860

VIII. Historische Entwicklung der Namen

Archi, Alfonso, Biga, Maria Giovanna, Milano, Lucio (1988): Studies in Eblaite P rosopography. In: Archi 1988, 205306. Archi, Alfonso, P iacentini, P aola, P omponio, Francesco (1993): I nomi di luogo dei testi di Ebla (ARET IIV, VIIX e altri documenti editi e inediti). Archivi reali di Ebla, Studi, 2. Roma. Buccellati, Giorgio (1990): River Bank, High County and P asture Land: The Growth of Nomadism on the Middle Euphrates and the Khabur. In: S. Eichler, M. Wfler, D. Warbuton (eds.), Tell al-Hamidiyah 2. Gttingen, 87117. Buccellati, Giorgio (1992a): Ebla and the Amorites. In: Eblaitica 3, 85106. Buccellati, Giorgio (1992b): The Ebla Electronic Corpus: Onomastic Analysis. In: Eblaitica, Vol. 3, 107128. Edzard, Dietz O. (1988): Semitische und nichtsemitische P ersonennamen in Texten aus Ebla. In: Archi 1988, 2534. Fronzaroli, P elio (1982): P er una valutazione della morfologia eblaita. In: Studi eblaiti V, 93120. Fronzaroli, P elio (1988): Typologies onomastiques Ebla. In: Archi 1988, 124. Fronzaroli, P elio (1990): The Concord of Gender in Eblaite Theophoric P ersonal Names. In: Ugarit-

Forschungen 11, 275281. Gelb, I. J. (1980): Computer-Aided Analysis of Amorite. Assyriological Studies, 21. Chicago. Huffmon, Herbert B. (1965): Amorite P ersonal Names in the Mari Texts: A Structural and Lexical Study. Baltimore. Krebernik, Manfred (1988): Die P ersonennamen der Ebla-Texte. Eine Zwischenbilanz. Berliner Beitrge zum Vorderen Orient, 7. Berlin. Krecher, Joachim (1988): Observations on the Ebla Toponyms. In: Archi 1988, 173190. P ardee, Dennis (1988): An Evaluation of the P roper Names from Ebla from a West Semitic P erspective: P antheon Distribution According to Genre. In: Archi 1988, 119151. P latt, James H., P agan, Joseph M. (1990): Orthography and Onomastics. Computer Applications in Ebla Language Study. In: Les Annales Archologiques Arabes Syriennes 40, 2738. Stieglitz, Robert R. (1990): Ebla and the Gods of Canaan. In: Eblaitica 3, 7989. Westenholz, Aage (1988): P ersonal Names in Ebla and in P re-Sargonic Babylonia. In: Archi 1988, 99117.

Giorgio Buccellati, University of California, Los Angeles (U.S.A.)

125.Ugaritic Names
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Language Sources Approaches to the Study of Ugaritic Personal Names Grammatical Categories Functions and Relations Selected Bibliography

1.

Language

1.1. Ugaritic was a Canaanite language spoken and fixed in writing in the kingdom whose capital, Ugarit, was located on the Mediterranean Sea in Northern Syria. The destruction of this city shortly after 1200 B. C. spelled the end of this Late-BronzeAge language. 1.2. In 1929 a French archaeological expedition headed by Claude F.-A. Schaeffer excavated at the hill called Ras Shamra the first clay tablets in the, until then, unknown cuneiform script. This script was deciphered within a short time by the combined efforts of Hans Bauer, P aul (douard) Dhorme, and Charles Virolleaud. Its relationship to Hebrew and P hoenician helped both in the decipherment

and the recognition of the language as Northwest Semitic. The 1.3 Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet of 30 letters is able to render the consonant phonemes very exactly, but as in most Semitic alphabetic scripts the vowels are, in general, not indicated. A felicitous inconsistency introduced in the Ugaritic alphabet allows recognition of some vocalic features: Three letters of the Ugaritic alphabet indicate the glottal stop (from the phonetic viewpoint a zero sound, marked in Semitic alphabets by an Aleph letter) preceded or followed by basic vowels /a/, /i/, /u/. As many Ugaritic personal names are attested in Akkadian syllabic cuneiform tablets, information about their vocalic structures can be obtained from these sources, which do not indicate the consonant phonemes exactly enough.

