OSI Physical Layer Supplement

Network Fundamentals Chapter 8

ITE PC v4.0 Chapter 1

2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cisco Public

2.3.7 Detailed Encapsulation Process

All People Seem To Need Data Processing

Names for PDUs at Each Layer

Drippy Sweet Pancakes For Breakfast

4.2.1 Signaling over Copper and Fiber

On copper cable, data signals are represented by voltage levels that represent binary ones and zeros. The voltage levels are measured based on a reference level of 0 volts at both the transmitter and the receiver. This reference level is called the signal ground. It is important for devices that transmit and receive data to have the same 0-volt reference point. When they do, they are said to be properly grounded. For a LAN to operate properly, the devices that receive data must be able to accurately interpret the binary ones and zeros transmitted as voltage levels. Since current Ethernet technology supports data rates of billions of bps, each bit must be recognized and the duration of each bit is very small. This means that as much of the original signal strength as possible must be retained as the signal moves through the cable and passes through the connectors. In anticipation of faster Ethernet protocols, new cable installations should be made with the best cable, connectors, and interconnect devices such as punchdown blocks and patch panels.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is a type of shielded cable. It consists of a solid copper conductor surrounded by insulating material and a braided conductive shield. In LAN applications, the braided shielding is electrically grounded to protect the inner conductor from external electrical noise. The shield also keeps the transmitted signal confined to the cable, which reduces signal loss. This helps make coaxial cable less noisy than other types of copper cabling, but also makes it more expensive. The need to ground the shielding and the bulky size of coaxial cable make it more difficult to install than other copper cabling.

Shielded Twisted-Pair

STP cable contains an outer conductive shield that is electrically grounded to insulate the signals from external electrical noise. STP also uses inner foil shields to protect each wire pair from noise generated by the other pairs.

Twisted-Pair
UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external noise but is the most frequently used because it is inexpensive and easier to install.

Optical Fiber
Fiber-optic cable represents binary ones and zeros in two ways; increases and decreases in the intensity of light, or light and no light. The strength of a light signal does not diminish as much as the strength of an electrical signal does over an identical run length. Optical signals are not affected by electrical noise and optical fiber does not need to be grounded unless the jacket contains a metal strength member. Therefore, optical fiber is often used between buildings and between floors within a building. As costs decrease and speeds increase, optical fiber may become a more commonly used LAN media.

2.3.3 OSI Model

All People Seem To Need Data Processing The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984 was the descriptive network model that the ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability among various network technologies produced by companies around the world. The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network communications. Although there are other models in existence, most network vendors relate their products to the OSI reference model. This is especially true when they want to educate users on the use of their products. It is considered the best tool available for teaching people about sending and receiving data on a network.
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2.3.4 OSI Layers

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5.1.1 LAN and Physical Layer

Note here that Ethernet is a family of technologies, which have some differences in both the physical and data link layers, including media. Token Ring and FDDI are mentioned only as LAN comparisons for Ethernet. Any single network can be built with a combination of many different media types. When designing a network, the choice of media types should be based on the following factors: Required length of cable runs Cost of material & labor Ease of installation Susceptibility to interference

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LAN Physical Layer Implementation

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IEEE 802.3x
802.3 802.3a 802.3ab 802.3ad 802.3ae 802.3i 802.3u 802.3z Ethernet (CSMA/CD) Standards for Media Access Control (MAC), 10 BASE-5 10 BASE-2 1000 BASE-T (UTP) Link Aggregation 10Gb Ethernet 10 BASE-T 100 BASE-TX/FX 1000 BASE-X (fiber)
http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/
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5.1.2 Ethernet in the Campus

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Main Points

10BASE-T Ethernet End user level Device to device Low to medium volume applications Fast Ethernet High performance connections for workstations 100Mbps between workstations and to servers Connects workgroups to backbone Connects servers to backbone Gigabit Ethernet High performance 1000Mbps backbone

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The Different Levels

Workgroup Level End-User Level

End-User Level

Backbone Level

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5.1.3 Media & Connector Requirements

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) is the most common cabling used in LANs.

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Is there a problem here?

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6.1.2 IEEE Ethernet Naming Rules

When Ethernet needs to be expanded to add a new medium or capability, the IEEE issues a new supplement to the 802.3 standard. The new supplements are given a one or two letter designation such as 802.3af. An abbreviated description, called an identifier (refer to graphic) , is also assigned to the supplement. The abbreviated description consists of the following elements: - A number that indicates the number of Mbps transmitted - The word base to indicate that baseband signaling is used - One or more letters of the alphabet indicating the type of medium used.

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Baseband versus Broadband

baseband Characteristic of a network technology where only one carrier frequency is used. Ethernet is an example of a baseband network. Also called narrowband. broadband Transmission system that multiplexes multiple independent signals onto one cable. In telecommunications terminology, any channel having a bandwidth greater than a voice-grade channel (4 kHz). In LAN terminology, a coaxial cable on which analog signaling is used. Also called wideband.

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IEEE 802 Media Activity Solved

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4.1.1 Waves
A wave is energy that travels from one place to another. A wavelength is the distance in the line of advance of a wave from any one point to the next point of corresponding phase. It is helpful to think of waves as disturbances. The ocean always has some sort of detectable waves due to disturbances such as wind and tide.

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Describing Waves
Ocean waves can be described in terms of their height, or amplitude, which could be measured in meters. They can also be described in terms of how frequently the waves reach the shore, which relates to period and frequency. The period of the waves is the amount of time between each wave, measured in seconds. The frequency is the number of waves that reach the shore each second.

