generator). In the HRSG, the steam first goes to the HP super heater 1 where the temperature of the steam will be increased from which it is fed to the steam turbine similarly the steam goes to the LP superheater from there also the steam enters steam turbine and expands there also. From there, the expanded steam enters the condensors from where the condensate will be formed. The so formed condensate will be pumped back to the deaerator by the condensate extraction pump. All HRSGs would exhaust into a common header that feeds the steam turbine. HRSG design features are: Flexible tube support system to enable fast startup Low gas side pressure drop for optimum gas turbine performance

This system is employed in time of need only, but in general everyday this system is put in operation for one hour.

7.5 USE OF FINNED TUBES: in a HRSG, finned tubes are used for water carrying purpose. The fins are ribbons of steel wrapped around the outside of the tube. These fins are helpful in protecting the tubes against the corrocion and scale formation, as long exposure to the heat damages the tube.

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7.6 NATURAL VS FORCED CIRCULATION: Normally HRSGs are of two types depending on the type of flow inside the heat exchanger. They are Natural circulation Forced circulation But in SPS, the type of HRSG employed is of natural circulation type. In natural circulation type HRSG, the water steam circuit is designed in such a way that the circuit completes naturally because of the pressure difference developed across the circuit. 7.7 GAS SIDE PRESSURE DROP: In HRSG there are the chances if the pressure drops from the tubes. Generally the tubes can withstand the operating flow velocity of nealry 31 m/sec. if the flow velocity exceeds this limit, the tube walls undergo erosion and if this limit exceeds more there is a chance of excessive GT exhaust gas back pressure or HRSG pressure drop. The maximum permissible level of HRSG drop is 635mm of water column. 7.8 USE OF CATALYSTS: Water is the main substance required for the reliable and safe operation of the HRSG system. Hence the water should be properly treated before feeding in to the HP and LP lines. If not, thetubes of the economisr, drum walls and the tubes of superheater undergo corrosion

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because of the soluble minerals in the water. Hence in the demineralised plant, water is treated first and then it is feeded to the lines of the HRSG. In a demineralisation plant the added anions and cations are removed from the water and the water is added with anti foaming agents and some anti corrosion materials. 8. GT FUELS 8.1 INTRODUCTION: For a gas turbine power plant whether in open cycle or in closed cycle, the fuel which is uden frequently is natural gas. The natural gas has a high GCV and low heat rate, hence a less quantity of fuel is used for combustion natural gas contains mainly methane and ethane as its major constituents. These constituents together contribute to about 90% of the total fuel. Hence the GCV of natural gas is more. But the availability of natural gas is sometimes not possible and in some times of emergency. Hence there is need for some emergency fuel. Here are some of the fuels which are used either as back up fuel or as direct fuel. 8.2 GASEOUS FUELS: Natural gas is a major source of power generation through the use of gas turbines and steam turbines. Most grid peaking power plants use natural gas. Particularly, high efficiencies can be achieved with the help of combined cycle power plants with the use of steam turbines. Natural gas burn more clearly than other sources like coal, oil etc Natural gas produce very less amounts of pollutants and carbon dioxide when compared to that of coal and oil. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produce 30% of carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and 45% less than burning of coal. As the storage of natural gas is a bit difficult, hence in power plants natural gas is supplied only when there is power generation. It is not stored in pipe line during shut down condition. As it is harmful, the pipeline is immediately flushed with Liquified Nirogen Gas(LNG) to remove the natural gas from the pipeline. Intimes of leakage it is difficult to find out the natuaral gas as it is colourless and odourless. Hence to avoid this situation , a small amount of odorant which contain t-butyl
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mercaptan is added to the natural gas inorder to detect during the leakages. The addition of this odorant causes rotten egg smell. The natural gas quantity is generally measured in terms of standard cubic meters(sm3). At SPS the gas nomination is 50,000 sm3 for base load. It is supplied by GAIL. 8.3 LIQUID FUELS: Some times , liquid fuels like naphtha and kerosene have been used for producing the power from the gas power plant. But these liquid fuels are a bit costlier than the natural gas. NON CONVENTIONAL FUELS: These fuels include the crude oil, refinery gas are also rarely used in the times of emergency conditions. But these fuels are some what polluting when compared to the natural gas and also these fuels have less GCV. Propane is also used as the fuel for power production sometimes. 9. STEAM TURBINE Steam turbine is one of the most important producer of power in a power plant. The purpose of turbine technology is to extract the maximum quantity of energy from the working fluid, to convert it into useful work with maximum efficiency, by means of a plant having maximum reliability, minimum cost, minimum supervision and minimum starting time. Steam turbines for combined-cycle power plants generally are of two styles. Steam turbines with different exhaust annulus areas are available to permit optimization to meet specific condenser cooling conditions. Steam turbines with large annulus areas are more expensive, but provide increased capability and may be the most economical selection for applications with low steam turbine exhaust pressures. Steam turbines with small exhaust annulus area provide comparable or higher capability and low cost and are the more economical choice when steam turbine exhaust pressures are high. When steam is allowed to expand through a narrow orifice, it assumes kinetic energy at the expense of its enthalpy (heat energy). This kinetic energy of steam is changed to mechanical (rotational) energy through the impact (impulse) or reaction of steam against the blades. It should be realized that the blade of the turbine obtains no motive force from the static pressure of the
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steam or from any impact of the steam jet. The blades are designed in such a way, that steam will glide on and off the blade without any tendency to strike it. As the steam moves over the blades, its direction is continuously changing and centrifugal pressure exerted as the result is normal to the blade surface at all points. The total motive force acting on the blade is thus the resultant of all the centrifugal forces plus the change of momentum. This causes rotational movement of blades.
10. CONDENSOR:

A condensor is designed inorder to condense the steam from the outlet of steam turbine. The main aim in doing so is to increase the thermal efficiency to a maximum level. This is done by maintaining vacuum in the condensor. The functions of condenser are: i. To provide lowest economic heat rejection temperature for the steam. Thus saving on steam required per unit of electricity. ii. To convert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on feed water requirement. iii. Deaeration of make-up water introduced in the condenser. iv. To form a convenient points for introducing make up water. v. To provide means for venting and draining of associated equipment of feed Water system. By lowering the condensor operating pressure, the following advantages will occur Increase in work output Reduced steam flow Increase in plant efficiency

