Sensorless Control of Induction Motor Drives by

New Linear Neural Techniques

Maurizio Cirrincione*, Marcello Puccit

Giansalvo Cirrincione**, Gerard-Andre Capolino**
*
Universite de Technologie de Belfort-Montbeliard (UTBM), Belfort, France
t I.S.S.I.A.-C.N.R. (Institute on Intelligent Systems for the Automation), Palermo - Italy
** Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Picardie-Jules Verne, Amiens - France

Abstract- This paper summarizes the research activity of
the authors in the field of sensorless control of induction
machine drives based on new linear neural techniques. In
particular it describes and compares three speed observers:
the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, the MCA EXIN +
Reduced Order Observer and the TLS Full-order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer. Common to all of three
observers is the on-line estimation of the speed by a new
linear neural technique, which solves in a recursive way a
Total Least-Squares problem: one of them employs the TLS
EXIN neuron and the other two the MCA EXIN + neuron,
which is an improvement of the former. The speed observers
have been verified in numerical simulations and
experimentally on a test setup and have been also compared
experimentally with one another.
I. INTRODUCTION
So far sensorless control of induction motors [1]-[3] has
been faced up to with two kinds of methods: those which
adopt the dynamic model of the induction machine based
on the fundamental spatial harmonic of the mmf and those
based on the saliencies of the machine. The first group
comprises open-loop speed estimators [4], MRAS (Model
Reference Adaptive System) speed observers [5], also
based on neural networks [6][7], full-order Luenberger
adaptive observers [8]-[11], also with neural networks
[12], and reduced order speed observers [13]-[15][33]-
[36], also based on neural networks (NN) [16]. The
second group comprises those neurons beased on
continuous high frequency signal injection [17]-[19] and
those based on test vectors [20][21]. This last kind of
methodologies, even if is very promising for position
sensorless control thanks to the capability of tracking
saliencies, either that induced by the saturation of the main
flux or that caused by the rotor slots, is usually machine
dependant and sometimes requires a suitable machine
design (e.g. open or semi-closed rotor slots for rotor
slotting tracking). This is not the case for the first kind of
techniques.
This paper summarizes some results obtained by the
authors for improving the first kind of techniques of
sensorless control of induction motors by using linear
neural networks. In particular, it proposes a comparative
analysis of three types of model based speed observers for
induction machine drives, all improved by the family of
EXIN linear neural networks which solve in different
ways Least-Squares problems [26][27].
The first is the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, which
is the evolution of a category of previous NN based
MRAS observers developed by the authors. Initially the
dynamical performances and the speed estimation were
improved with the aid of a Total Least-Squares (TLS)
method [6], while this paper proposes a further
enhancement in three aspects: 1), a more accurate discrete
current model is used, based on the modified Euler
integration (see [7] for all the details about the advantages
of the proposed modified Euler integration method), 2) in
the reference model an enhanced version of the adaptive
integration technique of [6][22][23] has been used with a
filter whose transfer function varies with speed [24], 3) a
completely new generalized Least-Squares technique, the
MCA EXIN + (Minor Component Analysis) neuron [26]-
[28], has been adopted to estimate the rotor speed. Each of
these improvements has respectively given the following
advantages: more stable flux estimation, more accurate
open loop flux integration at very low speed than the
fixed-pole filter transfer function and finally the use of the
MCA EXIN+ neuron with its scheduling makes it more
powerful than the other existing neural techniques with
resulting smoother transient, shorter settling time and
better accuracy.
The second is the MCA EXIN + Reduced Order
Observer [16], which proposes a reduced order observer
improved in two aspects: 1) a new speed estimation based
on a novel generalized Least-Squares technique, the MCA
EXIN + (Minor Component Analysis) neuron, 2) a new
choice of the gain matrix of the observer, called Fixed
Pole Position (FPP), which ensures the poles of the
observer to be fixed on one point of the negative real
semi-axis, in spite of the variation of the speed of the
motor, with a resulting dynamic behaviour of the flux
estimation independent from the rotor speed. These
features ensure very low operating speed at no load and
rated load (down to 3 rad/s, equal to 2% of the rated
speed), good estimation accuracy also in speed transient
and correct zero speed operation. Finally, the reduced-
order rotor flux observer is less complex and requires a
lower computational burden than the full-order observer.

