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Soil Architecture & Physical Properties

Texture & Structure


Already covered soil texture and structure in both labs and class. o What is soil texture again? o What is structure? o What do these impact on?

Soil Density
Two types of soil densities: o Particle density o Bulk density Soil particle density is defined as the mass per unit of soil solids (as opposed to the volume of a soil which includes the spaces between particles). Bulk density is defined by the mass of au nit volume of dry soil and includes both solids and pores.

Examples
To calculate the bulk density of a soil: o 1 m3 of soil including both solids and pores o 1.33 Mg in weight o Bulk density (Db) = weight of oven dry soil volume of soil (solids + pores) = 1.33/1 = 1.33 Mg/m3 To calculate the soil particle density: o Solids = half of total volume of soil (0.5 m3) o Soil particle density (Dp) = weight of solids / volume of solids = 1.33 / 0.5 = 2.66 Mg/m3

Soil Particle Density


Particle density is not affected by pore space.

o It is therefore not related to particle size OR to the arrangement of particles (or soil structure). Particle densities for most mineral soils vary within a narrow limit of 2.6 to 2.75 Mg.m3 (where Mg = megagrams) (or 2600 kilograms/m3 to 2750 kilograms/m3). o For general calculations, where soil density is not known, you use a particle density of 2.65 Mg/m3. o This needs to be adjusted for certain soils. o For some soils having large amounts of high-density minerals (such as tourmaline and hornblende), the particle density of the soil may be as high as 3.0 Mg/m3 o For organic soils, (15-20% OM), it may be as low as 1.1 to 2.0 Mg/m3.

Bulk Density
Any factor affecting soil pore space affects density. Different types of soils have different bulk density values. o Finely-textured soils such as silt loam, clays, and clay loams generally have lower bulk densities than do sandy soils. o Cultivated clay and silt loams range between 0.9 and 1.5 Mg/m3 o Cultivated sandy loams and sands range between 1.3 and 1.8 Mg/m3 o Histosols (organics) range between 0.1 and 0.7 Mg/m3 o Vertisols (when dry) (clays) range between 1.6 to 1.9 Mg/m3 Finely-textured soils such as silt loam, clays, and clay loams generally have lower bulk densities than do sandy soils. o This is because the solid particles in fine-textured soils tend to be organized in porous granules, especially when organic matter is present. Pores exist both between (macropores) AND within the granules (intraped micropores). o Sandy soil, however, organic matter contents are generally lower and the soil particles are less likely to be aggregated

together. Therefore you will find macropores in such soils but no or few intraped micropores. o The bulk density of sandy soils is also influenced by their packing arrangement. Loosely packed grains may fill as little as 52% of the soils Db whereas in a tightly packed soil, particles may constitute 75%. It is lower if the sand is well sorted (particles are mostly the same type). Finally, Db are generally higher the deeper you go in a soil horizon. o This is a result of lower OM levels, less aggregation, fewer roots and general compaction caused by the weight of the overlying layers of soil. o Very compact subsoils can have a Db of 2.0 Mg/m3 or greater. o May soils formed from glacial till have extremely dense subsoils as a result of enormous compaction by the glacial ice. Soils can weight a lot. Have you ever picked up a load of soil from a nursery in a half-ton truck? o The bulk density of a typical medium-textured mineral soil can be 1.25 Mg/m3 or about 1250 kilograms per cubic meter. o That half ton truck can carry only about 0.4 m3 of that soil(top load capacity of 1000 pounds or 454 kg) even though its bed capacity is six times that. o Architects designing green roofs have to factor in great loads both dry and wet when doing so. o The mass of soil of a one hectare field to a plowing depth of 15 cm can be calculated. If we assume as Db of 1.3 Mg/m3, then the soil worked equals about two million kilograms. This is important when calculating lime and fertilizer applications of OM mineralization rates.

Management Practices Affecting Bulk Density


We have to be concerned with Db.

o Increases in bulk density usually indicate a poorer environment for root growth, soil aeration, and undesirable changes in the soils hydraulic function, such as reduced water infiltration. o Human actions impact on Db. o Tillage may loosen a soil surface in the short run, intense tillage can increase in Db in the long run because it depletes OM and weakens soil structure. o Heavy machines can lead to soil compaction. Repeated use of these machines over the field can produce plow pans or traffic pans dense zones immediately below the plowing horizon: increasing Db from 1.4 Mg/m3 in the Ap horizon to nearly 2.0 Mg/m3 only 20 cm deep in the ground.