A condensor is connected to the turbine outlet, condensate extraction pump. A condensate system includes condensate extraction pump, feed water, demineralised water, cooling water,

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turbine outlet.in condensor, there is a well type structure which is generally called hotwell. Above the hotwell the structure is known as actual condensor. For a condensor, the outlet steam from the last stage of the steam turbine is the input. It is heat exchanger in which the heat from the steam is transerrd to the water and the steam becomes condensate and is formed in the hotwell. From the hotwell the condensate is transferred to the deaerator by the condensate extraction pump. The cooling water takes up the heat from the steam and the hot cooling water leaves the condensor and enters the cooling tower for its cooling. The condensor level is maintained in such a way to maintain the vacuum in the condensor. If the level drops in the condensor , the make up water is provided by the feed water from the feed water storage tank. The vacuum in the condensor is assisted by the vacuum pump. The vaccum pump removes the non condensable gases and other gases from the condensor. The amount of heat exchanged between the cooling water and steam depends on the no. of tubes per pass. The two main devices that are used to vent the non condensable gases are Steam Jet Air Ejectors and Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps. Steam Jet Air Ejectors (SJAE) use highpressure motive steam to evacuate the noncondensables from the condenser (Jet Pump). Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps use a liquid compressing to compress the evacuated noncondensables and then discharges them to the atmosphere. To aid in the removal of the non condensable gases, condensers are equipped with an AirCooler section. The Air- Cooler section of the condenser consists of a quantity of tubes that are baffled to collect the non condensable. Cooling of the non condensable reduces their volume and the required size of the air removal equipment. Air removal equipment must operate in two modes: hogging and holding. Prior to admitting exhaust steam to a condenser, all the non condensable must be vented from the condenser. In hogging mode, large volumes of air are quickly removed from the condenser in order to reduce the condenser pressure from atmospheric to a predetermined level. Once the desired pressure is achieved, the air removal system can be operated in holding mode to remove all non condensable gases. Generally the condensers are classified in to two types. They are Surface condenser Jet type condenser
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But generally surface type condensers are used. In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam and cooling water and the condensate can be re-used in the boiler: In such condenser even impure water can be used for cooling purpose whereas the cooling water must be pure in jet condensers. Although the capital cost and the space needed is more in surface condensers but it is justified by the saving in running cost and increase in efficiency of plant achieved by using this condenser. 10.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A SURFACE CONDENSER The various advantages of a surface condenser are as follows: 1. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water. 2. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water does not come in direct contact with steam. 3. High vacuum (about 73.5 cm of Hg) can be obtained in the surface condenser. This increase the thermal efficiency of the plant. The various disadvantages of' the surface condenser is as follows: 1. The capital cost is more. 2. The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser is high. 3. It is bulky and requires more space. 10.2 REQUIREMENTS OF A MODERN SURFACE CONDENSER The requirements of ideal surface condenser used for power plants are as follows: 1. The steam entering the condenser should be evenly distributed over the whole cooling surface of the condenser vessel with minimum pressure loss. 2. The amount of cooling water being circulated in the condenser should be so regulated that the Temperature of cooling water leaving the condenser is equivalent to saturation temperature of steam corresponding to steam pressure in the condenser. This will help in preventing under cooling of condensate.
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3. The deposition of dirt on the outer surface of tubes should be prevented. Passing the cooling water through the tubes and allowing the steam to flow over the tubes achieve this. 4. There should be no air leakage into the condenser because presence of air destroys the vacuum in the condenser and thus reduces the work obtained per kg of steam. If there is leakage of air into the condenser air extraction pump should be used to remove air as rapidly as possible.

10.3 REASONS FOR FALL OF VACUUM PRESSURE IN CONDENSOR: The following are the reasons for the fall of vacuum pressure in the condenser Tripping of condensate extraction pump Tripping of vacuum pumps Mal functioning of the level indicators

Because of the above reasons, the level in condenser may increase or decrease when compared to the nnormal level. When the condenser level is high when compared to the normal level, the pressure gradually increases and it may reach to a value > 1 bar. When the value exceeds it, it is not said to be vauum, hence the steam will not go the condenser for cooling. But the water level is increasing, this may cause damage of the last stage of turbine blade. Because of this, the turbine may trip or the life of the turbine may reduce. But when the level in the condenser falls below the normal level, the condenser make up water is provided by the feed water. 10.4 Gland Steam Condenser: GSC is used for the condensation of the Leak off steam from the turbine glands.GSC uses the leakage steam as input which is coming from the sealing system provided for the turbines which is used to avoid the leakage of steam. 10.5 ONLINE TUBE CLEANING SYSTEM: It is minly used in cleaning the tubes of the condenser when the tubes get chocked with the dust particles, because of the cooling water from the cooling tower fore bay which flows
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through the condenser. As if these dust particles may spoil the condenser tubes, tubes should be cleaned regularly. For this online tube cleaning system is employed. As the name indicates the cleaning is done ONLINE. This system contains small ball like structures, double in size of the condenser tubes, made of sponge. They are introduced in to the condenser tubes from a BALL VESSEL on the top side of the condenser. These balls absorb the dust particles inside the tube and leave the water clean, after wards these balls are separated in the BALL SEPERATOR and the clean water will flow to the fore bay of the cooling towers. 10.6 COOLING WATER SYSTEM: The seawater / River water shall be used for once through condenser cooling water system. The plant CW system shall include the CW and auxiliary CW pumping system, cooling tower, a cooling tower make up water treatment plant and a condensate treatment plant. Necessary piping, valves, fittings and instrumentation shall be provided. 10.7 AUXILIARY COOLING WATER SYSTEM: ACW system shall be independent for each unit. The principal criteria for the design of the system shall be to ensure a continuous and reliable supply of adequate auxiliary cooling water to the STG auxiliary coolers, at all conditions and at all times. The ACW system for each unit shall consist of the following: 3 x 50% capacity Closed cooling water pumps 3 x 50% capacity plate heat exchangers 3 x 50% capacity Auxiliary cooling water booster pumps