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Frequency, Amplitude, and Period

Networking professionals are specifically interested in voltage waves on copper media, light waves in optical fiber, and alternating electric and magnetic fields called electromagnetic waves.

Frequency: Frequency (F) is the number of complete cycles per second. This is measured in Hertz (Hz). Amplitude: The amplitude (A) of an electrical signal represents the height of the wave, and it is measured in volts (V). Period: The period (T) is the amount of time that it takes to complete 1 cycle. This is measured in seconds.

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Pulse
A pulse is a deliberately caused disturbance of a fixed, predictable duration. Pulses are an important part of electrical signals because they are the basis of digital transmission. The pattern of the pulses represents the value of the data being transmitted.

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4.1.2 Sine Waves and Square Waves

Sine waves are periodic, which means that they repeat the same pattern at regular intervals.

Sine waves vary continuously, which means that no two adjacent points on the graph have the same value. Sine waves are graphical representations of many natural occurrences that change regularly over time. Sine waves are examples of analog waves, since they vary continuously.

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Sine Waves and Square Waves

Square waves, like sine waves, are periodic, which means that they repeat the same pattern at regular intervals.

Square waves do not continuously vary with time; they maintain one value and then suddenly change to a different value. Square waves represent digital signals, or pulses.

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6.1.5 Layer 2 Framing

Framing provides essential information that could not be obtained from coded bit streams alone. This information includes the following: Which computers are in communication with each other When communication between individual computers begins and when it ends Which errors occurred while the computers communicated Which computer will communicate next Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process.

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6.2.3 Ethernet Timing

Any station on an Ethernet network wishing to transmit a message first listens to ensure that no other station is currently transmitting. If the cable is quiet, the station will begin transmitting immediately. The electrical signal takes time to travel down the cable (delay), and each subsequent repeater introduces a small amount of latency in forwarding the frame from one port to the next. Because of the delay and latency, it is possible for more than one station to begin transmitting at or near the same time. This results in a collision. If the attached station is operating in full duplex then the station may send and receive simultaneously and collisions should not occur. Full-duplex operation also changes the timing considerations and eliminates the concept of slot time. Full-duplex operation allows for larger network architecture designs since the timing restriction for collision detection is removed.

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Waiting for a collision fragment

The actual calculated slot time is just longer than the theoretical amount of time required to travel between the furthest points of the collision domain, collide with another transmission at the last possible instant, and then have the collision fragments return to the sending station and be detected. For the system to work the first station must learn about the collision before it finishes sending the smallest legal frame size (hence the 5-4-3 rule). To allow 1000-Mbps Ethernet to operate in half duplex the extension field was added when sending small frames purely to keep the transmitter busy long enough for a collision fragment to return. This field is present only on 1000-Mbps, half-duplex links and allows minimum-sized frames to be long enough to meet slot time requirements. Extension bits are discarded by the receiving station.

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Frame size versus length of cable

For CSMA/CD Ethernet to operate, the sending station must become aware of a collision before it has completed transmission of a minimum-sized frame. At 100 Mbps the system timing is barely able to accommodate 100 meter cables. At 1000 Mbps special adjustments are required as nearly an entire minimumsized frame would be transmitted before the first bit reached the end of the first 100 meters of UTP cable. For this reason half duplex is not permitted in 10-Gigabit Ethernet.

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4.1.6 Analog and Digital Signals

Most modern telecommunications consists of modulating either amplitude, frequency, or phase. Digital square waves that comprise the networking signals can be thought of as a carefully constructed sum of sine waves. Therefore, cable testing can use sine waves at different frequencies measured in hertz, which is an analog approach, to determine the maximum data transfer supported on a cable as measured in bps, kbps, Mbps, Gbps, a digital approach.

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2.2.1 Importance of Bandwidth

Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period of time. (2.2.1) Bandwidth is the measure of how many bits of information can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. (2.2.3) It is important to understand the concept of bandwidth for the following reasons.

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2.2.2 Bandwidth Pipe Analogy

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Bandwidth Highway Analogy

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2.2.3 Bandwidth Measurements

Kilo = thousand Mega = million Giga = billion Tera = trillion

Although the terms bandwidth and speed are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the same thing. One may say, for example, that a T3 connection at 45 Mbps operates at a higher speed than a T1 connection at 1.544 Mbps. However, if only a small amount of their data-carrying capacity is being used, each of these connection types will carry data at roughly the same speed. Therefore, it is usually more accurate to say that a T3 connection has greater bandwidth than a T1 connection. This is because the T3 connection is able to carry more information in the same period of time, not because it has a higher speed.

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2.2.3 Bandwidth Measurements

Kilo = thousand Mega = million Giga = billion Tera = trillion

Although the terms bandwidth and speed are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the same thing. One may say, for example, that a T3 connection at 45 Mbps operates at a higher speed than a T1 connection at 1.544 Mbps. However, if only a small amount of their data-carrying capacity is being used, each of these connection types will carry data at roughly the same speed. Therefore, it is usually more accurate to say that a T3 connection has greater bandwidth than a T1 connection. This is because the T3 connection is able to carry more information in the same period of time, not because it has a higher speed.