Impact of Bulk Density on Soil Strength and Root Growth


High Db can occur as a natural soil profile feature such as a fragipan OR it may be an indication of human-induced soil compaction. o A fragipan is a dense and brittle pan or subsurface layer in soils that owe its hardness mainly to extreme density or compactness rather than due to high clay content levels or cementation. The materials are so dense that roots penetrate and water moves through it very slowly. Root growth is inhibited by high Db for a number of reasons: o Soils resistance to penetration o Poor aeration o Slow movement of water and nutrients o The build up of toxic gases and root exudates Roots penetrate the soil by pushing their way through pores. o If the pores are too small to accommodate the root cap, the root must push soil particles aside to enlarge the pore space. o Db will affect root growth as roots encounter fewer and smaller pores.

o Root growth is also limited by the soil strength itself )where soil strength refers to the cohesion and adhesion of a soil). o You can use a penetrometer to measure the force needed to push a cap-tipped rod (imitating a root) into the soil. o You need to note that soil strength is affected by two factors: the soil water content and the soils texture. Water reduces the impact of Db on root penetration while the greater the amount of clay in the soil, the smaller the pores and the greater the resistance to root penetration.

Pore Space
Not surprising, therefore, is the importance of pore spaces in a soil. o One of the main reasons for calculating a soils Db is to calculate its pore space. o The lower the Db, the higher the percentage of pore space (total porosity). o % pore space can be calculated using this equation: % pore space = 100 (Db/Dp x 100) An example: o You have a cultivated clay soil with a Db determined to be 1.28 Mg/m3. Lets assume we have no specific calculation for the Dp so we use the general value of 2.65 Mg/m3 % of pore space = 100 (1.28 Mg/m3/2.65 Mg/m3 x 100) = 100 48.3 = 51.7% o Keep in mind, again, that you cannot assume a Dp of 2.65 Mg/m3 for certain soils such as organic soils with lower densities OR denser soils. For an ideal medium-textured, well-granulated surface soil in good condition for plant growth, about 50% - or half the soil should be pore space. o Under ideal conditions, half of this pore space would be holding water and the other half would be filled with air.

o In reality, total porosity varies greatly between soils for the same reason the Db does. o Values range from as low as 25% in compacted subsoils to more than 60% in well-aggregated, high OM surface soils. o Agricultural management practices exert a great deal of influence on pore space in a soil. Cultivation tends to reduce this total pore space when compared to uncultivated soils. This is due to reduced OM content and granulation (the formation of granular materials).

Types of Pore Spaces


Db values only help us predict total porosity, there are, in fact, pore spaces of various sizes and shapes. The size of a pore largely determines what role it plays in the soil. These are divided by size into five groups (two broad categories macro and micropores, including mesopores): o Macropores 0.08 to 5+ mm; generally found between soil peds (interped); water drains by gravity; effective in the transmitting of air through the soil; large enough to accommodate plant roots; habitat for certain animals and life o Mesopores 0.03 to 0.08 mm; retain water after drainage; transmits water through capillary action; accommodates fungi and root hairs o Micropores 0.005 to 0.03 mm; generally found intraped; retains water for plant use; accommodate most bacteria o Ultramicropores 0.0001 to 0.005 mm; found largely in clay groupings; retain water plants cannot use; exclude most microorganism o Cryptopores - < 0.0001 mm; exclude all microorganisms; too small for large molecules to enter

Macropores
There are several types of macropores: o Packing pores spaces left between primary particles, the shape and size of these spaces largely dependent on the size

and shape of the primary sand, silt, and clay particles and their packing arrangement; o Intreped pores being the spaces between the soils peds; may be either planar in shape or more irregular depending again on the form the peds take; o Biopores formed by organisms such as earthworms, insects, and plant roots; are long, sometimes with branched channels; some are rounded cavities left by insect nests and such like.