1-4244-0121-6/06/$20.00 (C2006 IEEE 1 820 EPE-PEMC 2006, Portoro2, Slovenia

 The third is the TLS Full-Order Luenberger Adaptive
Observer [12], which proposes a full-order observer
improved by a speed estimator based on the TLS EXIN
neuron, which ensures the drive to work correctly at very
low speed (down to 0.5 rad/s equal to 0.33% of the rated
speed) both at no load and rated load, at zero speed
operation at no load and with medium loads and very
good dynamical performances even at low speed. This
sensorless technique permits also the drive to work at very
low speed in regenerating mode, where the classic full-
order Luenberger Observer with the speed estimator
proposed in [8] presents well known instability
phenomena.
All the proposed speed observers have been tested
experimentally in a rotor-flux-oriented Field Oriented
Control (FOC) drive.
II. LIMITS OF MODEL BASED SENSORLESS TECHNIQUES
A. Open-loop integration
One of the main problems of some speed observers, when
adopted in high performance drives, is the open-loop
integration in presence of DC biases. The speed observers
suffering from this problem are those which employ
open-loop flux estimators, e.g. open-loop speed
estimators and those MRAS systems where the reference
model is an open-loop flux estimator [5]-[7], while speed
estimators employing closed-loop flux integration, like
the classic full-order Adaptive Observer [8], do not have
this problem. In particular, DC drifts are always present
in the signal before it is integrated, which causes the
integrator to saturate with a resulting inadmissible
estimation error, and also after it is integrated because of
the initial conditions. In general Low Pass (LP) filters
with very low cut-off frequency are used instead of pure
integrators; however since they fail to integrate in low
frequency ranges, close to their cut-off frequency, some
alternative solutions can be used: e.g. the integrator with
saturation feed-back [29], the integrator based on
cascaded LP filters [30][31], the integrator based on the
off-set vector estimation and compensation of residual
estimation error [4] and the adaptive neural integrator
[22].
With regard to the reduced order adaptive observer, the
problem of the DC drift in the integrand signal exists only
for those choices of the observer gain matrix which
transform, at certain working speeds of the machine, the
reduced order observer into an open-loop flux estimator,
like the CVM (Current Voltage Model) in [32] which
gives rise to a smooth transition from the "current" to the
"voltage" model according to the increase of the rotor
speed. With such a choice, below a certain speed and
above another one the observer behaves like a simple
open-loop estimator and therefore suffers from the
mentioned problem. This is not the case in the reduced
order observer presented in this paper as explained in
II.C.
1821
B. Inverter non-linearity
The inverter power devices present a finite voltage drop
in "on-state", due to their forward non-linear
characteristics. This voltage drop has to be taken into
consideration at low frequency (low voltage amplitude)
where it becomes comparable with the stator voltage
itself, giving rise to distortion and discontinuities in the
voltage waveform. All the methods shown here use the
compensation method proposed in [4] which is based on
modelling the forward characteristics of each power
device by using a piece-wise linear characteristics, with
an average threshold voltage and with an average
differential resistance.
C. Machine Parameter Mismatch
A further source of error in flux estimation is the
mismatch of the stator and rotor resistances of the
observer with their real values because of heating/cooling
of the machin: e.g.. the load dependent variations of the
winding temperature may lead up to 50 % error in the
modelled resistance. Stator and rotor resistances should
be therefore estimated on-line and tracked during the
operation of the drive. A great deal of on-line parameter
estimation algorithms have been devised [4][8], requiring
low computational burden when used in control systems.
In any case, it should be remarked that the steady-state
estimation of the rotor resistance cannot be performed in
sensorless drives, thus rotor resistance variations must be
deduced from the stator resistance estimation.
111. PROPOSED NEURAL BASED SPEED OBSERVERS
A. Least-Squares Based Neural Techniques
To estimate the rotor speed, as explained in the following
sections, a matrix equation as Ad'r b is to be solved
-
for C)r (rotor speed in electrical angles) by using Least-
Squares (LS) techniques. In literature there exist three
Least-Squares techniques, i.e. the Ordinary Least-Squares
(OLS), the Total Least-Squares (TLS) and the Data Least-
Squares (DLS) which arise when errors are respectively
present only in b or both in A and in b or only in A.
In Ordinary Least-Squares (OLS) each element of A is
considered without any error: therefore all errors are
confined to b. However this hypothesis does not always
correspond to the reality: modelling errors, measurement
errors etc. can in fact cause errors also in A. Therefore in
real world applications the employment of Total Least-
Squares is to be preferred, as it takes into consideration
also the errors in the data matrix.