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2.2.4 Bandwidth Limitations

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2.2.5 Bandwidth Throughput

Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network. Unfortunately, for many reasons, throughput is often far less than the maximum possible digital bandwidth of the medium that is being used. The following are some of the factors that determine throughput: Internetworking devices Type of data being transferred Network topology Number of users on the network User computer Server computer Power conditions

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3.1.9 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)

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UTP Characteristics
UTP is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of networks. Each of the eight copper wires in the UTP cable is covered by insulating material. In addition, each pair of wires is twisted around each other. This type of cable relies on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal degradation caused by EMI and RFI. To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the number of twists in the wire pairs varies. Like STP cable, UTP cable must follow precise specifications as to how many twists or braids are permitted per foot of cable.

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UTP Pros

Pros: It is easier to install than coaxial. It is less expensive than other types of networking media. Since it has such a small external diameter, UTP does not fill up wiring ducts as rapidly as other types of cable. When UTP cable is installed with an RJ-45 connector, potential sources of network noise are greatly reduced and a good solid connection is almost guaranteed.

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UTP Cons

Cons: UTP cable is more prone to electrical noise and interference than other types of networking media The distance between signal boosts is shorter for UTP than it is for coaxial and fiber optic cables.

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T568A and T568B Wiring Standards

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Straight-through Cable

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Straight-through Cable

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Straight-through Cable
Use straight-through cables for the following connections: Hub to a router Switch to router Hub to PC or server Switch to PC or server

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Crossover Cable

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Crossover Cable

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Crossover Cable

Use crossover cables for the following connections: Switch to switch Switch to hub Hub to hub Router to router PC to PC Router to PC

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Exceptions for Hub-to-Hub

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Rollover Cable

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Rollover Cable

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Rollover Cable

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5.1.5 UTP Implementation

RJ-45 Connector The letters RJ stand for registered jack and the number 45 refers to a specific wiring sequence.

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RJ-45 Jack

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EIA/TIA-568-B.1 Color Code

For electricity to run between the connector and the jack, the order of the wires must follow T568A or T568B color code found in the EIA/TIA-568-B.1 standard.

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Tip and Ring

Four of the wires, T1 through T4, carry the voltage and are called tip. The other four wires, R1 through R4, are grounded and are called ring. Tip and ring are terms that originated in the early days of the telephone. Today, these terms refer to the positive and the negative wire in a pair.

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Which is which?

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Hub Cabling Exceptions

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When to use which cable?

Use straight-through cables for the following connections: Switch to router Switch to PC or server Hub to PC or server

Use crossover cables for the following connections: Switch to switch Router to router Switch to hub Router to PC Hub to hub PC to PC

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3.1.6 Cable Specifications

The principle idea here is that the different types of media and their terminations are governed by standards. These standards are specified within the dominant LAN technology, Ethernet. Therefore, we must understand the different specifications and expectations of cables. Important considerations related to cable performance are as follows: Speed of transmission: What speeds for data transmission can be achieved? The speed of bit transmission through the cable is extremely important. The speed of transmission is affected by the kind of conduit used. Digital or analog: Digital or baseband transmission and analog or broadband transmission requires different types of cable. Distance of cable run: How far can a signal travel before attenuation becomes a concern? If the signal is degraded, network devices might not be able to receive and interpret the signal. The distance the signal travels through the cable affects attenuation of the signal. Degradation is directly related to the distance the signal travels and the type of cable used.

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Cable Specifications

Speed of Transmission

Type of Transmission

Type of Cable & Max Length

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Cable Specifications
10BASE2 The speed of transmission at 10 Mbps The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted The 2 indicates that a signal can travel for approximately 185 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the receiver to interpret the signal 10BASE5 The speed of transmission at 10 Mbps The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted The 5 indicates that a signal can travel for approximately 500 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the receiver to interpret the signal

10BASE-T The speed of transmission is 10 Mbps The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted The T stands for twisted pair

100BASE-T The speed of transmission is 100 Mbps The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted The T stands for twisted pair

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So which cable would you use?

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4.2.1 Signaling over Copper and Fiber

On copper cable, data signals are represented by voltage levels that represent binary ones and zeros. The voltage levels are measured based on a reference level of 0 volts at both the transmitter and the receiver. This reference level is called the signal ground. It is important for devices that transmit and receive data to have the same 0-volt reference point. When they do, they are said to be properly grounded. For a LAN to operate properly, the devices that receive data must be able to accurately interpret the binary ones and zeros transmitted as voltage levels. Since current Ethernet technology supports data rates of billions of bps, each bit must be recognized and the duration of each bit is very small. This means that as much of the original signal strength as possible must be retained as the signal moves through the cable and passes through the connectors. In anticipation of faster Ethernet protocols, new cable installations should be made with the best cable, connectors, and interconnect devices such as punchdown blocks and patch panels.

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is a type of shielded cable. It consists of a solid copper conductor surrounded by insulating material and a braided conductive shield. In LAN applications, the braided shielding is electrically grounded to protect the inner conductor from external electrical noise. The shield also keeps the transmitted signal confined to the cable, which reduces signal loss. This helps make coaxial cable less noisy than other types of copper cabling, but also makes it more expensive. The need to ground the shielding and the bulky size of coaxial cable make it more difficult to install than other copper cabling.

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Shielded Twisted-Pair

STP cable contains an outer conductive shield that is electrically grounded to insulate the signals from external electrical noise. STP also uses inner foil shields to protect each wire pair from noise generated by the other pairs.

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Twisted-Pair
UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external noise but is the most frequently used because it is inexpensive and easier to install.