2.

Sources

2.1. About 1500 alphabetic texts were found in the ruins of the city of Ugarit at Ras Shamra. These texts are accessible in the 1976 edition by M. Dietrich, O. Loretz and

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J. Sanmartn (KTU, cf. Bibliography). At Ras Ibn Hani between Lattaqui and Ras Shamra, other texts were found. Several hundred tablets in syllabic cuneiform script excavated at Ras Shamra were published mostly in several volumes of the Mission de Ras Shamra devoted to Le P alais Royal dUgarit (P RU, cf. Bibliography). 2.2.1. Personal names are listed and indicated as such in the dictionaries by C. H. Gordon and by J. Aistleitner; in the concordance by R. A. Whitaker, names are listed without a specific indication. Types of names are dealt with by C. H. Gordon in his grammar. 2.2.2. An excellent tool for the study of Ugaritic personal names was provided by Frauke Grndahl in her book Die P ersonennamen der Texte aus Ugarit (1967). Ugaritic names in both alphabetic and syllabic cuneiform script are listed there and analysed according to their formation patterns and their roots, with many significant observations about their semantic values and their functions. (Also other names found in Ras Shamra texts, such as Hurrian, Anatolian, Indo-Aryan and Egyptian, are listed in this study.) About 1600 names in alphabetic script are contained in the book by Grndahl. Their number was not considerably enlarged by later finds at Ras Ibn Hani. More than one thousand names in syllabic cuneiform script are presented in the study by Grndahl; several hundred names not yet known were added in P RU VI, published in 1970. Many names are attested in both alphabetic and syllabic script.

They are clearly marked by the feminine determinative in the syllabic script. Among more than 1000 names listed by Grndahl, there are about 60 feminine names marked as such. This number is extended by one half through names from the texts published in PRU VI. This situation serves also as a warning against conclusions based on material which is incomplete and dependent on the randomness of preservation and archaeological investigation. In contrast to this proportion of feminine names, about 6% in the syllabic sources, their proportion in the alphabetic texts is much smaller. 16 names are marked as such in Grndahls index, in comparison to about 1600 masculine names. 3.3. The demography of ancient Ugarit, with an especially strong representation of Hurrians among the city population, is reflected not only in the numbers of Hurrian names, but also in the Hurrian components of Ugaritic names. E. g., the Hurrian base /talm-/ big appears in the name with typical Ugaritic afformatives tal-mi-ia-na (genitive) tlmyn and with a first Ugaritic element iytlm Where (is) Talm-/the big one?. The political relationship to the Hittite Empire is reflected in the relatively frequent name krwn / kur-wa-nu derived from the Hittite word meaning either a deified object or a political class, independent, with help of the afformative /-n-/. 3.3.1. Among the names in syllabic cuneiform, only about one half are Ugaritic Semitic, about one third Hurrian, about one fifth Anatolian. Ugaritic Canaanite names are better represented in the alphabetic script, by more than two thirds, Hurrian by about one fifth and Anatolian by less than one tenth. 3.3.2. The influence of Southern Canaanite can be observed in the change of // to //, written in syllabic cuneiform element -u-: addu-nu /adn-/, cf. a-da-nu /adn-/ father, lord; a-du-ni-baal (my) Father/Lord (is) Baal, cf. a-du-nu-um-mu Lord (is) Mother, a-i-mu-nu (nom.), cf. a-i-ma-na (gen.) that of Brother. 3.4. The grammatical categories of Semitic personal names are commonly characterized as morphological, but some rather syntactical features can be observed: sentences or rather clauses with either nominal or verbal predicates, nominal components provided

3.

Approaches to the Study of Ugaritic Personal Names

3.1. Even though it was published in 1928, in the pre-Ugaritic period of Old Testament studies, the book by Martin Noth about Israelite names within the frame of Semitic onomastics can still serve as a model. 3.2. Historical and social conditions determined the evidence on personal names. In Akkadian syllabic texts the upper social strata are more represented: the royal court, merchants in contact with foreign countries, people educated in the Akkadian language which served as a tool of international political and cultural communication. This situation is also reflected in the proportion of feminine names.