11. DEARATOR

11.1 Functions The presence of certain gases like Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia, dissolved in water is harmful because of their corrosive attack on metals, particularly at elevated,
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temperatures. Thus in modern high-pressure boiler, to prevention internal corrosion, the feed water should be free, as far as practicable, of all dissolved gases, especially oxygen. This is achieved by embodying into the fled system a deaerating Unit, apart from this, a dearator also serves the following functions: 1) Heating incoming feed water. 2) To act as a reservoir to provide a sudden or instantaneous demand The dearator comprises of two chambers: i.) Deaerating column ii.) Feed storage tank. Deaerating column is a spray cum tray type cylindrical vessel of horizontal construction with dished ends welded to it. The tray stack is designed to ensure maximum contact time as well as optimum scrubbing of condensate to achieve efficient deaeration. The deaerating column is mounted on the feed storage tank is fabricated from boiler quality steel plates. Manholes are provided on deaerating column as well as on feed storage tank for inspection and maintenance. The feed water is admitted at the top of the deaerating column and flows downwards through the spray valves and trays, The trays are designed to expose to the maximum water surface for efficient scrubbing to effect the liberation of the associated gases. Steam enters from the underneath of the tray and flows in counter direction of condensate. While flowing upward through the trays, scrubbing and heating is done. Thus the liberated gases move upwards along with the steam. Steam gets condensed above the trays and in turn heats the condensate. Liberated gases escape to atmosphere from the orifice opening meant for it. This opening is provided with a number of deflectors to minimize the loss of steam.

12. COOLING TOWERS Cooling towers are designed to cool the oulet cooling water of the condenser inorder to reuse it. These actually consist of large fans which rotate at about 1500 rpm speed on the top of
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the cooling tower and in the bottom, cooling water from the condenser outlet is sprayed from the distributed nozzles through large pipes. The water that is sprayed in to the cooling tower may have the tendency to go upward because of the large force exerted on them by the cooling fans.Hence rift eliminaters are used. They capture the water to escape outside from the bottom. The cooling towers may be of two types. Natural circulation type Forced circulation type

In a combined cycle power plants, generally a forced circulation is preferred. For this large fans are employed inside the cooling tower. At the bottom of each cooling tower, there is a forebay, which contains the cooling water. In this coolig water, chlorine is added in order to remove any dust from the cooling water. 13 EMMISSION CONTROL 13.1 INTRODUCTION: Natural gas when compared to the other fossil fuels like coal have less emmissions of pollutants in to the atmosphere. Natural gas after its treatemnt became a ceanst source of power generation. Hence the output of the gas power plnats are high. But in the natural gas also there are minute amounts of the contaminants present that can pollute the atmosphere. The major pollutants present in the emmissions are as follows NOx Carbon monoxide(CO) Volatile hydro carbon compounds Sox Particulate matter

13.2 NOx FORMATION AND CONTROL:

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NOx is the major contaminant in a gas power plant. NOx is formed in two types namely, fuel NOx and thermal NOx. Fuel NOx is caused because of the oxidation of nitro carbon compounds in the fuel. where as, thermal NOx is formed because of the oxidation of nitrogen in combustion air. But the natural gas has a less quantity of nitrogen content in it. Hence the fuel NOx formation is not possible. But the thermal NOx formation will be there. Though it is comparatively less , but the its poisonous may reduce the life of the system. 13.3 WATER OR STEAM INJECTION IN COMBUSTION CHAMBER: In a combustion chamber , comparatively low temperatures are to be maintained inorder to reducee the NOx emmissions, as the NOx formation will be less at low tempeartures. Hence in the combustion chambers , some amount of water is injected inorder to reduce the NOx emmissions. The water is injected through the annular space of the burner. This may lower the combustion chamber temperature slightly but output will be clean.

14. SWITCH YARD

The place which is meant for switching operation of power lines without transforming the voltage is known as switchyard. Here different connections are made between various transmission lines. The power that is generated in the power station should be transferred to the grid first and from there it is transferres to the required points. For this purpose , a switch yard is necesarry in every power plant. It not only useful for power transmission,butalso for the protection of the system from the internal as well as external faults. The functions of switch yard Main link between generating plant and Transmission system, which has a large influence on the security of the supply. Step-up and/or Step-down the voltage levels depending upon the Network Node.

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 Switching ON/OFF Reactive Power Control devices, which has effect on Quality of

power. For this it is employed with some equipments. Those are as follows.

Bus bars Transformer Current transformer Circuit breaker Isolator Surge arrester Lightning mask Potential transformer Insulator Wave trappers conductors

In SPS, the plant is combined cycle. Hence there are two turbines and like wise there are two transformers, one for gas turbine and one for steam turbine. Along with these two transformers, there are two more transformers, which are station transformers. These station transformers take power from the grid and supply it to the internal auxiliaries in the system.

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14.2 SWITCH GEAR:

The importance of the electric supply has been increased in every day life to such an extent that it should be protected from the fault conditions to get the maximum and continuous supply. For this , some means must be provided switch on or off the generators, transmission lines, distributors and other equipment under both normal and abnormal conditions. This can be done by using an apparatus called switch gear. A switch gear essentially consists of fuses, circuit breakers, switches, relays etc. The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is known as switch gear. The switch gear equipment is essentially concerned with switching and interrupting currents either under normal or abnormal conditions. Under the abnormal conditions, the switch gear protection system seperates the healthy part from the defected part as the high currents flow through the system equipments during the faulty conditions.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF SWITCH GEAR:

The essential features of switch gear are complete reliability quick operation provision for manual operation provision for instruments

14.4 MAIN EQUIPMENTS USED IN SWITCH YARD: Bus bars:

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When a large number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected electrically, bus bars are used as the common electrical component. They are of hollow aluminum circular conductors. Bus bars are merely convenient means of connecting switches and other equipment into various arrangements. The incoming and outgoing lines in a substation are connected to the bus bars.. the most commonly used bus bar arrangements are

Single bus bar arrangement Single bus bar system with sectionalisation Double bus bar arrangement

Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT): To step-down the high magnitude of voltage to a safe value to incorporate Measuring and Protection logics. The primary voltage is applied to a series of capacitors group. The voltage across one of the capacitor is taken to auxiliary PT. The secondary of the aux PT is taken for measurement and protection. The output of CVT is used for the following purposes A. SECONDARY VOLTAGES(110 VOLTS AC) FOR METERS AND ENERGY METERS B. VOLTAGES FOR PROTECTIVE RELAYS C. VOLTAGES FOR SYNCHRONIZING D. DISTURBANCE RECORDERS AND EVENT LOGS E. OVERFLUX RELAYS F. PLCC Types of construction: Electromagnetic type High voltage outdoor type
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Capacitor type

Current Transformers (CT): To step-down the high magnitude of current to a safe value to incorporate measuring and Protection logics. Current transformers are used for the instrumentation, protection or metering of power systems. Current transformers are divided into two groups they are a. Protective current transformers: They are used in association with relays, trip coils, pilot wires etc. b. Measuring current transformers: They are used in conjunction with ammeter, wattmeter etc. Together PTS and CTS are called as instrument transformers. Surge Arresters (SA): Safe guards the equipment by discharging the high currents due to Lightning and to discharge the high voltage surges in the power system due to lightning to the ground. Insulators: These serve two purposes. They support the conductors and confine the current to the conductors. The most commonly used material for the manufacture of insulators is porcelain. There are several types of insulators and their use will depend on the service requirement. Isolators and earth switches: Isolators are disconnecting switches, which operate under no-load conditions and it is not designed to make a circuit under load or short-circuit condition. Earth switch is connected between the line conductor and earth and it is earthed. Normally it is open and it is closed to discharge the voltage trapped on the isolated or disconnected line. When the line is disconnected from the supply end there is some voltage on
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the line to which the capacitance between the line and earth is charged. This voltage is significant in hv systems. Before commencement of maintenance work it is necessary that these voltages are discharged to earth by closing the ear thing switch. Normally, the earthing switches are mounted on the frame of the isolator. Isolator cannot be opened unless the circuit breaker is opened and circuit breaker cannot be closed unless the isolator is closed and these two are interlocked to serve the above functions. The operating mechanism of this on one of the following mechanisms: 1. Electrical-motor mechanism 2. Pneumatic mechanism Types of construction of isolators: 1. Vertical break 25kv single, double or triple pole isolator 2. Horizontal two rotating post, centre break type isolator. 3. Horizontal break centre rotating double break isolator. Circuit Breakers: Makes or automatically breaks the electrical circuits under loaded condition. On the basis of type of current they may be classified as i. ii. Ac circuit breakers Dc circuit breakers

However, most general way of classification of circuit breakers is on the basis of medium of arc extinction such as Air-break circuit breakers Oil circuit breakers Minimum oil circuit breakers
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 Air-blast circuit breaker Sulphur Hexafluoride circuit breaker Vacuum circuit breaker But in NTPC all the breakers used in switch yard are SF6 Breakers because of following advantages. 1. Minimum current chopping tendency at low pressure and velocity 2. High dielectric strength 3. Outstanding arc quenching properties (small arcing times) 4. Not affected due to atmospheric conditions. Reactive power control devices: Controls the reactive power imbalance in the grid by switching ON/OFF the Shunt Reactors, Shunt Capacitors etc.

Current Limiting Reactors: Limits the Short circuit currents in case of faulty conditions. Batteries: In electric power stations and large capacity sub stations, the operating and automatic control circuits, the protective relay systems, as well as emergency lighting circuits, are supplied by station batteries. The latter constitute independent sources of operative dc power and guarantee operation of the above mentioned circuits irrespective of any fault which occurred in the station or substation, even in the event of complete disappearance of the ac supply in the installation. Control cables: The control cables and conduit system are required for affecting automatic controls. The control system generally operates at 110 v or 220 v and the cables employed for this purpose are multi
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core cables. For laying these cables generally ducts are run from control room basement to centrally located junction box from where the conduits are run to the required points

PART II COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COAL POWER PLANT AND CCPP 15.1 INTRODUCTION: For the Indian electric power sector, combined cycle power plants are seemed to be the best alternative of the coal power plants, for reducing the carbon emissions. Where inexpensive gas reserves are available, there the combined cycle power plants can serve as a viable cost effective alternative. In India there has been a significant interest on the part of private organizations to build the combined cycle units as an alternative coal fired thermal power generation. In this report we have explained the basic differences in between the coal power plants and combined cycle power plants in the view of their costs, characteristics, emissions and the auxiliaries. India has modest reserves of natural gas, with which the countrys needs be fulfilled to some extent. We assume the natural gas likely to be likely fuel of choice, until these reserves are economically attractive enough to be exploited for power generation. This report mainly deals in comparing the coal and combined cycle power plants on the technical basis, giving a minimum stress on the financial elements. 15.2 WHAT IS THE NEED FOR COMPARISON? We know that coal is the major source of power and it contributes for nearly 45% of total generation and also we have large reserves of coal, which can be useful for 135 years more then what is the need for worrying? And what is the need for comparison? Yes, there is a need for comparison which must be done not on the basis of the availability of resources but on the basis of the efficiency of the source to generate the power with minimal costs and on the performance of the sources to yield better results so that the supply should meet the demand.

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Figure 1

The above diagram explains the power generation capacity year wise. From that figure we can say that, there is a notable increment in th power generation in our country from the last 5 years.