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Optical Fiber
Fiber-optic cable represents binary ones and zeros in two ways; increases and decreases in the intensity of light, or light and no light. The strength of a light signal does not diminish as much as the strength of an electrical signal does over an identical run length. Optical signals are not affected by electrical noise and optical fiber does not need to be grounded unless the jacket contains a metal strength member. Therefore, optical fiber is often used between buildings and between floors within a building. As costs decrease and speeds increase, optical fiber may become a more commonly used LAN media.

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4.2.2 Insertion Loss = Attenuation + Impedance

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Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of signal strength as it is transmitted from the end of the cable which the signal is generated to the opposite end at which it is received. Attenuation, also referred to as Insertion Loss, is measured in decibels (dB). For attenuation, the lower the dB value, the better the performance, less signal is lost. This decrease in performance is typically caused by absorption, reflection, diffusion, scattering, deflection, or dispersion from the original signal and usually not as a result of geometric spreading. Attenuation is measured by a cable tester with the highest frequencies that the cable is rated to support.

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Attenuation
Contributing factors to attenuation on network media include: Long cable lengths lead to signal deterioration over the length of a link, caused by the resistance to heat presented by the properties of the media. If you have an improperly installed connector, it will have a different impedance value than the cable. This is called an impedance mismatch. Signal energy is also lost when it leaks through the insulation of the cable.

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Impedance

Impedance is a measurement of the resistance of the cable to alternating current (AC) and is measured in ohms. The normal impedance of a Category 5 cable is 100 ohms. If a connector is improperly installed on Category 5, it will have a different impedance value than the cable. This is called an impedance discontinuity or an impedance mismatch.

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Impedance Mismatch

Impedance mismatches cause attenuation because a portion of a transmitted signal is reflected back, like an echo, and does not reach the receiver. This effect is compounded if multiple mismatches cause additional portions of the signal to be reflected back to the transmitter. When the reflected signal strikes the first mismatch, some of the signal rebounds in the original direction, which creates multiple echo effects. The echoes strike the receiver at different intervals. This makes it difficult for the receiver to detect data values. This is called jitter and results in data errors.

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Impedance

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4.2.3 Noise on Copper Media

Noise is any electrical energy on the transmission cable that makes it difficult for a receiver to interpret the data sent from the transmitter. We have already discussed RFI and EMI noise, as well as laser noise. Our focus now will be on crosstalk. Crosstalk involves the transmission of signals from one wire to a nearby wire. When voltages change on a wire, electromagnetic energy is generated. This energy radiates outward from the wire like a radio signal from a transmitter. Adjacent wires in the cable act like antennas and receive the transmitted energy, which interferes with data on those wires.

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Measuring Crosstalk
Crosstalk can also be caused by signals on separate, nearby cables. When crosstalk is caused by a signal on another cable, it is called alien crosstalk. In networks with higher transmission frequencies, there is an increase in crosstalk, resulting in the destruction of more of the data signal. Cable testing instruments measure crosstalk by applying a test signal to one wire pair. The cable tester then measures the amplitude of the unwanted crosstalk signals on the other wire pairs in the cable.

Agilent Network Analyzer $59,000

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Minimizing Noise on Twisted-Pair

Twisted-pair cable is designed to take advantage of the effects of crosstalk in order to minimize noise. In twisted-pair cable, a pair of wires is used to transmit one signal. The wire pair is twisted so that each wire experiences similar crosstalk. Because a noise signal on one wire will appear identically on the other wire, this noise be easily detected and filtered at the receiver.

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Making a Good Connection

Twisted wire pairs in a cable are also more resistant to crosstalk or noise signals from adjacent wire pairs. Higher categories of UTP require more twists on each wire pair in the cable to minimize crosstalk at high transmission frequencies. When connectors are attached to the ends of UTP cable, the wire pairs should be untwisted as little as possible to ensure reliable LAN communications.

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4.2.4 Types of Crosstalk

This section defines the three types of crosstalk: Near-end Crosstalk (NEXT) Far-end Crosstalk (FEXT) Power Sum NEXT(PSNEXT)

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For Example,

An example of crosstalk on voice channels is when extraneous conversations can be heard in the background over the phone line while on a telephone conversation. Those signals are being induced onto the voice channel from another channel. The same instance occurs in data signal transmission. If the crosstalk is great enough, it will interfere with signals received across the circuit.

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Crosstalk Test Parameters

Low decibel values of attenuation are desirable because then less of the signal is lost on its way to the receiver. Higher decibel values of crosstalk (NEXT, ELFEXT, etc.) and return loss are actually desirable because that means less signal has been measured on adjacent wires. The way the testing is done, you measure how much signal energy did not transfer to the other pair. A pair (or pairs, in the case of power-sum measurements) is energized with a signal. This is the disturber. You listen on another pair called the disturbed pair. Subtracting what you inserted on the disturber from what measure on the disturbed tells you how much signal stayed with the disturber.

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Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT)

Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT) is computed as the ratio of voltage amplitude between the test signal and the crosstalk signal when measured from the same end of the link. In other words, Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT) measures the amount of signal coupled from one pair to another within the cable caused by radiation emission at the transmitting end (near end) of the cable.

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Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT)

NEXT needs to be measured from each pair to each other pair in a UTP link, and from both ends of the link. To verify proper link performance, NEXT should be measured from both ends of the link with a high-quality test instrument. Low negative numbers indicate more noise. By tradition, cable testers do not show the minus sign indicating the negative NEXT values. A NEXT reading of 30 dB (which actually indicates -30 dB) indicates less NEXT noise and a cleaner signal than does a NEXT reading of 10 dB.