862

VIII. Historische Entwicklung der Namen

with genitival attributes. (In principle, personal names can be considered nominal predicates, while the person itself is the extralinguistic subject.) 3.5.1. As names were given to newborns, they either indicated the fact of the birth or a feature observed on the child by an adjective, a comparative noun, a verbal form in past tense or a wish expressed also by a noun meant as expectation or by an imperfective verbal component, futuric or volitive. Also relationship to an adult person could be indicated, by means of a kinship term or of a derivation from a name or characteristic. 3.5.2. Some names, such as those indicating the place or country of origin or nicknames, were probably given to adults. 3.6. Theophorous elements are frequent, they consist of names of deities and of their epithets. 3.7. Hypocoristic names had to express special affection to their bearers. They were mostly provided by afformatives. Also short names, in which one original element was omitted and only the subject or the verbal component remained, could be motivated by the hypocoristic attitude. 3.8. Some feminine names are marked as such by a feminine kinship term or a feminine verbal form. The feminine character was also expressed by a specific gender afformative, /-t-/ or /-ay-/.

hry Free (?), mi-il-ka-a Queen (?); both: adty, a-da-ti-ya Lady (cf. ad father, pater familias). Derivative: /-n-/: dn, u-ud-a-nu (born on) New Moon; /-yn-/: nmyn, nu--ma-yanu P leasant (person). This afformative and /yaya-/ can serve to indicate hypocoristic names. Cf. also ilyy, e-li-a-ya, a name containing the theophorous element il, god or Il. Names with more than three root consonants: tlb fox; pr flea. 4.1.2.Adjective Nouns Basic: qa--na (gen.), qn small; la-ab-nu, lbn white; kbr great. Elative: ak-ba-ru very great; aqht very pale (??). Derived from substantive nouns: with -i-ya, -y: mu-u-ri-ya, mry Egyptian; rpiy that of Rpiu (Healer). P articiples: mu-na-i-mu, mnm Consoling one; ydd Beloved. Feminine: (f)da-la-ap-tu4 Restless (?); alt from aly/ a-la-i-ya (Cyprus) (cf. m. aln). 4.2.Names Consisting of Two Nouns, Nomen Regens and Genitival Attribute It is not always clear whether the second element is subordinated, or whether the two nominal elements form a nominal clause, cf. 4.3. 4.2.1. Nomen regens is a substantive noun: abdi-a-da-ti, bdadt Servant of Lady; a(m)-mu-ra-pi, mrpi (paternal) Uncle of Rpiu; (f)a-a-tum-milku, atmlk Kings Sister; plbl /pilsu-/ Scale of Baal (?); (f)p-i-id-qi Mouth/Word of Rigtheousness; ildq God/Il of Rigtheousness (or God is rigtheous (?)). 4.2.2. Nomen regens is an adjective: mddbl Beloved of Baal. 4.2.3. Genitival attribute is a suffixed pronoun: un (small) Brother of ours. 4.3.Nominal Clause 4.3.1. The subject and predicate are substantive nouns: SP : ili-milku, ilmlk Il (is) King; trum Athtar (is) mother; P S: zi-im-rad-du, mr(h)d P rotection (is) Hadd; (f)um-mi-i-bi (my?) Mother (is) ebat. The subject is extended by enclitic particle /-ma/: ilmkr Il (is) Male Lamb; (bin)ilima-rakub (son of) Il (is) Rider.

4.

Grammatical Categories

Here and in section 5 names attested in both alphabetic and syllabic script will be preferentially quoted. 4.1.Names Consisting of One Noun 4.1.1.Substantive Nouns Simple nouns represent various nominal patterns: CVCC-: kal-bu, klb Dog; CVCVC: u-d-i (genitive), d New moon; CCVC-: yr /yir-/, cf. ya--ra-nu) Topper; CVCCVC-: ul-lu-p (cf. ulpm) Leader. With prefixes: m-: mu-na-i-mu, mnm (participle) Consoling; -: argb /arg-/ (big) Clod (?); -: krb (very abundant >) Mouse. With afformatives: Feminine: /-t-/ da-la-ap-tu4 Restless (?), lbt Milk (?); /-ay-/:

125. Ugaritic Names

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4.3.2. P redicate is adjective noun: SP : u-mu-ra-mu, mrm name is high; participle: baal-da-nu, bldn Baal (is) Judging one/ Judge, P S: yrd /yaar-/ Righteous (is) (H)add, yril Righteous (is) Il; participle: dnil Judge (is) Il. 4.3.3. The subject is a personal pronoun: only SP : hwil He (is) (my?) god; hyadt She (is) (my?) Lady. P redicate with suffixed pronoun: hyabn She (!) (is) our Father. 4.3.4. The predicate is the interrogative adverb where?: only P S: ayab Where (is) Father?; i-ya-um-mi Where (is) (my) Mother?. (P robably There is no father/ mother.) Cf. 5.3.4. 4.3.5. The subject, a person, is not expressed, predicate is noun preceded by a preposition: ki-a-bi (he is) Like Father; ba-di-da-na (gen.), bddn In the hand (compound preposition) of Judge. 4.4.Simple Verbal Forms The finite verb is the predicate; the subject is referred to by the personal marker of the verbal form, but not expressed. All attested names exhibit 3rd person sing. For participles, which are adjectives, cf. 4.1.2. 4.4.1. Perfect: ya-ta-nu, ytn (he) gave; tqt ND. (she) removed/has to remove (illness). 4.4.2. Imperfect and jussive: They cannot be distinguished in written forms, either alphabetic or syllabic. The futuric understanding of the indicative imperfect and the volitive jussive express what is expected or desired: ya-a-pu-, yp he will/may he judge; ya-an-a(-am)-mu, ynm he will/may he console; ya-ri(-im)-mu, yrm he will/may he elevate; ya-te-nu, ytn he will/may he give; tbr she soars/will soar/may she soar. 4.4.3. Forms with afformative /-mu/: ya-kinmu he will/may he establish. 4.4.4. Names derived from verbal forms with the help of the nominalizing afformative /-n/: ya-ri-ma-nu, yrmn he that elevates; i-lama-na (gen.) he that is in peace; ya-a-lima-na (gen.) he that will/may grant peace; a-am--nu /amn-/ < *-n-, mn Listener.

4.5.Verbal Clauses 4.5.1. P redicate perfect: SP : mlkytn King gave; baal-ma-lak Baal became /is king. P S: na-qa-ma-du, nqmd (H)add avenged; nnil Il favored. 4.5.2. P redicate imperfect or jussive (cf. 4.4.2.): P S: ya-ab-ni-ilu, ybnil may Il build; yrmbl Baal will/may elevate. S P : blyskn Baal will/may care (for the child). 4.5.3. Imperative, with vocative of the addressee: a-mur-baal, amrbl look, O Baal!; bnt Return, O Anat! 4.5.4. Imperative predicate with adverbial modifier: (bn)bln (Son of) Return to us!. 4.6.Inflection of Names 4.6.1. Names consisting of one noun should have the case ending /-u/ in the nominative, /-a/ in the accusative. The ending of the genitive is /-i/, or in diptotic names /-a/, identical with that of the accusative. In the alphabetic script the ending can be seen if the last consonant of the noun is a glottal stop //: rpu /rpiu/ (nom.), rpi /-ii/ (gen.) Rpi/ Healer, DN. 4.6.2. Names consisting of simple verbal forms are inflected as nouns, without respect to original verbal endings: yrpu /-u/ (nom.), yrpi /-i/ (gen.) (He) heals. 4.6.3. Compound names are inflected as a unit: mlbu (nom.), mlbi (gen.) Uncle (is) Lion; mlbu (nom.), mlbi (gen.) Name of Lion; bdrpu (nom.) Servant of Rpi (original genitive ending is not respected), cf. 4.6.4. 4.6.4. Indication of case endings in the syllabic cuneiform writing is not consistent: cf. nominatives with genitival component on /-i/, abdi-a-da-ti, (cf. 4.6.3.), and the form with nominative ending /-u/, abdi-a-da-tu. Also the endings in the genitive can be different, triptotic /-i/ or diptotic /-a/ (cf. 4.6.1.): -zi-ni -zi-na and uz-zi-na; nominative uz-zi-nu Strong one (?).

