CONTEMPORARY TEACHING STRATEGIESDiscovery Inductive Strategy.

. This strategy moves from the particular to the general and is used to guide students to develop a concept by discovering common features and using the features as basis for grouping the items. The main steps are the following: 1. Observe and discuss items or data to be used in developing the concept. 2 .Identify common features for use in grouping them, noting distinguishing differences. 3. Decide on a basis for grouping them. 4. Label, name, or define each group 5. Have children use the term and find new examples. Discovery Deductive Strategy. This strategy moves from the general to the particular. A rule or attributes that students have learned, or that the teacher provides, are given so that students can discover applications or new examples. Students proceed deductively from what they know or what is given to find supporting instances as shown in the following example: 1. Review or teach rule or main attributes to be used by students. 2. Have students supply the rule or main attributes. 3. Review the rule or main attributes. 4. Have students find or do other examples. Directed Inductive Strategy. In this strategy the teacher directs instruction step by step from the particular to the general, moving from examples or attributes to a generalized meaning of the concept. The expository role of the teacher in the following example of instruction on the concept value should be noted. 1. Identify the examples or critical attributes of the concept to be developed. 2. Identify non-examples (no exemplars) of the concept. 3. Have students give examples (exemplars) and non-examples (nonexemplars) of the concept. 4. State the general meaning of the concept. 5. Have students use the term and find other examples and non-examples. Directed Deductive Strategy. In this strategy, the teacher starts with the definition of the concept and moves to particular examples of it. The teacher provides direct instruction in all phases except the last one in which students state the definition and give examples of theconcept. 1. State the concept to be learned. 2. Identify critical attributes of the concept. 3. Provide examples to clarify the concept. 4. Present non examples to further clarify the concept. 5. Have students state or write a definition and give examples. Discovery Transductive Strategy. This strategy is useful in creative expression in a variety of forms in which divergent thinking is emphasized. It is also used in situations in which students are to associate, relate, or compare words, numbers, patterns, themes, forms, and other items in a variety of ways. The teachers role is primarily that of facilitator and stimulator. The students role is that of manipulator and experimenter. Main phases of the strategy are the following: 1. s Arrange materials or provide data for students to use 3

Developmen t . Have students proceed according to plan. Respond to questions and giveassistance as needed. Be sure students record data. Conclusion. Discuss findings to find out if hypothesis is supported or not. Consider needsfor more data. State conclusion. Evalua t ion. Was the hypothesis clear and testable? Were procedures for testing thehypothesis adequate? What changes should be made in the procedures, equipment and materials,and instructions to students? Field T r ips Field trips give students a firsthand view of people at work, business and industrialactivity, farming and processing of produce, exhibits and collections, plants and animals innatural or man made settings, environmental problems, and other items and activities related totopics under study. They may be used in any neighborhood to an extended trip to another community. Preliminary preparation by the teacher includes specification of objectives for thetrip., obtaining administrative and parental approval, making travel arrangements, obtaining anyneeded assistance to help supervise students, making eating and toileting arrangements, planningthe time schedule, and informing the guide on the questions to be raised and the maturity andbackground of the students. Introduction. Clarify objectives with students. Identify specific questions to be answered.Plan recording and reporting procedures. Plan individual and small group assignments.Review standards of behavior, safety precautions, appropriate dress, time schedule. Development. Assist guide as appropriate .Have students raise questions. Ask additionalquestions to clarify difficult points. Check on students completing of assignments and recordingof information for later sharing. Have students raise questions as needed to complete collectionof data. Conclusion. Have students summarize data and report findings. Develop charts,diagrams, displays, or other materials as appropriate.Have students state main idea or other conclusions. Plan and send a letter of thanks.Evaluation. What improvements in procedures do students suggest? What changes areneeded to attain initial objectives more adequately? How can ideas be more effectively applied infollow up activities? Demonstrations Demonstrations are widely used to teach students how to use equipment and materials,rhythm and other musical instruments, and rulers, compasses, and other items. They are alsoused to develop skills and concepts such as skipping, waltzing, lifting, candle making, weighing,measuring, graphing, and a host of other activities.

Exposi t o ry demons tr a t ions are designed toimpart information directly or to illustrate a skill as students observe. Ques t ing demons tr a t ions are designed to foster discovery of a concept or its application. Preliminary preparation by theteacher includes clarifying objectives, collecting needed materials, deciding who is to do thedemonstration. In tr oduc t ion. Clarify objectives for students. Respond to any questions. Be sure eachchild can see and hear the demonstration. Developmen t . Do each step according to plan. Respond to any questions that arise.Repeat to any questions that arise. Repeat any steps as needed to clarify understanding. Involvestudents in any steps in which their involvement will clarify understanding. 4 Conclusion. Use a chart or the chalkboard to summarize, or ask students to summarize or demonstrate steps in order. Provide for immediate follow-up and application in learningactivities. Evalua t ion. In what ways are students applying what was demonstrated? What aspectsneed further clarification? To what extent are initial objectives being achieved? What changesshould be made if the demonstration is to be repeated? Role Pla

y ing In role playing students enact situations that arise in daily living, are encountered in unitsof instruction, or are presented by the teacher. Values may be clarified, insight into the feelingsof others may be developed, and practice in decision-making maybe provided. The main steps ina strategy for role playing are as follows (Shaftel, 1967):1. Warming up the group (problem confrontation) 2. Selecting the participants in role playing 3. Preparing others to participate as observers 4. Setting the stage 5. Having the role playing or enactment of the situation 6. Discussing and evaluating the enactment 7. Having further enactments to play revised roles, next steps, and so forth 8 . Providing for further discussion and evaluation 9. Having students share experiences and generalize S imula t ion Games