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The above diagram explains the power generation based on different fuels during the period of 50 years. From the figure, one can say that the power generation based on the natural gas has been recording an exponential growth and almost reached as a better alternative for the coal. This is possible only because of the inherent advantages incurred using the natural gas as the fuel for power generation. 15.3 METHODOLOGY: In order to estimate whether a coal power plant is better or a combined cycle power plant, we have assumed two power projects for our comparative study. Those are SPS (220 MW combined cycle) and a general 210 MW coal power plant. The comparison is done in such a way that the all the elements have been compared, starting from the set up cost till the emissions and efficiency and the results have been collected in this report. The comparison has been done keeping in the view of performance of other power plants in the country. For comparing the above things so many factors are required. These include the fuel cost, GCV of fuel, heat rate, capacity of the auxiliaries, source of the fuel etc.
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15.4 STEPS USED FOR CALCULATIONS PARAMETER A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U Capital cost Life of the plant Discount Rate Capital Recovery Factor Annualized Capital Cost Plant Load factor Auxiliary Consumption Units Generated Fixed Capital Cost Fixed Operation & Maintenance Cost Fixed O&M Cost per Unit Total Fixed Costs per Unit Fuel Cost Heating Value Heat Rate Fuel Cost per Unit O&M Cost per Unit Total Variable Cost Total Cost Payback period UNIT Rupees(in crores)/KW Years Fraction Fraction Rupees(in crores)/kW/Year Fraction Fraction kWh/kW/Year Rupees/kWh Rupees/kW Rupees/kW Rupees/kWh Rupees/Kg KJ/Kg KJ/kWh Rupees/kWh Rupees/kWh Rupees/kWh Rupees/kWh Years Q+R S+M A/E N*P/O K/H I+L 8760*F/(1+G) E/H C/(1-(1+C)^(-B)) A*D FORMULA

Table 1: Steps for calculation 15.5 Estimation of the cost of electricity generation
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The cost of electricity generation from power plants may be divided into fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs are mainly capital costs and fixed operation and maintenance costs. Variable costs include fuel and variable operation and maintenance costs. The estimation of fixed costs per unit of electricity generation requires estimation of factors such as the life of the power plant, plant load factor (PLF), and discount rate. That of variable costs requires estimation of factors like fuel cost, heat rate, and fuel heat content, and the discount rate. Table 1 below shows the steps for calculating the cost of electricity generation. The last column of this table describes the formula used to calculate a specific factor. For example, the annualized capital cost (row E) = Capital cost (row A) * Capital recovery factor (row D).

15.6 Estimation of carbon emissions from electricity generation. Carbon dioxide emissions per unit of electricity generated depend on the characteristics of the fuel and power plant. Characteristics of the fuel include the energy and carbon content of the fuel, and that of the power plant include its heat rate, i.e., the amount of energy required to produce one unit of electricity, and the PLF. Carbon dioxide emissions produced are thus calculated using the following expression CO2 emissions per unit of electricity generated (kg C/kWh) = (Carbon content of the fuel (kg C / kg of fuel) / Heat value of the fuel (GJ / kg of fuel)) * heat rate of the power plant (GJ / kWh) 15.7 Capital Cost The power projects are financed by domestic as well as foreign capital. PPAs and tariff filings give the Indian rupee and US dollar components of the total capital cost. We converted the rupee component of the capital cost into equivalent US dollars by using a 2010-2011 exchange rate of Rs. 45 per US $.

15.8 Discount Rate

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To attract private investment for electricity generation, the Ministry of Power (MOP) guarantees a substantial return on investments by IPPs. MOP guarantees a 16 % return on equity for a prescribed plant performance (PLF of 68.5%). To give incentives for better performance, MOP also gives a bonus return on equity for improved PLF. The return on equity can go as high as 30% for a PLF of 90%. IPPs use various types of debt finance. Rupee debt is raised at a nominal interest rate of 12-14% while the US dollar debt is raised at an interest rate of 6-8%. Debt equity ratio ranges from 2 to 5. One could use the actual financing terms of every project to arrive at the effective discount rate, but this number is difficult to estimate because of complex and often unknown financing arrangements of these projects. Instead, we apply a single discount rate of 14% for private power plants, which is in the neighborhood of their reported discount rates. 15.9 Financial costs Since we are interested in comparing the overall cost of electricity generation, financial items such as an accelerated depreciation charge or the difference between loan repayment period and life of the project, which are required for the calculation of tariff schedules, are not of direct relevance. Hence, we calculate the fixed cost of electricity generation by annualizing the total capital cost of the power plant using a discount rate of 14 % and assuming a 30 year lifetime for the power projects. 15.10 Plant Load Factor New coal plants are generally used as base load plants whereas combined cycle plants may be used as base-load or intermediate-load plants depending on the system configuration. Typical PLF used in the planning of a base load plant is 80% while that for an intermediate load plant is 65%. In India, since there is a deficit For our analysis, since we are interested in comparing the two types of plants as substitutes, we assume the same 80% PLF for both types of plants, and then run a sensitivity analysis at the same lower

15.11 Carbon Content of the Fuel

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The quality (heat content) of Indian coal supplied to power plants can vary considerably, even from one train load to the next, but the carbon content is almost constant. Hence, the quality of coal is not a factor in the amount of CO2 emissions produced by a coal plant. The same is true for Natural Gas. We therefore assume a constant carbon content for coal (25.8 kg C/GJ) and Natural Gas (15.3 kg C/GJ) across power plants and over time 16. COMPARISION PARAMETER SI NO 1 2 Capacity Capital Cost MW Rupees(in crores)/MW 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 O&M Cost Life Plant Load Factor Fixed Cost per Unit Fuel Cost Heat Rate Total Variable Cost Total Cost Emissions Payback period % of Capital Cost Years % Rupees/kWh Rupees/MMBtu Kcal/kWh Rupees/kWh Rupees/kWh Kg C/kWh Years 2.5 30 80 1.12 80.725 2400 1.56 2.68 0.258 9.5 2.5 30 80 0.83 292.50 2086 2.44 3.27 0.114 07 UNIT COAL POWER PLANT 210 4.95 COMBINED CYCLE GAS POWER PLANT 220 3.75

Table 2: Comparative Data for Coal & Combined Cycle Gas Power plants 16.1 DATA AND SOURCES: PARAMETERS: The following are the major parameters based on which the comparative study proceeds further

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1. Principle of operation: This is the first difference that may rise whenever comparing two power plants. A coal power plant mainly uses coal as the fuel. A coal power plant runs on the basis of rankine cycle. The rankine cycle is one of the most successful practical thermal cycles based on which, a thermal power plant operates. A basic rankine cycle can achieve thermal efficiency of nearly 30% without any modifications. Later on several modifications have been come, including the reheat, regeneration etc which can be able to increase the efficiency only up to 6-9%. A combined cycle operates on the basis of two thermal cycles, namely Brayton cycle and rankine cycle. The natural gas is used as the primary fuel in these plants. With the employment of these two cycles, combined cycles can achieve a thermal efficiency of 45%. Not only as a combined cycle, if the same unit is made to run as open cycle can it achieve a thermal efficiency of nearly 32%.