5. Functions and Relations

5.1.Sources and Analogies 5.1.1. In non-literary texts from Ugarit, both alphabetic and syllabic, the characteristics of persons named, their place of origin, or their

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VIII. Historische Entwicklung der Namen

profession are often indicated. In literary texts, i. e., mythological epics, the naming of deities and inanimate objects is mentioned, but not the naming of persons. 5.1.2. The character and function of Ugaritic personal names has to be deduced from etymologies. This approach involves uncertainties of various kinds. 5.1.3. Analogies from related Canaanite languages and cultures from P hoenician and Hebrew sources which are better known can be used. 5.2.Names and Relations 5.2.1. The role of names was considered very important in the Ancient Near East. The name not only represented the person, it could determine his or her character and fate. 5.2.2. Many names expressed the relation of the newborn child to the world: time or place of birth, kinship, role supposed or expected of deities, The appearance and qualities of the child could be described or indicated by metaphors. 5.2.3. It is probable that some names indicating the place of origin or profession were given to adults. 5.2.4. Theophoric names indicate various contacts with deities, personal thanks or wishes or general, expressing beliefs. 5.2.5. In many short or shortened names, an important component has to be supplied from Ugaritic and other analogies. The same is true for most hypocoristic names which are often provided with specific endings. 5.3.Names Relating to the Newborn Child 5.3.1.Related to Birth Time: At the New moon, considered a favorable time: u-da-i (gen.), bn d, u-ud-a-nu, dn. Month: u-ya-ra-nu, yrn. P lace: kar-mu-nu /-n-/, krmn (born in?) Vineyard; (f)a-da-ya, a-da-ya-nu, dyn (born in?) Field. Expressing thanks: (Baal) gave: blytn, ya-ta-nu, ytn; gift (of Baal): mtnbl, ma-tenu, mtn; ma-ga-ni (gen.), bn mgn.

5.3.2. Qualities, Physical and Mental Described: uz-zi-nu (cf. 4.6.4.), uzn Strong; ya-i-nu, yn Sleepy; qa-u-nu, qn small. Cf. ba-ba, bn bb Baby. Indicated by attribute: (f)bitta-i-id-qi Daughter of righteousness/Righteous woman. By parts of body: gld (fem.), gldy Skin; dqn Beard; cf. pi-i-id-qi Mouth of righteousness /Righteous mouth. 5.3.3.Qualities indicated by Comparison with Nature Animals: a-ya-li (gen.), bn ayl, bn ayln Deer, bn aylt Hind; zr, zrn, bn nzr Swine; na-i (gen.), bn n Falcon; see also 4.1.1. P lants: bn arz Son of cedar. Minerals: u-ra-a-na (gen.), rn Golden. Other: bu-ra-qu, brq, bu-ur-qa-nu, bu-ra-qu-nu, brqn Thunder. 5.3.4.Relations to Family Words for son, bn /bin-/ (?), /bun-/ (?), and daughter bt /bitta/ (?) indicate the descent from or the general relationship to some person or object. Cf. supra 5.3.1. In syllabic script the character of the sign for son as a component of the name is marked by the preceding determinative transcribed as (1): (1)bin-ar-mu-na, cf. bn rmn in the alphabetic script. Names a-ba-ya (also for female), aby, abm probably indicate similarity or closeness to the father, cf. ady from ad /ad-/ pater familias. The name umy points to mother. Relations to siblings appear in the names iy, (bin)a-i-ya-na (gen.), a-i-ma-na (gen.), from /a-/ brother, and aty from /aat/ sister. Names with -y may indicate the suffixed pronoun of the 1st person sing. my. More probably some names with -n contain the pronoun of the 1st person plur. -an, un (cf. 4.2.3.) Our Brother , with -ny the 1st person of dual any, iny Brother of two of us. The word m /amm-/ means originally the paternal uncle, cf. my, myn, but it was used mostly for a protective god. The component indicating the relative can be preceded by the interrogative adverb ay, iy, a-ya-, i-ya-, where?; it points to the negative answer there is not: ayab Where is father? / There is no father, perhaps for posthumous child; a-ya-a-i (gen.), aya ... brother; (f)i-ya-um-mi ... (my) mother.

