Volcano Monitoring Techniques Tools Used in Mitigating Volcanic Hazards

Apr 17, 2008 Alexandra Matiella Novak Volcanic processes provide insight into volcanic activity and impending eruptions. The tools used to monitor these processes aid in hazard awareness. been challenged by the complexity and uncertainties associated with monitoring volcanic processes. However, advancements in technology have allowed volcanologists to develop new and reliable techniques for studying the many unique processes associated with volcanic activity. Currently, geologists and volcanologists implement four different strategies for monitoring active or inactive volcanoes. They are:

Hydrological studies Ground deformation measurements Seismic surveys Gas emission studies

Hydrology
Monitoring the hydrological processes associated with volcanic activity is important for understanding lahars (volcanic mudflows) and phreatomagmatic explosions explosions that occur when ground water comes into contact with magma. Lahars flow down existing drainages coming off the volcano, so understanding how water flows down these drainages is critical for understanding how lahars will flow down them. Hydrologists, geologists and volcanologists all collaborate on these kinds of studies to forecast where and with what speed a lahar will flow should one be produced. Likewise, understanding the ground-water processes below an active volcano can help in mitigating disasters that may result from an unexpected phreatomagmatic explosion.

Ground Deformation
When magma rises through the Earths crust and into a volcanos conduit, it places a huge amount of pressure on the surrounding volcanos slopes. In many cases, the slopes of the volcano will inflate and deflate with increasing and decreasing magmatic pressure. This process, known as ground deformation, can be monitored using a variety of instruments. A popular instrument that has long been used to detect changes in the slopes of volcanoes is called a tiltmeter. Similarly to how a carpenters level works, a tiltmeter is placed on the slope of a volcano and a small container filled with fluid measures how much the tilt of the slope changes. The tiltmeter is hooked up to computers that show volcanologists by how much and in what direction the slope of a volcano is changing. More recently, satellites have been used to monitor changes in slope. For example, Global Positioning System (GPS) instruments have been installed on volcanoes and linked to satellites orbiting our planet. When a volcano deforms, the changes in position of these GPS instruments is detected by the satellites and the exact amount and direction of movement can be calculated.

Seismic

Measuring the seismic activity at volcanoes is one of the oldest and most commonly used method to monitor volcanoes. As magma rises it breaks through rock and pushes on the slopes of the volcano causing seismic waves which we know as earthquakes. Most active volcanoes produce small earthquakes many times throughout the day. Volcanologists know these types of seismic signals and are not alarmed by them. However, when seismic surveys detect a change in the seismic signals such as an increase in magnitude or frequency it is a red-flag to volcanologists that the volcano is becoming more active. Many volcano observatories now have automated seismic systems, so that when a large change is detected, volcanologists are automatically warned through alarms; instead of having to sit and watch seismic equipment all day and night to look for changes.

Gas Emissions
Monitoring the gases emitted by a volcano is also a commonly used technique. As magma ascends, the decrease in pressure causes the release of a variety of magmatic gases. The two most commonly measured gases are sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. These gases can be measured using field-based methods, such as gas trapping techniques where gases are pumped into a bottle and taken back to a lab for measurements or with remotes sensing instruments such as satellites. http://www.suite101.com/content/volcano-monitoring-techniques-