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Far-End Crosstalk (FEXT)

FEXT is similar to NEXT except that it is detected at the opposite end of the cable from where the signal was sent. Due to attenuation, the signals at the far end of the transmitting wire pair are much weaker than the signals at the near end. The noise caused by FEXT still travels back to the source, but it is attenuated as it returns. Thus, FEXT is not as significant a problem as NEXT. However, more FEXT will be seen on a shorter cable than a longer one because the signal at the receiving side will have less distance over which to attenuate.

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Pair-to-Pair Crosstalk
For both NEXT and FEXT, one way of measuring crosstalk is the pair-to-pair method. In pair-to-pair measurement, one pair, the disturber, is energized with a signal, and another pair, the disturbed, is measured to see how much signal transfer occurs. The following six combinations are tested in a four-pair cable: Pair 1 to pair 2 Pair 1 to pair 3 Pair 1 to pair 4 Pair 2 to pair 3 Pair 2 to pair 4 Pair 3 to pair 4 The test is repeated from the opposite end of the cable, resulting in 12 pair-to-pair combinations tested. The worst combination is what is recorded as the cables crosstalk value.
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Power Sum NEXT (PSNEXT)

Power Sum NEXT (PSNEXT) measures the cumulative effect of NEXT from all wire pairs in the cable. PSNEXT is computed for each wire pair based on the NEXT effects of the other three pairs. The combined effect of crosstalk from multiple simultaneous transmission sources can be very detrimental to the signal. TIA/EIA-568-B certification now requires this PSNEXT test.

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Power Sum NEXT (PSNEXT)

When testing PSNEXT, all pairs except one are energized as disturbing pairs, and the remaining pair, the disturbed pair, is measured for transferred signal energy. Notice that the energy from pairs 2, 3, and 4 can all affect pair 1. The sum of this crosstalk must be within specified limits. Because each pair affects each other pair, this measurement will have to be made four separate times, once for each wire pair against the others. Again, testing is done from both ends, raising the number of tested combinations to eight. The worst combination is recorded as the cables power-sum crosstalk.

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4.2.5 Cable Testing Standards

The TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies ten tests that a copper cable must pass if it will be used for modern, high-speed Ethernet LANs. All cable links should be tested to the maximum rating that applies for the category of cable being installed. The ten primary test parameters are: Wire map Insertion loss Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) Power sum NEXT(PSNEXT) Equal-level FEXT (ELFEXT) Power sum equal-level FEXT (PSELFEXT) Return loss Propagation delay Cable length Delay skew
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Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio (ACR)

The first thing to understand about testing data cables is the ACR, which stands for Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio. The pink area in the graph is the attenuation, and the blue area is the crosstalk. Attenuation is the reduction in signal strength over the length of the cable and frequency range. Crosstalk is the external noise that is introduced into the cable. So, if the two areas meet, the data signal will be lost because the crosstalk noise will be at the same level as the attenuated signal. ACR is the most important result when testing a link because it represents the overall performance of the cable.

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Wire Map
Wire map is a continuity test. It assures that the conductors that make up the four twisted pairs in the cable are continuous from the termination point of one end of the link to the other. This test assures that the conductors are terminated correctly at each end and that none of the conductor pairs are crossed or short circuited.

A short circuit occurs if two wires are connected to each other.

An open circuit occurs if the wire does not attach properly at the connector.

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Wire Map
The reversed-pair fault occurs when a wire pair is correctly installed on one connector, but reversed on the other connector. A split-pair wiring fault occurs when one wire from one pair is switched with one wire from a different pair at both ends.

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ELFEXT and PSELFEXT

FEXT doesn't mean much because the length of the cable determines how much the signal is attenuated before it can affect the pairs at the far end.

To compensate for this, and to provide a more meaningful result, the attenuation is subtracted from the FEXT test and the result is then called Equal Level FEXT (ELFEXT). And of course, no test parameter these days would be complete without adding the results together for each pair and calling it a Power Sum measurement, so now we have Power Sum Equal Level FEXT (PSELFEXT).

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Return Loss
When a cable is manufactured there are slight imperfections in the copper. These imperfections all contribute to the Structural Return Loss (SRL) measurement because each one causes an impedance mismatch which adds to the cables attenuation. The significant problem is that signal echoes caused by the reflections from the impedance mismatches will strike the receiver at different intervals causing signal jitter.

If the power transmitted by the source is PT and the power reflected back is PR, then the return loss is given by PR divided by PT. Expressed in dB, the return loss should be as large a negative number as possible. For example a return loss of -40dB is better than one of -20dB.

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Propagation Delay

With the emergence of several high-speed applications the need for additional performance parameters (propagation delay and delay skew) are required. Propagation delay is a simple measurement of how long it takes for a signal to travel along the cable being tested. The delay in a wire pair depends on its length, twist rate, and electrical properties. Delays are measured in hundredths of nanoseconds. One nanosecond is onebillionth of a second, or 0.000000001 second. The TIA/EIA-568-B standard sets a limit for propagation delay for the various categories of UTP.

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Propagation Delay

Propagation delays differ between mediums, which affect the maximum possible length of the Ethernet topology running on that medium. The maximum propagation delay through the network can be calculated by dividing the maximum length by the speed. For 10Base2 thin coax network, this is 185 meters divided by 195,000 km/sec, or 950 nanoseconds. If the actual propagation delay from one end of the network to the other is greater than 950 nanoseconds, late collisions may occur.