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865

5.4.Human Relations These names could be given to newborns or to adults. 5.4.1. Social position: rr, ry (fem.) Free; ab-du, bd Servant, cf. ab-di-na (gen.), bdn; abdi-milki, bdmlk ... of king; 5.4.2. P rofession: in relation to that of the father or to the future standing of the child: yr, bn yr, ya--ra-nu Potter; khn Priest. 5.4.3. Nationality or country of origin: ty, bn ty, tn, bin-a(-at)-ti-ya(-ma) Hittite; (bn) mry, (bn) mrn, mu-u-ri-ya, mu-u-ra-na (gen.) Egyptian. 5.4.4. Place of origin (in Canaan): birtn, bru-ta-na (gen.) /Birt-/ of Beirut; ky of Akko; addn, bn adt of Add; bn arwdn of Arwad/Rud. 5.4.5. Close relationship can be indicated by the use of hypocoristic forms, cf. 4.1.1. 5.5.Relations to Gods 5.5.1.Names of Gods Names of gods are directly expressed (theophorus names) or indicated by epithets (e. g. mlk (milk-/ King; m, am-mu, originally (paternal) Uncle, responsible for other family members), or omitted by ellipsis (cf. ya-ku-un-ilu, yknil Il is firm and ya-ku-nu, ykn (he) is firm). The word il /il-/ means either the name of god Il or god as general term. 5.5.2.Relationship to God Relationships indicated by kinship terms: binili, bnil Son of Il/god; raap-a-bu, rpab Raap (is) father; a-tar-a-bi, trab Athtar (is) (my) father; (f)a-na-ti-um-mi Anat (is) (my) mother; arp (my?) Brother is Raap. Social terms: abdi-a-na-ti, bdnt Servant of Anat; a-du-ni-baal (cf. 3.3.2.) (my) Lord (is) Baal. Words of affinity: mddbl Beloved of Baal. Afformatives. ba-a-la-nu, bln; baali(li)-ya, bly; blyn Belonging /Related to Baal. P arts of body: of god: ku-na-p-li Wing of Il; ba-di-na-na, bddn In hand of Judge, cf. bdil ... of Il. 5.5.3.Asking God Using imperative: u-ub-am-mu, bm Re-

turn, O Ammu / (divine) Uncle!; a-mur-baal, amrbl Look, O Baal!. Cf. bln Return to us!. Using futuric imperfect or jussive: yrmbl Baal will/may elevate, cf. ya-ri-mu, yrm (cf. 4.4.2.) Cf. ya-a-pu- (he) will/may judge. Using question: iybl Where is Baal? (longing; or relating to the season of the year in which Baal is dead?). 5.5.4.Acts of God In the past, expressed by the perfect: na-qa-ma-du, nqmd (H)add avenged; cf. 4.5.1. No time limits; expressed by a participle: baal-da-nu, bldn Baal (is) judging /Judge, dnil Il (is) judging /Judge. 5.5.5.Characterizing God As case endings are only rarely indicated in alphabetic forms, some names can be interpreted in various ways, e. g. blmpt as Baal of judgement or Baal (is) (really /ma/) judge. By genitival attribute: ildq /-idqi/ Il of righteousness (cf. 5.3.2.2.); adnnm Lord of goodness. By nominal predicate: ilu-ra-mu, ilrm Il (is) high; ilrb, rbil Il (is) great; yril, cf. 4.3.2. In combinations of /il-/ followed by the name of another god, the first component is the general word for god. The resulting name can be understood as a statement ili-apu(u) god is ap- (fem.)/Sun, or as a personal confession, my god is ...; ili-baal, ilbl; ilia-lim, illm; ilnt.

6.

Selected Bibliography

Aistleitner, Joseph (1967): Wrterbuch der ugaritischen Sprache, ed. Otto Eissfeldt. 3rd ed. Berlin. Del Olmo Lete, G. (1981): Mitos y leyendas de Canaan segn la tradicin de Ugarit. Madrid. [Glossario, 503645] Gordon, Cyrus H. (1965): Ugaritic Textbook. Rome: P ontifical Biblical Institute. [Glossary, 347507; Indices, 508522.] Grndahl, Frauke (1967): Die P ersonennamen der Texte aus Ugarit. Rom. Huehnergard, John (1987): Ugaritic Vocabulary in Syllabic Transcription. Atlanta, Georgia. KTU = Dietrich, M., Loretz, O., Sanmartn, J. (1976). Eds.: Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit. I. Kevelaer/Neukirchen-Vluyn.