Fig 3: Brayton Cycle

The below table can explain the basic difference in between a coal thermal power plant and a combined cycle power plant. POWER PLANT S.NO
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FUEL

EFFECIENCY

1. 2.

Coal thermal Combined cycle

Coal Natural gas

32-38% 45-61%

16.2.FUEL AND ITS EFFEICENCY: Coal thermal power plant: In a coal thermal power plant, coal is the only source of fuel for power generation. For a 210 MW power plant, everyday nearly 144 tons of coal is required. In India, coal reserves are vast in such a way that they can last for more 150 years. The fuel coal is mainly the Indian coals which contain nearly 30-50% of ash content. Hence some power plants are importing high quality of coal from the other countries like Indonesia, Australia, Zambia and South Africa having comparatively less ash content when compared to the Indian coal. Coming to the efficiency, coal power plants have a fuel efficiency of only 33%. That means, only 33% of the fuel burnt is used for producing electricity, whereas the remaining heat is disposed off into the atmosphere. Combined cycle power plant: In a combined cycle power plant, natural gas is vastly used as the fuel for power generation. Naphtha or HSD oil can also be used in the case of emergency. The gas used in the Indian power plants is mostly available from our countrys gas reserves. Our country has also good reserves of natural gas which lasts for more 100 years. In a combined cycle power plant, the fuel conversion efficiency reaches up to 61%. Only a small amount of heat is admitted into the atmosphere keeping in the view of environmental concerns.

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Fig4: Fuel wise energy Generation 2010-2011 16.3.Fuel cost: Coal: The cost of Indian coal is quite less. But when the coal is imported, then the cost of coal may increase because of the high quality of coal. The cost of coal depends on the grade of the coal also. Generally low grade coal costs less when compared to the high grade coal. Combined cycle: The cost of natural gas is a bit costly when compared to that of coal. But generally the natural gas used is always from the local reserves which cost about 8-9 Rs per scm (standard cubic meter) 16.4.Initial set up cost: Coal:

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A coal power plant requires large amounts as its initial cost as it contains a large no. of auxiliaries and also the land required for the set up is more. For a typical 210 MW power plant, the initial set up cost required is nearly 850-900 crores and the commissioning time also takes 68 years. Combined cycle: The initial cost required to set up a combined cycle power plant is about 3.5-4.5 crores per MW. The land required for its set up is also less and the time for commission is hardly 2-3 years. As the auxiliaries required are less, the initial cost is also less.

S.No 1. 2.

plant Coal thermal Combined cycle

capacity 210 MW 220 MW

Initial cost 1000 crores 750 crores

Fuel Indian coal Indian gas

16.5.RUNNING AND MAINTENANCE COST: Coal: For a coal power plant the running cost is less because of its reliability in operation. But the maintenance cost is costly because it mainly includes the fuel handling cost which is more for the coal, in case of using the Indian coal having high ash content. But for the imported coal, the maintenance cost is less which is about. In a coal power plant fuel handling costs accounts for nearly 30% of the total cost. Combined cycle: The running and maintenance costs for the combined cycle plants are high since the running cost includes the cost of fuel. As the cost of natural gas is high, the running cost is more. Moreover, sometimes naphtha is also used, which is also costly. The operation and maintenance cost for a combined cycle power plant is about 4% of the investment cost per year. Thus, CCGT O&M costs are estimated at $44/kWe per year in 2010, declining accordingly to $36/kWe per year in 2030. The cost of fuel accounts for nearly 70% of total operating cost.

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16.6 EMMISSION CONTROL COST: Coal: The coal being a good pollutant contains large amounts of ash particles, sulphur and oxides of nitrogen which when directly rejected in to the atmosphere causes severe damage to the eco system. Hence they should be treated before releasing in to the atmosphere. For this several processes are there including chemical injection, flue gas desulfurization plant, and electro static precipitators etc should be installed which accounts for 51% of total operating cost of the plant. The water that is used in the boiler and condenser should also be properly treated to maintain proper pH value. Combined cycle: Natural gas being the cleanest source of fuel requires less cost for the flue gas treatment. The natural gas contains very less amounts of NOx and sulphur which can be treated directly with low costs. In a combined cycle power plant, the emission control cost accounts for only 30% of the total running cost. Also gas fired combined cycle power plants produce very less carbon emissions when compared to that of coal power plants. The major pollutants are NOx and CO, which can be reduced by the use of low NOx burners. Since CO is present in traces, no need to worry about its elimination. Sulphur dioxide is formed when fuel oil is used as the fuel and limited quantities of ammonia are released when using the NOx SCR system. Combined cycle power plants produce nearly 70% less carbon emissions when compared to a coal power plant.

16.7. PLANT LOAD FACTOR: For a coal power plant, the plant load factors are generally high, since they are designed to run on the base load. Hence they can achieve the plant load factors as high as 90%. But, a combined
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cycle power plant gives a maximum PLF o f 90% when designed to run at base load. Bu generally combined cycle power plants run at partial loads. Hence they can achieve the PLFs only up to 70% under partial load conditions.

16.8. FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM: Coal: In a coal thermal plant, the fuel handling system plays a vital role. The coal handling includes the transportation of coal to station, pre treatment procedures, treatment phenomenon and proper sizing of coal. In a coal fired power plant, the coal handling plant itself requires more area when compared to the other auxiliaries. There are belt conveyors for transporting the coal, crushers for crushing the coal in to small pieces, mills for proper sizing coal, so that it would help in proper combustion and magnetic separators for separating dust and iron particles from the raw coal. Combined cycle: In a combined cycle plant, there is no separate fuel handling plant. But the fuel handling plant is associated with the gas receiving station and the other lines internally. In combined cycle, fuel handling is mainly for maintaining the pressure of fuel and filtration of fuel before admitting in to the system. Several pressure measuring devices are installed near the gas receiving station till the gas reaches the combustion chamber. The pressure is maintained at a value of 24.5 kg/cm2 .and before receiving in GRS, there will be filter to remove the dust particles from the gas.