In the mono-dimensional case (n=1), which is the case
under study, the LS technique solves for this problem by
calculating the value of Cr which minimises the sum of
squares of the distances among the elements (ai, bi), with
i=1,... ,m, and the line itself. Fig. 1 shows the difference
among the OLS, TLS and DLS. OLS minimises the sum
of squares of the distances in the b direction (error only in
the observation vector). TLS minimises the sum of
squares in the direction orthogonal to the line (for this
reason TLS is also called orthogonal regression) while
DLS minimises the sum of squares in the A direction
(errors only in the data matrix).
In particular it must be expected that, in absence of noise,
the results obtained with TLS are equal to those obtained
with OLS; however in presence of increasing noise the
performance of TLS remains higher than that of OLS,
because TLS is less sensitive to noise.
For these reasons the TLS algorithm is particularly
suitable for estimation processes in which data are
affected by noise or modelling errors; this is certainly the
case of speed estimation, where the estimated rotor flux,
present in A, is affected both by modelling errors and
noise. Therefore, a TLS technique should be used instead
of the Ordinary Least-Squares (OLS) technique. The TLS
EXIN neuron is the only neural network capable to solve
a TLS problems recursively on-line. The MCA EXIN +
(Minor Component Analysis) neuron is a further
improvement of the TLS EXIN neuron, in which a
parameterized formulation (Generalized TLS, GeTLS
EXIN) of the error function is defined on the basis of a
parameter ;: ; is equal to 0 for OLS, 0. 5 for TLS and I
for DLS. The TLS EXIN problem can also been solved
by scheduling the value of the parameter ; in GeTLS
EXIN, e.g. it can vary linearly from 0 to 0.5 and then
remains constant. This scheduling improves the transient,
the speed and the accuracy of the iterative technique. [25]
shows that a TLS problem corresponds to a minor
component analysis (MCA) problem and is equivalent to
a particular DLS problem. For all the details on the MCA
EXIN + algorithm and its features see [25]-[28].
B. MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer
1) Structure ofthe Observer
In the MRAS speed observation scheme proposed here
the reference model is based on the well known voltage
model of the induction motor [2], while the adaptive
model is a linear artificial neural network based on the
current model. To perform open-loop integration the
voltage model employs the integrator based on the neural
adaptive filtering described in § II A.2
The adaptive model is given by:
dI Jrd =Lim sD-/rdWr TI)frq
dI/Jrq Li-/r+r;/r
T =L i T obtained in prediction mode:
rdt sQ Vrq +Cr r
m r
Eq (1), divided by Tr, can be re-written in the folloiwing
manner:
Wr =A xN+Bi
=
r x sx
where V't =-
d
A = T
co
r
Vrq]9 Lw T½1
.~~ ~~ - isr
I = s
_tQ
Its corresponding discrete model is given by:
vJ(k)=e Ax_T v (k1) +
+ [eAXTS -I]A B i, (k -) (3)
where k is the current sampling time and where the
symbol A stands for estimated value.
A T
e X s
is generally computed by truncating its power
series expansion at the n-th term, i.e.
=+ x TS + A x T2S + A x nT
2
AxTsAA
n
e (4)
1! 2! n!
In the MRAS observer proposed here, the adaptive model
is based on an enhanced ADALINE neural network based
on a modified Euler discretization method, which avoids
the instability problems due to simple Euler
discretization.
Moreover, like [6], the adaptive model has been
employed in "prediction mode", that is the flux
components estimated by the reference model are used as
inputs in the adaptive model, thus avoiding any feedback.
The employment of the adaptive model in prediction
mode leads to a quicker convergence of the algorithm, a
higher bandwidth of the speed control loop, a better
behaviour at zero speed, lower speed estimation errors
both in transient and steady-state conditions and a stable
behaviour of the estimator, in particular in the field-
weakening region. This is not the case when the flux
estimated by the adaptive model is fedback as an input.
Unlike [6] the Modified Euler Integration has been
employed in (3) because it takes into consideration also
the values of the variables in the two previous time steps
[7] thus yielding the following discrete time equations:
Yrd(kA-1)-KA
(k) = w1n 2 @rq (k-)+ W3 isD (k-1)
+ W4n YJrd(k-2)+w rq(k-2)-W6 isD (k-2)
{q(k) = Wi@W (k-1)+ W@ (k-1)+W3 isQ(k-1)
+ W4n YKrq(k-2)-W5n fdq(k-2)-W6n isQ(k-2)
(5)
where A stands for the variables estimated with the
adaptive model and k is the current time sample. A linear
neural network can reproduce these equations, where w1n,
W2n, W3n, W4n, W5n, W6n are the weights of the neural
networks defined as: w1n= 1 -3Ts/(2Tr),w2n=3w,Ts/2,
W3n=3TsLm/(2Tr),w4n=T s/(2Tr),w5n= oT s/2,w6n=TsLm/(2Tr)
(1) Rearranging (5), the following matrix equation is
q -1)+1/2T Vq(k
F 3/2T, d(k 2)1 (k 1)
L3/2 T,Kd (k -1) -1/2 T,Kd (k -2)]
(k) -WInjq(k 1) W3jniD(k 1) -W41nVd(k-2) + W6n iD(k- 2)
r Wq (k) -Wlinq (k- 1)- W3n,iQ(k- 1) -W4ndq (k -2) +W6niD, (k -2)
2
(2) (6)
This matrix equation can be solved by any regression
T
B =L technique: here the MCA EXIN + technique has been
9
adopted to retrieve the rotor speed on-line. Fig. 2 shows
the block diagram of the resulting MRAS speed observer.
1822
 OLS TLS DLS
I
x-~
-