Simulation games serve as simplified models of real activities. Roles, rules, and materialsrestrict players to realistic portrayal of the activity being simulated. Clarifying objectives andrelating the game to the unit under study are critical elements to emphasize both during theintroduction and the debriefing at the conclusion. The main steps of procedure for any simulationgame are the following (Michaelis, 1972): In tr oduc t ion. Clarify concepts, skills, or other objectives. Describe players roles, rules,use of materials, and time limits. Developmen t . Observe players and handle questions on roles and adherence to rules. Notepoints to consider in debriefing. Conclusion. Focus debriefing discussion on objectives. Consider any problems andsummarize key learnings. Relate learning to the unit under study. Evalua t ion. How can use of the game to attain objectives be improved? What needs to bedone to clarify roles, rules, and use of materials? How can any distortions of reality be corrected? Teaching Str a t egies fo r Cogni t ive, Thinking, o r Inqui ry P r ocesses A variety of teaching strategies may be used to develop cognitive, thinking, or inquiryprocesses. Three strategies that have been developed by Hilda Taba and refined by her associatesfor use in the social studies may be used in any subject field in connection with conceptdevelopment, generalizing, and predicting. The strategies are presented below with focusingquestions in the order in which they are recommended for use:Concept Development(Classifying)

5 1. What do you see (notice, find, etc.) here?2. Do any of these items seem to belong together?3. Why would you group them this way?4. What would you call these groups?5. Could some of these belong to more than one group?Inferring and Generalizing1. What did you see (notice, read, etc.)?2. What differences did you notice (with reference to a particular question)?3. Why do you think this happened? Or, How do you account for these differences?4. What does this tell you about...?Applying Generalization(Predicting)1. Suppose that a particular event occurred given certain conditions, what wouldhappen? (What would happen if?2. What makes you think that would happen?3. Can someone give a different idea about what would happen?4. If that happened, what do you think would happen after that? Teaching Str a t egies fo r Developing S kills Teaching strategies for the development of basic skills in reading, arithmetic, physicaleducation, and other areas of the curriculum are among the most highly refined approaches toinstruction. They have been systematized in developmental programs of instruction based onresearches and studies over the years. Although there are differences among various strategiesfor skill development, it is possible to identify several common features. First, the emphasis onpreparation, readiness building including development of meaning, and clarification of need for the skill. Second, demonstration or explanation of the skill followed by actual practice on

thepart of students, practice being recognized as the essential ingredient in skill development.Diagnosis of needs and assistance at the point of need are ongoing activities of the teacher duringskill development. Extension and application of the given direct attention so that students will beable to use them in other situations. Finally, evaluation is systematically provided in mostprograms.Two examples have been selected to illustrate skill development strategies. The first isused in many programs of developmental reading instruction. The second is used to developmotor skills in physical education, music, and other areas of the curriculum.Teaching Strategies for Reading. This strategy begins with preparation for reading whichserves as an introduction and the establishing of specific objectives for reading the selection. Thenext phase typically involves silent reading in line with objectives, followed by the discussionand sharing of ideas and by oral reading of selected passages, especially in the early grades.Follow-up, practice, extension, and evaluation are provided through the use of workbooks or independent activities provided by the teacher.Main steps in the strategy are as follows:1. Preparation for Reading. Development of readiness and background for reading selection;presenting vocabulary to be encountered in the selection; building interest; settingpurposes of reading; introducing and explaining skills to be developed. 6 2. Reading of the Selection. Silent reading in line with the objectives; individual assistanceby the teacher as requested by the students; taking notes or completing exercises relatedto the selection.3. Discussion and Sharing. Opportunities for students to discuss and share interesting parts,answer to questions, new ideas obtained, how the ideas might be applied, and other objectives set during the preparation.4. Guided Oral Reading. Opportunities for students to read aloud while the teacher observesto note any aspects needing attention; sharing of most interesting passage; emphasis oninterpretation of selected parts.5. Follow-up, Extension, Practice, Evaluation. Use of workbook and independent activitiesprepared by the teacher; practice on vocabulary development, word analysis, reading for main ideas, reading for details, and other skills; related activities in art, individualizedpractice materials, applications in other areas of curriculum.Teaching Strategy for Developing Motor Skills. This strategy may be used for developingpsychomotor skills in physical education, music education, or other areas of curriculum. Thestrategy involves demonstration plus immediate involvement or participation on the part of students. In fact, at times students may do the demonstrating themselves beginning with simpleaspects and moving to increasingly more complex ones as they develop the skill beingemphasized.The principal steps in the teaching strategy for developing motor skills are asfollows:1. Clarify need for the skill.2.