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VIII. Historische Entwicklung der Namen

Noth, Martin (1928): Die israelitischen P ersonennamen im Rahmen der gemeinsemitischen Namengebung. Stuttgart [reprint Hildesheim 1980]. P RU = Nougayrol, Jean (1955/56/1970). Ed.: Le P alais Royal dUgarit. III, 1955; IV, 1956; VI, 1970. Paris. Saad, Gabriel (1979): Ougarit: Mtropole Cananenne. Beyrouth. Schaeffer, Claude F. A., et al. (1968): Ugaritica V. Paris.

Segert, Stanislav (1984): A Basic Grammar of the Ugaritic Language. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London. Segert, Stanislav (1983): Decipherment of Forgotten Writing Systems: Two Different Approaches. In: K. Ehlich and F. Coulmas, eds. Writing in Focus. Berlin, 131156. Whitaker, Richard E. (1972): A Concordance of the Ugaritic Literature. Cambridge, Mass.

Stanislav Segert, University of California, Los Angeles, (U.S.A.)

126.Phoenician Names
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Transliterations and Transcriptions of Sources Language Sources Approaches to Study of Phoenician and Punic Personal Names Grammatical Categories Functions and Relations Selected Bibliography

2.

Language

1.

Transliterations and Transcriptions of Sources

P hoenician words, especially proper names, are preserved not only in P hoenician alphabetic script, but also in other writing systems, alphabetic and syllabic. The type of source will be indicated in transliterations and transcriptions which are presented in Italics. In quotations from Greek and Latin, epigraphic sources in capital letters can be distinguished from texts transmitted by copying in lower case letters. Scripts and languages of the sources can be indicated by abbreviations. Quotations from Latin texts are presented in Roman letters, not in Italics. Reconstructed words are given in Roman letters within slashed brackets. P hoenician: Italics, with further indication of the dialect: O(ld) By(blian); P h(oenician) in Western Asia; Cy(prus dialect): P u(nic), in North Africa; L(ate) Pu(nic), after 146 B. C. E. g. rm OBy; pnbl Pu. Hebrew: rm and yrwm (H) /rm/ Egyptian: k-p-n (Eg), for P h /gubl-/, NL., Byblos Babylonien and Assyrian: i-ru-um-mu cun(eiform) syll(abary), for /rm/ Cypriote syllabary: mi-li-ki-ya-no-to-se (Cy syll.), for /milki-/ Greek epigraphic: ThENNEITh (Gr), DN., Tanit Greek text: amilkhar Latin epigraphic: ANNIBAL Latin text: hannibal

2.1. The term P hoenician, of Greek origin, is used for the Canaanite language spoken and written on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea from the beginning of the Iron Age (about 1200 B. C.) to the beginning of the Christian era. P hoenicians founded colonies on Cyprus and in the western Mediterranean. The most important was Carthage in North Africa. The language of this city and empire is called P unic. For its later stage after the destruction of Carthage in 146 B. C., until the 5th cent. A. D., the term Late P unic is used. 2.2. The Phoenician alphabetic script was deciphered by J.-J. Barthlemy in 1758. The similiarity of P hoenician to Biblical Hebrew has helped in the study of the language structure and vocabulary. 2.3. The P hoenicians are credited with the invention of the linear alphabet of 22 letters which was adopted in many cultures. The 22 letters indicate P hoenician consonants exactly. But in P hoenician texts no vowels were indicated by means of consonant letters. Only in later P unic texts can two systems of indicating some vowels by consonant letters be observed. Some evidence about vowels can be obtained from names attested in other scripts, syllabic (cuneiform, Cypriot) and alphabetic (Greek, Roman). 2.3.1. In later P unic, some consonants were weakened or mixed-up, especially laryngeals , h and pharyngeals , , and also sibilants , z, s, . Cf. correct form mttrt