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Cable Length & TDR

Propagation delay measurements are the basis of the cable length measurement. TIA/EIA-568-B.1 specifies that the physical length of the link shall be calculated using the wire pair with the shortest electrical delay. Testers measure the length of the wire based on the electrical delay as measured by a Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) test, not by the physical length of the cable jacket. Since the wires inside the cable are twisted, signals actually travel farther than the physical length of the cable.

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Cable Length & TDR

When a cable tester makes a TDR measurement, it sends a pulse signal down a wire pair and measures the amount of time required for the pulse to return on the same wire pair. The TDR test is used not only to determine length, but also to identify the distance to wiring faults such as shorts and opens. When the pulse encounters an open, short, or poor connection, all or part of the pulse energy is reflected back to the tester. This can be used to calculate the approximate distance to the wiring fault. The approximate distance can be helpful in locating a faulty connection point along a cable run, such as a wall jack.

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Delay Skew

The propagation delays of different wire pairs in a single cable can differ slightly because of differences in the number of twists and electrical properties of each wire pair. The delay difference between pairs is called delay skew. Delay skew is a critical parameter for highspeed networks in which data is simultaneously transmitted over multiple wire pairs, such as 1000BASE-T Ethernet. If the delay skew between the pairs is too great, the bits arrive at different times and the data cannot be properly reassembled.

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3.1.7 Coaxial Cable

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Coaxial Cable Pros & Cons

Pros: It can be run longer distances than UTP without the need for repeaters. Coaxial cable is less expensive to install than fiber-optic cable. The technology is well known.

Cons: It is hard to work with because of thickness, making it more expensive to install than Ethernet. Poor shield connection is one of the biggest sources of connection problems in the installation of coaxial cable. Connection problems result in electrical noise that interferes with signal transmission.

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3.1.8 STP & ScTP

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STP & ScTP

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EMI & RFI

electromagnetic interference (EMI) - Interference by electromagnetic signals that can cause reduced data integrity and increased error rates on transmission channels. radio frequency interference (RFI) - The radio frequencies that create noise that interferes with information being transmitted across unshielded copper cabling. STP and ScTP cable combines the techniques of cancellation, shielded, and twisted wires to reduce EMI and RFI. UTP relies on cancellation and twisted wires, without the metallic shielding that the other two offer.

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3.1.2 Voltage

Voltage, which is sometimes referred to as electromotive force, is related to an electrical force, or pressure, that occurs when electrons and protons are separated. The force that is created pushes toward the opposite charge and away from the like charge. In other words, voltage is the pressure that moves electrons through a circuit from one place to another. Voltage is measured in volts (V).

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3.1.3 Resistance and Attenuation

Resistance is opposition to the flow of electrons. It is measured in Ohms (). The materials through which current flows vary in their resistance to the movement of the electrons. The amount of resistance depends on the chemical composition of the materials. All materials that conduct electricity have a measure of resistance to the flow of electrons through them. Attenuation is important in relation to networks. Attenuation refers to the resistance to the flow of electrons and explains why a signal becomes degraded as it travels along the conduit. In networking terms, attenuation is the reduction of signal energy during transmission. This affects data communication signals in the form of light patterns, electrical voltages, and modulated electromagnetic waves.

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Insulators

Insulators: Electrical insulators are materials that are most resistant to the flow of electrons through them. Examples of electrical insulators include plastic, glass, air, dry wood, paper, rubber, and helium gas. These materials have very stable chemical structures and the electrons are tightly bound within the atoms.

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Conductors
Conductors: Electrical conductors are materials that allow electrons to flow through them easily. The outermost electrons are bound very loosely to the nucleus and are easily freed. At room temperature, these materials have a large number of free electrons that can provide conduction. The introduction of voltage causes the free electrons to move, which results in a current flow. The best conductors are metals such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). These metals have electrons that are easily freed. Other conductors include solder, which is a mixture of lead (Pb) and tin (Sn), and water with ions.

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Semiconductors
Semiconductors: Semiconductors are materials that allow the amount of electricity they conduct to be precisely controlled. These materials are listed together in one column of the periodic chart. Examples include carbon (C), germanium (Ge), and the alloy gallium arsenide (GaAs). Silicon (Si) is the most important semiconductor because it makes the best microscopicsized electronic circuits.

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3.1.4 Current Flow

Current is the flow of charged particles. Currents flow in closed loops called circuits, which must be composed of conducting materials and must have sources of voltage. Voltage causes current to flow. Resistance and impedance oppose it. Current consists of electrons that flow away from negative terminals and toward positive terminals. These facts allow people to control the flow of current. Current (I) is measured in amperes (A).

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3.1.5 (Circuits) Electricity

Electricity will naturally flow to the earth if there is a path. Current also flows along the path of least resistance. If a human body provides the path of least resistance, the current will flow through it. When an electric appliance has a plug with three prongs, one of the prongs acts as the ground, or 0 volts. The ground provides a conductive path for the electrons to flow to the earth. The resistance of the body would be greater than the resistance of the ground.

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Well Grounded

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Water Analogy for Electricity

A water analogy can help explain the concept of electricity. The higher the water and the greater the pressure, the more the water will flow. The water current also depends on the size of the space it must flow through. Similarly, the higher the voltage and the greater the electrical pressure, the more current will be produced.