tan(OL) - r
=
tan(O) =
(Or tan(Oc) - r=

Fig. 1 Schematics of the Least-Squares techniques in the mono-dimensional case

USD Vrd + £,D

I~~Q MMAN MCA EXINQ

Neural filter 1 Neural filter 2

Fig. 3 Neural filter based integrator

Fig.4 shows that the adaptive neural integrator with t = 2

Fig. 2 Block diagram of the ANN MRAS observer with modified Euler
adaptive model (adaptive model in prediction mode)
2) The Adaptive Integrator based on Neural Filtering
The neural adaptive integrator proposed in [22] and
adopted in the TLS MRAS observer both in a FOC (Field
Oriented Control) [6] and the DTC (Direct Torque
Control) [23] drive, has been here improved in its low
frequency behaviour by making its learning factor t
adaptive, according to the reference speed of the
machine. The idea is to use a linear filter (ADALINE)
used as a notch filter to cut off the DC component
adaptively.
The learning law of the neural adaptive filter is as
follows:
y(k + 1) = y(k) + 2r (d(k) - y(k))
10-4 outperforms the LP filter, both in its magnitude and
phase characteristics, in the neighbourhood of a reference
speed of about 10 rad/s in electrical angles
(corresponding to 5 rad/s in mechanical ones). However,
if a speed below 5 rad/s is required, a neural integrator
with c = 1.10-5 offers a better behaviour, since it
approximates the ideal integrator well at much lower
frequencies. Nevertheless, a neural integrator with t =
1.10-5 cannot be suitably employed in the whole speed
range of the drive, since the adaptation time of the filter
increases when the value of t decreases. A lower value of
t permits a better flux estimation, but at the expense of a
high filtering adaptation time.
BodeDiagp a ot
the learningfactor, of the LP integrator andofthe Ideal integratora.
(7) radOs (inelectrical angles)and
durin speed-transients.In
pNetal integator: lea ate m
gea sptegator:leans ate
2e-4
e5 n

where k is the current time instant, d(k) is the primary

input of the filter, y(k) is the output of the filter neuron '-20-

and r is the learning rate. This one-weight neuron is able -40-

to remove not only a constant bias but also a slowly -60 0

varying drift in the primary input. It should be remarked

that two neural filters must be used in the neural-based 45 \ X....

integrator: the neural filter 1 eliminates the DC

component of the signal to be processed, the neural filter
2 eliminates the DC drift appearing at the output of the -45 -i \

9
integrator because of the initial conditions and the -290= 10.0
oft 1=ha_enstt
-90

filtering error of the neural filter 1 appearing during its
adaptation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 4 shows the frequency response of an ideal
integrator, an LP filter based integrator (cut-off frequency
= 15 rad/s) and the neural adaptive integrator with two
different values of , respectively 2 10-4 and 1.10-5. It can
be demonstrated that the transfer function of the neural
adaptive integrator presents two poles and one zero (in
the origin).
the vau Frequency (rad/sec)
4,wiei pe
Fig. 4 Frequency response of the adaptive integrator with two values of
the learning factor, of the LP integrator and of the ideal integrator
That is why the use of low values of c can bring about
stability problems in the flux control loop, especially
during speed transients. In this respect the problem has
been solved as follows: at reference speeds above 10
rad/s (in electrical angles) and during each speed transient
the value of c has been set to 2.10-4 , while in speed