Demonstrate the skills, or have a student demonstrate them.3. Provide for immediate practice, observing to note those in need of guidance.4. Provide individual assistance as needed.5. Provide for immediate use of the skill.OTHER TEACHING STRATEGIESThere are other teaching strategies, which may also be labeled contemporary, notincluded in the preceding discussion. We now turn our attention to some of these strategies.Teaching Strategies in ScienceWaetjen has suggested the following teaching strategies in science:1. Pose a problem.2. Establish an experimental design aimed at solving the problem.3. Have students gather data related to solution of the problem.4. Have students graph, study, and interpret their data.5. Have students generalize on the basis of their data.6. Proceed to a group discussion of the meaning and limitations of the data, therelationship of the data to the other problems and so forth.7. If enough interest has been generated and there is sufficient demand, a short lecturemight even be in order at this point. 8 . Related readings in a textbook take on genuine meaning now that they can reinforceand argument the results of the of the students personal experience. 7 According to Waetjen, teaching-learning activities in science may be structured or unstructured. The following is an example of a structured activity:1. Pose a problem2. Suggest a procedure for gathering data.3. Allow the student time to gather the data in the way prescribed.4. Require the student to organize his data in both tabular and graphical form whenever possible.5.

Require the student to answer a series questions about his data.6. Require the student to generalize on the basis of his data and to be prepared to defendhis generalizations in front of the class.Here is an example of an unstructured activity:1. Pose a problem.2. Allow the student complete liberty to devise his own procedure, organize his owndata, and arrive at his own generalizations.The Closure Procedure in ReadingAccording to Alegre (1974), the cloze procedure, developed by Wilson Taylor in 1953,was adapted from the word cloze by Gestalt psychologist which means filling in the parts in anincomplete message in order to arrive to a conclusion. Taylor said that a person whounderstands the message of a printed passage even with the words removed from it can replacethese words exactly and therefore experience a form of closure, hence the term cloze.Programmed InstructionInstruction which makes use of a programmed text, instead of conventional texts, iscalled programmed instruction. A programmed text is one in which the content is arranged ineither a linea r or br anching of a program.Modern Method of Teaching HistoryHistory is the study of controversies and demands interpretations. Understanding whyand how major events happened will enable our schools to develop among our youth enlightenedpatriotism and make them better equipped for dealing with todays events. Accordingly, theteaching of history must be done through the mode of inquiry. With the mode of inquiry,teachers do not focus on knowledge objectives or memory level learning. They focus, rather, onfour major objectives: attitudes, values, inquiry skills, and knowledge.Attitudes to be promoted in history and/or social studies classes are willingness to listento all sides of an argument, willingness to make decisions based on proof, and wanting tocontinue to learn. Students are also led into identifying values and develop their own valuesystems. Inquiry skills are developed through the use of analytical concepts and analyticalquestions. These steps of mode of inquiry-namely, recognizing a problem, formulatinghypothesis, gathering data, and making tentative conclusions-are utilized in the modern methodof teaching history 8 1. Students are confronted with problem situations, cases, conflicts, or dilemmas thatencourage identification of issues and development of tentative hypothesis.2. Following the presentation of data, students are expected to question the authenticityof the source material.3.

Once evidence is accepted as authentic, internal analysis follows. Evidence isweighed and evaluated as students compare various primary and secondary sourcematerials. They consider conflicting testimonies and probe for internal consistencyand logic.4. As evidence is renewed, students gain practice in interpreting data. They developtheir ability to separate fact, fiction, and opinion. Students should be urged toconsider their own values as they synthesize explanations, preparatory to rendering ajudgment.5. Finally, students arrive at conclusions or make generalizations. After all availableevidence has been evaluated and the students consider their own values, they makedecisions always subject to later revision.The P-A-C StrategyAccording to a relatively recent psychological theory called transactional analysis,there are three basic modes or ways of behaving. These are Parent, Adult and Child. Thechild in us wants to have fun, is emotional, wants what he want and is spontaneous. Weneed our Child when we want to express emotion, enjoy ourselves, or be creative. We arein our Parent when we nurture another, love a small child, help someone, teach someone,conduct a meeting, and criticize, control and order people about. We use our Adult toprocess information and decide upon a course of action-in its broadest sense, to think.There is nothing good or bad about Parent, Adult and Child behavior. Each has itsown purpose. Without our Parent we could not teach, and we could not order students outof the classroom in case of emergency. Without our Adult, we could not reason andresolve conflict constructively. Without our child we could not enjoy ourselves or becreative.The only bad aspect of P-A-C is becoming stuck in any one mode of behavior to the point where one cannot shift into using the appropriate mode at the right time. If we are Parent all the time, we would appear so domineering that all people would feelstifle and be wary of us. If we are constantly in our Child, we might experience a lot of fun but we would get little or nothing done. If we are always in our Adult, we could makea great deal of sense but we would probably be a pretty dull company.In practice, everyone uses each of the three modes of behavior at times, but someof us use them as needed while others favor one of the three to the exclusion of the other two, or some may favor two of them to the partial inclusion of the third.