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Water Analogy for Electricity

The electric current then encounters resistance that, like the water tap, reduces the flow. If the electric current is in an AC circuit, then the amount of current will depend on how much impedance is present. If the electric current is in a DC circuit, then the amount of current will depend on how much resistance is present. The pump is like a battery. It provides pressure to keep the flow moving.

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Measuring the flow: Ohms Law

The relationship among voltage, resistance, and current is voltage (V) equals current (I) multiplied by resistance (R). In other words, V=I*R. This is Ohms law, named after the scientist who explored these issues. For current, I=V/R. For resistance, R=V/I.

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Series Circuit: Flashlight

Electrons flow in closed circuits, or complete loops. The chemical processes in the battery cause charges to build up. This provides a voltage, or electrical pressure, that enables electrons to flow through various devices. The lines in the graphic represent a conductor, which is usually copper wire. Think of a switch as two ends of a single wire that can be opened or broken to prevent the flow of electrons. When the two ends are closed, fixed, or shorted, electrons are allowed to flow. Finally, a light bulb provides resistance to the flow of electrons, which causes the electrons to release energy in the form of light. The circuits in networks use a much more complex version of this simple circuit.

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3.2.6 Multimode Fiber

Core: The part of an optical fiber through which light rays travel is called the core of the fiber. Cladding: Surrounding the core is the cladding. Cladding is also made of silica but with a lower index of refraction than the core. Light rays traveling through the fiber core reflect off this core-to-cladding interface as they move through the fiber by total internal reflection. Coating or Buffer: Surrounding the cladding is a buffer material that is usually plastic. The buffer material helps shield the core and cladding from damage. Strength Material: The strength material surrounds the buffer, preventing the fiber cable from being stretched when installers pull it. The material used is often Kevlar, the same material used to produce bulletproof vests. Outer Jacket: The final element is the outer jacket. The outer jacket surrounds the cable to protect the fiber against abrasion, solvents, and other contaminants. The color of the outer jacket of multimode fiber is usually orange, and singlemode fiber is usually yellow.
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Single-mode versus Multimode Fiber

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Full Duplex in Optical Fiber

Every fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two glass fibers encased in separate sheaths. One fiber carries transmitted data from device A to device B. The second fiber carries data from device B to device A. The fibers are similar to two one-way streets going in opposite directions. This provides a full-duplex communication link. Copper twisted-pair uses a wire pair to transmit and a wire pair to receive. Fiber-optic circuits use one fiber strand to transmit and one to receive. Typically, these two fiber cables will be in a single outer jacket until they reach the point at which connectors are attached.

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No Crosstalk

Until the connectors are attached, there is no need for shielding, because no light escapes when it is inside a fiber. This means there are no crosstalk issues with fiber.

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Multiple Pairs in One Case

It is very common to see multiple fiber pairs encased in the same cable. This allows a single cable to be run between data closets, floors, or buildings.

One cable can contain 2 to 48 or more separate fibers. With copper, one UTP cable would have to be pulled for each circuit.

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Optical Cable Design

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3.2.7 Single-mode Fiber

Single-mode fiber consists of the same parts as multimode. The outer jacket of single-mode fiber is usually yellow. The major difference between multimode and single-mode fiber is that single-mode allows only one mode of light to propagate through the smaller, fiber-optic core. An infrared laser is used as the light source in single-mode fiber. The ray of light it generates enters the core at a 90-degree angle. As a result, the data carrying light ray pulses in single-mode fiber are essentially transmitted in a straight line right down the middle of the core. This greatly increases both the speed and the distance that data can be transmitted.

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Common Core/Cladding Sizes

The much smaller and more refined fiber core in single-mode fiber is the reason single-mode has a higher bandwidth and cable run distance than multimode fiber. However, it entails more manufacturing costs.

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3.2.8 Other Optical Components

Connector: a mechanical device attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers can be connected to the ports on the transmitter and receiver. The type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber is the Subscriber Connector (SC). On single-mode fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is frequently used. Transmitter: an electronic package that converts an electrical signal to an optical signal. The transmitter receives data to be transmitted from switches and routers. This data is in the form of electrical signals. The transmitter converts the electronic signals into their equivalent light pulses. Receiver: an electronic package that converts optical signals to electrical signals. The first job of the receiver is to detect a light pulse that arrives from the fiber. Then the receiver converts the light pulse back into the original electrical signal that first entered the transmitter at the far end of the fiber.

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Light Sources

Light Emitting Diode (LED): a light source producing infrared light with wavelengths of either 850 nm or 1310 nm. These are used with multimode fiber in LANs. Lenses are used to focus the infrared light on the end of the fiber. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation (LASER): a light source producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually with wavelengths of 1310nm or 1550 nm. Lasers are used with single-mode fiber over the longer distances involved in WANs or campus backbones. Extra care should be exercised to prevent eye injury.

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Types of Connectors
Subscriber Connector (SC): the type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber, made from molded plastic, using push-pull mechanics.

Straight Tip (ST) connector: the type of connector most commonly used with single-mode fiber, featuring a bayonet-style nut.

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Parts of a Connector

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Optical Fiber: Pros

Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources of external noise that cause problems on copper media because external light cannot enter the fiber except at the transmitter end.

The transmission of light on one fiber in a cable does not generate interference that disturbs transmission on any other fiber. This means that fiber does not have the problem with crosstalk that copper media does.

Fiber is the best of all the transmission media at carrying large amounts of data over long distances.

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Optical Fiber: Cons

Scattering: The scattering of light in a fiber is caused by microscopic non-uniformity (distortions) in the fiber that reflects and scatters some of the light energy.