17. COMPARISON BASED ON AUXILIARIES: 17.1 Air intake system:

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In a coal power plant, there is no separate air intake system. There is a FD fan at the inlet of boiler which draws the air form the atmosphere directly. From that air, some amount is taken as the primary air which is supplied through the burners. Further supply of air is taken from the remaining air. Where as in a combined cycle power plant, air intake system is the separate system allotted for supplying the air to the compressor portion in gas turbine. Air intake system consists of three pads namely, primary filter, coallescer pads and fine filters which will reduce the solid dust particles from the incoming air through the air receiver. After the air receiver there will be an air plenum which directs the air into the combustion chamber. Inside the air plenum, there is an air damper at the inlet of the combustion chamber which regulates the air flow into the combustion chamber according to the load. From there the air will enter the combustion chamber through the annular space in the combustion chamber. 17.2 TURBINE: A coal power plant employs a steam turbine for producing the mechanical output. A steam turbine and a gas turbine have many differences in them. The basic difference is a steam turbine is just a turbine which takes steam from the boiler and gives the mechanical output. But the steam turbine depends completely upon the dynamic action of the steam. According to Newtons Second Law of Motion, the force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum (mass velocity). If the rate of change of momentum is caused in the steam by allowing a high velocity jet of steam to pass over curved blade, the steam will impart a force to the blade. A combined cycle gas power plants employs a gas turbine. A gas turbine means not only a turbine, but it comprises of compressor, combustion chamber and turbine. Since the compressor is coupled with the turbine shaft, it absorbs some of the power produced by the turbine and hence lowers the efficiency. The network is therefore the difference between the turbine work and work required by the compressor to drive it.

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The quantity of the working fluid and speed required are more, so, generally, an axial compressor is employed. The turbine drives the compressor and so it is coupled to the turbine shaft. Generally gas turbine may be of open cycle or closed cycle. But the closed cycle is more beneficial than the open cycle, since the waste heat recovery system is there in the closed cycle. The parts of turbine are same in both the plants. A turbine consists of a stator, rotor and blades.

17.3 COMBUSTION: Combustion is the process of oxidation of hydro carbons in the fuel to produce energy. Coal: In a coal thermal power plant, combustion occurs in the boiler where the burners are arranged in the bottom part of the boiler which causes combustion to occur. For combustion generally fluidized bed combustion phenomenon has been used for proper combustion. Through the burners coal is injected in to the combustion chamber and proper air circulation is provided inside the boiler. Combined cycle: In a combined cycle power plant, combustion takes place in the combustion chambers which are located sideways of the gas turbine after the compressor. Each combustion chamber is provided with 8 burners. The design of the combustion chambers is vertical silo type. These combustion chambers use low NOx burners for controlling the quantity of NOx formation. The burner assembly is provided in such a way that, the combustion takes place in two modes. They are premix mode and diffusion mode. In premix mode, the flame is an oxidizing flame; hence the temperature will be less, which will reduce the NOx formation. In this mode, air will be added to the gas before entering the combustion chamber there by temperature can be controlled inside the combustion chamber.( O2 is more in this mode).

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In diffusion mode, first gas will enter the combustion chamber and thereafter the air is mixed to it. Hence premix mode is preferable generally.But if TETC< 480c, the mode will automatically changes over from PREMIX to DIFFUSION mode. 17.4 HRSG: HRSG means the Heat Recovery Steam Generator. The HRSG is a dual-pressure level, natural circulation, water tube steam generator. The HRSG is designed to utilise the exhaust heat energy from the gas turbines installed at Power Station. The function of the Heat Recovery Steam Generator is to convert pressurized water into superheated steam utilizing the sensible heat of the gas turbine exhaust gas. The HRSG generates steam in the two-pressure levels, High Pressure (HP) and Low Pressure (LP). The steam generated in a HRSG is used to drive the Steam Turbine (ST) for power generation. The HP and LP superheated steam enters the HP cylinder and LP cylinder of the steam turbine. The HRSG employed in SPS is unfired type. The HRSG is designed in such a way that it can be useful in making the plant to run as open cycle or as closed cycle. This is because of the diverted damper. It is a plate like structure hanged on its ends taking support from the hinges on its ends. It is of regulating type means it can open from 0-100%. HRSG is almost same as the boiler in a coal power plant except the phenomenon of firing. Here no firing takes place inside the HRSG. But there are some plants which are having firing type HRSGs.

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Fig 5: HRSG 17.5 BOILER: A boiler is similar to that of the HRSG. Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired temperature and pressure. But here in this boiler, firing takes place internally. Here also there are two circuits. Some boilers are having three circuits HP, LP and IP depending up on the cycle requirement. Generally most of the power plants are using water tube boilers in which water flows inside the tubes and hot gases flow around the tubes for converting the water in to the steam. Boilers capacity varies from 100-400 tons of steam per hour. Boiler is designed for zero leakage. All the parts that are present in a boiler are same as that of in a HRSG. These two consist of a economizer, boiler drums, evaporator and a super heater.
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17.6 COOLING TOWERS: Coal: In a coal power plant, depending up on the necessity the cooling towers may be of natural draft type or of induced draft. But most of the coal fired power plants are having the natural draft cooling towers. The natural draft cooling towers are very huge in construction and are of very big size which is nearly 180 m height. In these cooling towers, the cooling takes place naturally because of the pressure difference. Combined cycle: In a combined cycle power plant, the cooling towers are of mechanical draft type. These are relatively small in size when compared to that of in coal power plants. In these cooling towers , fans are employed at the top portion of the cooling towers below that the water is sprayed which will be cooled by the rotation of the fans at a speed of about 1500 rpm. The cooling towers used in the SPS are of counter flow type and the cooling system is closed circuit type which will be used in the condenser again. The details of the cooling towers are as follows. 17.7 STACK: A stack is always designed in such a way to admit the flue gases in to the atmosphere. The stack height is decided on the basis of fuel used and the amount of pollutants released. Coal: In a coal power plant, the stack height is about 110 m height since the pollutants in a coal power plant are in a maximum level and one more important factor to be considered while admitting the flue gases in to the atmosphere, it is the temperature of the flue gas . it should not cross 1250c. in coal power plant, the stack is of balanced draft type, in which the draft is balanced by ID and FD fans. Combined cycle:

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In a combined cycle power plant, there are two stacks, one is the bypass stack and the other is the main stack. The bypass stack is designed to admit the hot gases in to the atmosphere when the plant is running as the open cycle and also during the GT start up, the bypass stack is used. The details of the main stack and bypass stack are as follows: 17.8 Water system: Coal: In a coal power plant, there must be a continuous supply of water from the nearby resources because in a coal power plant, water is mainly used in condenser, which is comparatively of large capacity when compared to the combined cycle. Moreover, in a water tube boiler, water is the main source of producing the steam. Hence there is a large consumption of water in a coal power plant Combined cycle: A combined cycle power plant do not that much amount of water when compared to that of coal power plant since, the cooling system is a closed system. Hence the water consumption is very less. 18. COMPARISON BASED ON EFFICIENCY Coming to the phenomenon of efficiency, a coal power plant can achieve the efficiency of 35%. if the case is super critical power plants, the efficiency can reach to a value of 42%. But a combined cycle power plant can achieve 45% efficiency. This is possible because of the high GCV and low heat rate of the fuel. In the natural gas vs coal discussion, overall efficiency may also depend on the process of natural gas extraction, treatment, and transport of the gas to the power plant which could generate some additional emissions

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19. COMPARISON BASED ON EMISSIONS Undoubtedly, high efficiency natural gas-fired power stations can produce up to 70% lower greenhouse gas emissions than existing brown coal-fired generators, and less than half the greenhouse gas emissions of the latest technology black coal-fired power stations. Notice the distinction between black and brown coal, however, exactly how much less CO2 also depends upon the type of gas-fired station. The CO2 emissions from Natural Gas Combined Cycle (NGCC) plants are reduced relative to those produced by burning coal given the same power output because of the higher heat content of natural gas, the lower carbon intensity of gas relative to coal, and the higher overall efficiency. Gas turbines can operate on either gaseous or liquid fuels. Pipeline natural gas is the fuel of choice because of historically low and relatively stable prices, deliverability and low air emissions. Distillate fuel oil can be used as a backup fuel, however, its use for this purpose has become less common in recent years because of additional emissions of sulfur oxides, deleterious effects on catalysts for the control of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide, the periodic testing required to ensure proper operation on fuel oil and increased turbine maintenance associated with fuel oil operation. It is now more common to ensure fuel availability by securing firm gas transportation. The principal environmental concerns associated with gas-fired combined-cycle gas turbines are emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO). Fuel oil operation may produce sulfur dioxide. Nitrogen oxide abatement is accomplished by use of dry low-NOx combustors and a selective catalytic reduction system within the HSRG. Limited quantities of ammonia are released by operation of the NOx SCR system. CO emissions are typically controlled by use of an oxidation catalyst within the HSRG. No special controls for particulates and sulfur oxides are used since only trace amounts are produced when operating on natural gas. Fairly significant quantities of water are required for cooling the steam condenser and may be an issue in arid areas.

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Fig 6: CO2 emissions per generated unit by power source Water consumption can be reduced by use of dry (closed-cycle) cooling, though with cost and efficiency penalties. Gas-fired combined-cycle plants produce less carbon dioxide per unit energy output than other fossil fuel technologies because of the relatively high thermal efficiency of the technology and the high hydrogen-carbon ratio of methane (the primary constituent of natural gas). Because of high thermal efficiency, low initial cost, high reliability, relatively low gas prices and low air emissions, combined-cycle gas turbines have been the new resource of choice for bulk power generation for well over a decade. Other attractive features include significant operational flexibility, the availability of relatively inexpensive power augmentation for peak period operation and relatively low carbon dioxide production Where as the carbon emissions from the coal thermal power plant are in hundreds of tons /hr. In a coal power plant, the control of emissions from the plant accounts for 51% of the total maintenance cost of the plant. 20. Advantages of combined cycle power plants: The following are the advantages of combined cycle power plants over the normal coal power plant. Combined cycle power plants are simpler in construction and takes less time for their construction
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Their initial setup cost is also less when compared to that of coal power plant. The efficiency incurred is also high when compared to that of coal power plant. The emissions are also less No emission control cost The startup time of the system is also less The maintenance cost is also less because of its high life span. 21. Conclusion

From the above comparative study, it is clear that the combined cycle power plants provide the efficient means of power generation when compared to the coal power plants. But the new technologies in the coal power generation like UMPP and super critical power plants with carbon capture technology can also beneficial for having a better power generation.

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III. References :

[1]Central Electricity Authority (CEA) Fourth National Power Plan 19972012 CEA, Government Of India (GOI): New Delhi, India.

2]Colpier U. and Cornland D. 2003. The economics of the combined cycle gas turbine an experience curve analysis. Energy Policy. 30:309-316

[3]ICF Consulting 2009. Performance and Unit Cost Assumptions for Potential (New) Capacity in EPA Base Case 2004

[4]Energy Information Administration, 2009. Electric Power Monthly August

[5]Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) (TAG) EPRI California.

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(2010), Technical Assistance Guide

[6]Financial Daily (2002) Reliance gas find a morale booster: Naik The HINDU group of publications http://www.blonnet.com/2002/11/09/stories/2002110902650500.htm , accessed 12th August, 2003 2:56 pm

[7]Kroeze C., Vlablom J., Gupta J., Boudri C., and Blok K. The power sector in China and India: Greenhouse gas emissions reduction potential and scenarios for 1990-2020. Energy Policy, 32:55-76.

[8]Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB) (2000) Tariff Revision Proposal submitted to Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission (MERC)". MSEB: Mumbai, India [9]Ministry of Power (MOP) (2011) Tariff Notification for Generating Companies. MOP Web-site http://powermin.nic.in/nrg47.htm , New Delhi, India

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