The Importance of Soil Aggregates


The importance of soil aggregates should be clear from all this talk about densities and pore spaces. o The organization of surface soils into relatively large structural aggregates provides for a low Db and high proportion of macropres. We often talked about how light our soil was on my family farm. o As you may have noticed in last weeks labs, some aggregates readily succumb to disintegration while others do not. o The smaller aggregates are generally more stable than larger ones. Aggregates are organized into a hierarchy, based on their size. o The larger, desirable aggregates are generally composed of smaller aggregates which, in turn, are composed of still smaller units, down to clusters of clay and humus less than 0.001 mm in size. o As you may have noticed in last weeks labs, we demonstrated this hierarchy by breaking up the larger aggregates. They broke into small aggregates. Then we rubbed these smaller aggregates between our fingers and they broke up into particles. o This hierarchy is common to most soils except Oxisols and some very young Entisols.

There are four classes in this hierarchy: o Macroaggregates composed of many microaggregates bound together mainly by a sticky network formed by fungal hyphae and fine roots o Microaggregates consisting mainly of fine sand grains and smaller clumps of silt grains, clay, and organic debris bound together by roots hairs, fungal hyphae, and microbial gums o Submicroaggregates consisting of silt particles encrusted with organic debris and tiny bits of plant and microbial debris (called particulate OM) encrusted by even smaller particles of clay, humus, and iron and aluminum oxides o Primary particles of silt, clay, and humus; clusters of parallel and random clay platelets or domains, that bind to the surface of humus particles and the smallest of mineral grains

Factors Influencing the Creation of Soil Aggregates


There are both biological and physical-chemical (abiotic) processes that form soil aggregates: o Physical-chemical are the most important in the formation of the smaller aggregates o Biological processes are more important in the formation of larger aggregates o Physical-chemical processes also tend to be mainly associated with clays and therefore tend to be more important in finertextured soils whereas in sandy soils that tend to have little clay, the biological processes are more important.

Physical-Chemical Factors
There are two important physical-chemical processes: the mutual attraction of clay particles; and the swelling and shrinking of clay masses.

o Except in very sandy soils that have very little clay, the process of aggregation begins with the flocculation of clay particles into microscopic clumps or floccules. o Most clay particles have electronegatively charged surfaces that normally attract swarms of positively charged cations found in the soil solution. o When two clay platelets come close enough together, the cations are compressed into a layer between them and are drawn to both negatively charged clay particles, thus becoming a bridge between the two clay platelets. o This is repeated until a small stack of platelets form into a clay domain. o These can be either stacked or random in organization. o The cementing action of inorganic compounds, such as iron oxides, produce very stable aggregates, sometimes called pseudosands. There are two important physical-chemical processes: the mutual attraction of clay particles; and the swelling and shrinking of clay masses. o As soils dry out, the platelets of clay domains move closer together, causing the domains (and soil mass) to shrink. o As this happens, cracks begin to appear along the planes of weakness in the clay domains. o Over time, these networks of cracks becomes more extensive and the aggregates better defined. o Plant roots help in this drying process as the plants remove water from the soil. Freezing and thawing cycles also contribute.

Biological Processes
There are three biological processes to note in the formation of soil aggregates: the activities of soil organisms; the impact of OM; and tilling practices.

o Activities of soil organisms the most prominent of these are: the burrowing and molding activities of earthworms; the enmeshment of particles by sticky networks of roots and fungal hyphae; and the production of organic glues by microorganisms. o Plant roots (and particularly plant root hairs) and fungal hyphae exude sugar-like polysaccharides and other organic compounds that help form sticky networks that bind individual soil particles together into microaggregates. Mycorrhizae secrete a gooey protein called glomulin that is effective as a cementing agent. There are three biological processes to note in the formation of soil aggregates: the activities of soil organisms; the impact of OM; and tilling practices. o Influence of OM OM is the major agent stimulating the formation and stabilization of granular and crumb-type aggreagtes. o OM provides the energy for the activities of fungi, bacteria, and soil animals. o As OM residues decompose, gels and other viscous microbial materials are released. o Organic products of decay, including complex polymers, chemically interact with particles of silicate clay helping form clay domains. o During the aggregation process, soil mineral particles become coated and encrusted with bits of decomposed OM.

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