Absorption: When a light ray strikes some types of chemical impurities in a fiber, the impurities absorb part of the energy. This light energy is converted to a small amount of heat energy. Absorption makes the light signal a little dimmer.

Dispersion: Another factor that causes attenuation of the light signal is manufacturing irregularities or roughness in the core-to-cladding boundary. Power is lost from the light signal because of the less than perfect total internal reflection in that rough area of the fiber.
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Optical Fiber: Cons

Improper Installation: A major cause of too much attenuation in fiber-optic cable is improper installation. If the fiber is stretched or curved too tightly, it can cause tiny cracks in the core that will scatter the light rays. Bending the fiber in too tight a curve can change the incident angle of light ray.

Dirty Ends: Once the fiber-optic cable and connectors have been installed, the connectors and the ends of the fibers must be kept spotlessly clean.

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Fiber End Face Finishes

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Fiber End Face Polishing Techniques

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Splicing

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Calibrated Light Sources and Light Meter

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4.2.8 Testing Optical Fiber

A fiber link consists of two separate glass fibers functioning as independent data pathways. One fiber carries transmitted signals in one direction, while the second carries signals in the opposite direction. Each glass fiber is surrounded by a sheath that light cannot pass through, so there are no crosstalk problems on fiber optic cable. External electromagnetic interference or noise has no affect on fiber cabling. Attenuation does occur on fiber links, but to a lesser extent than on copper cabling.

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Optical Fiber Impedance

Fiber links are subject to the optical equivalent of UTP impedance discontinuities. When light encounters an optical discontinuity, like an impurity in the glass or a micro-fracture, some of the light signal is reflected back in the opposite direction. This means only a fraction of the original light signal will continue down the fiber towards the receiver. This results in a reduced amount of light energy arriving at the receiver, making signal recognition difficult. Just as with UTP cable, improperly installed connectors are the main cause of light reflection and signal strength loss in optical fiber.

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Optical Fiber Light Signal

Because noise is not an issue when transmitting on optical fiber, the main concern with a fiber link is the strength of the light signal that arrives at the receiver. If attenuation weakens the light signal at the receiver, then data errors will result. Testing fiber optic cable primarily involves shining a light down the fiber and measuring whether a sufficient amount of light reaches the receiver.

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Optical Link Loss Budget

On a fiber optic link, the acceptable amount of signal power loss that can occur without dropping below the requirements of the receiver must be calculated. This calculation is referred to as the optical link loss budget. A fiber test instrument, known as a light source and power meter, checks whether the optical link loss budget has been exceeded.

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OTDR
If the fiber fails the test, another cable test instrument can be used to indicate where the optical discontinuities occur along the length of the cable link. An optical TDR known as an OTDR is capable of locating these discontinuities. Usually, the problem is one or more improperly attached connectors. The OTDR will indicate the location of the faulty connections that must be replaced. When the faults are corrected, the cable must be retested.
Agilent E6000 Series Mini-OTDR

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5.1.8 Wireless

Main Benefits: User mobility No cables to end user

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Infrared (IR) Pros and Cons

Pros An infrared-based network suits environments where all the digital devices that require network connectivity are in one room New IR technologies will be able to work out of sight Technology can be installed quickly Inexpensive Cons Current technology requires devices to be in the line of sight of the transmitter Limited distance Small ratio of receiver-to-devices IR technology doesnt work very well in direct sunlight Data signals can be weakened or obstructed by people who walk across the room or by moisture in the air

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Radio Frequency (RF) Pros and Cons

Pros It supports the ability to send data at a faster rate It has a large broadcast range It is low maintenance It is omni directional. An omni directional system does not require line-of-sight, so it can operate through walls Cons RF spectrum is a limited and regulated resource; it is therefore an expensive resource Prone to congestion and interference. Since RF signals are not restricted to well-defined boundaries, RF transmission can be picked up by anyone within range of the transmitter, making it difficult to secure

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Spread Spectrum Invention

The idea of spread-spectrum radio transmission was proposed by the military who was seeking ways to prevent radio signals from being monitored or blocked by hostile parties. The two inventors came up with the notion of changing the frequency of a transmission at regular intervals faster than the enemy could retune. A special receiver that knew the frequency-hopping pattern could follow it and pick up the entire transmission. The hopping patterns were controlled by the punched holes in piano rolls became known as frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS). Later, as digital logic became popular, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) was developed. In this method of transmission, the signal does not hop from one frequency to another but is passed through a spreading function and distributed over the entire band at once.
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Spread Spectrum FHSS & DSSS

DSSS usually provides slightly higher data rates and shorter delays than FHSS, because the transmitter and receiver don't have to spend time retuning. Both FHSS and DSSS are resistant to interference from conventional radio transmitters. Because the signal doesn't stay in one place on the band, FHSS can elude a jammer (a transmitter designed to block radio transmissions on a given frequency). DSSS avoids interference by configuring the spreading function in the receiver to concentrate the desired signal but spread out and dilutes any interfering signal.

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IEEE 802.11
The IEEE 802.11 specifications are wireless standards that specify an "over-the-air" interface between a wireless client and a base station or access point, as well as among wireless clients. The 802.11 standards can be compared to the IEEE 802.3 standard for Ethernet for wired LANs. The IEEE 802.11 specifications address both the Physical (PHY) and Media Access Control (MAC) layers and are tailored to resolve compatibility issues between manufacturers of Wireless LAN equipment.

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