a51097#ixzz19PjpvtaWFlood Monitoring Techniques

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recognizes floods as the most common natural disaster. Billions of federal monies are spent in preparation and recovery from floods, averaging more than $4 billion annually. The great cost of floods in property damage and loss of human life necessitates the close monitoring of floods and their potential impact. Techniques include monitoring weather events and stream and river levels, as well as analyzing possible human health effects from waters contaminated by flooding. Stream and River Levels 1. While monitoring stream and river levels cannot reduce the incidence of floods, it can reduce the cost of human lives. During storm events, levels are monitored as part of risk assessment. Use of more sophisticated techniques, such as a geographic information system (GIS), can map areas of potential impact and spread from floods. These technologies can provide real-time data collection, giving authorities the best information when monitoring flood events. Storm Tracking 2. Storm events can cause one type of flooding that is especially dangerous: flash flooding. Flash flooding can occur with little warning and is responsible for more deaths from weather-related disasters than any other. Forecasters combine predicted precipitation data with GIS topographical data to assess the risks of flooding. The possible pathways of flash floods can be identified. In this way, local authorities are best able to warn local populations of possible events. Floodplain Management 3. After the Great Flood of 1993, it became evident that the levee systems used to protect floodplains in the Upper Mississippi River watershed were inadequate. Rather, it gave residents a false sense of security against floods. When flood waters breached the levees, it caused catastrophic property damage and crop loss. Floodplains serve as basins to collect excess water in the environment. Flood monitoring includes management of these areas and the surrounding wetlands. Wetland Restoration 4. Studies by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other agencies show that wetland restoration can alleviate some of the impact from flooding, making it an important flood monitoring technique. A study by Illinois State

Water Survey found that even restoring as little as 1 percent of basin wetlands can reduce flood heights up to 4 percent, further reducing the impacts of flooding. After the Flood 5. Flood monitoring also includes testing of drinking water possibly contaminated by overflowing septic tanks and cesspools after a flood. Do not drink water without boiling it until officials have deemed the water is safe. Your local health department can provide assistance. Homeowners should try to conserve water as much as possible until the issues are resolved. Long after the flood waters have receded, monitoring is still necessary.

Read more: Flood Monitoring Techniques | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/way_5553862_flood-monitoringtechniques.html#ixzz19PkOOSNy

Flood Monitoring Techniques The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recognizes floods as the most common natural disaster. Billions of federal monies are spent in preparation and recovery from floods, averaging more than $4 billion annually. The great cost of floods in property damage and loss of human life necessitates the close monitoring of floods and their potential impact. Techniques include monitoring weather events and stream and river levels, as well as analyzing possible human health effects from waters contaminated by flooding. Stream and River Levels 1. While monitoring stream and river levels cannot reduce the incidence of floods, it can reduce the cost of human lives. During storm events, levels are monitored as part of risk assessment. Use of more sophisticated techniques, such as a geographic information system (GIS), can map areas of potential impact and spread from floods. These technologies can provide real-time data collection, giving authorities the best information when monitoring flood events. Storm Tracking 2. Storm events can cause one type of flooding that is especially dangerous: flash flooding. Flash flooding can occur with little warning and is responsible for more deaths from weather-related disasters than any other. Forecasters combine predicted precipitation data with GIS topographical data to assess the risks of flooding. The possible pathways of flash floods can be identified. In this way, local authorities are best able to warn local populations of possible events. Floodplain Management 3. After the Great Flood of 1993, it became evident that the levee systems used to protect floodplains in the Upper Mississippi River watershed were inadequate. Rather, it gave residents a false sense of security against floods. When flood waters breached the levees, it caused catastrophic property damage and crop loss. Floodplains serve as basins to collect excess water in the environment. Flood monitoring includes management of these areas and the surrounding wetlands. Wetland Restoration 4. Studies by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other agencies show that wetland restoration can alleviate some of the impact from flooding, making it an important flood monitoring technique. A study by Illinois State Water Survey found that even restoring as little as 1 percent of basin wetlands can reduce flood heights up to 4 percent, further reducing the impacts of flooding. After the Flood

5.

Flood monitoring also includes testing of drinking water possibly contaminated by overflowing septic tanks and cesspools after a flood. Do not drink water without boiling it until officials have deemed the water is safe. Your local health department can provide assistance. Homeowners should try to conserve water as much as possible until the issues are resolved. Long after the flood waters have receded, monitoring is still necessary.

Read more: Flood Monitoring Techniques | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/way_5553862_flood-monitoringtechniques.html#ixzz19PkOOSNy