1823
steady-state at references from 10 down to 4 rad/s, the the estimated rotor flux linkage hr as well as the
value of t has been varied linearly from 2 10-4 to 1. 10-5 measured stator voltage u, and current space vectors is.
and then kept to this last value for lower reference speeds, Moreover, since the gain matrix G is time dependant, the
as shown in Fig. 5. It should be remarked that reducing correction term which takes into consideration the time
the value of t corresponds to moving the poles of the derivative of the gain matrix dG/dt is also included in the
neural filter towards the origin, which however does not scheme.
affect anyhow the accuracy of the integrator. This is not
the case for the LP filter integrator, where the amplitude Us
, Induction Machine
of the pole cannot be reduced too much, since the lower
the amplitude of the pole the higher the drift at the LP A1-GA,4
filter output caused by a DC drift at its input
G

IEIs
lo
I<
+

1 10
A22-GAl< .
-1

r)
mmmir A N
z
l 0o-'

Fig. 6 Block diagram of the MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer

4 10 *
Or [rd/s]
Fig. 5 Variation of the learning factor according to the reference speed 2) B. Proposed Choice of the Gain Matrix of the
of the machine.
Observer
The choice of a suitable gain matrix G of the observer has
been a problem largely faced up to in literature
C. MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer [13][32]-[36]. It is well known [13] that the poles of the
1) A. Reduced Order Observer Equations reduced order observer are the couple of the eigenvalues
The matrix equations of the reduced order flux observer, a ± j/ ofthe matrix (A22- GA12 )
with a voltage error used for corrective feed-back, are Where:
[13][33]-[36]:
a= -Pr Lm gim
dt
dt
d is- A12Ir -Allis -Blus
r A22i'r + A21is + G ydt a Ls Lr
-Pr gre - L
a Ls Lr
r

L L
aLs Lr -or gre aLs Lr Pr gim
(A22 GA12 >4"r +(A21-GAII)i5 GB1us +G d i /3=or + -
I
~dt s s

(8) and G=Gre +G. =g + gjJ.

where: In [ 16] a new choice of the gain matrix has been proposed
All= -IRs /(a Ls ) + (I - a)/(a Tr )}I = a,1 II as the most suitable for sensorless control. This choice,
rm /(aLsLs ){(1/T )I- co J} = a,2 {(1/T )I-c J
A 12 =L called FPP (Fixed Poles Position), fixes the position of
the poles, independently from the rotor speed: the FPP
A21 ={L/T}I=a211 gain matrix choice permits the position of the poles of the
A22 =-(I/T )I + co J = a22 t(I/T )I - oJ} observer to be fixed on the negative part of the real semi-
axis at distance R from the origin to ensure the stability of
B1 = 1/(uLs)I = bI (9a,b,c,d,e) the observer itself. The proposed gain choice is obtained
where all space vectors are in the stator reference frame: by imposing a= -R and, = 0 and gives:
is= [sD isQ ] stator current vector, Us = [USD USQ ] G=Gre +Gim = Ls Lr K RPr (1
stator voltage vector, ir = [Ifrd Ifrq I=rotor
flux vector,
aLsLr R(cor
Lm Pr Cor- (I10)
I[ fl, j 0[ 1], oX is the rotor speed and G is the + , ,J
Lm Pr +Or-
observer gain matrix. For the list of parameters, see the where Pr=l1Tr. Correspondingly, the time derivative of
appendix. the gain matrix to be used in the observer scheme is:
The proposed MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer is
based on the classical reduced order flux observer
structure, while a new speed estimation law is proposed,
which is based on the MCA EXIN + technique. Fig. 6
shows the corresponding block diagram. The rotor speed
is estimated by a MCA EXIN + algorithm, on the basis of

1824
dG _ dGre dGim 2YsLr Rprwr dtOr I+ line. For all the details on the MCA EXIN + algorithm
dt dt dt
=

L (2 2)2 dt and its features see [25]-[28]. In any case remark that the
use of only two equations of the machine reduces the
computation time, but is less robust to noise or errors in
+ R I-
2 Wo;(p2 +c2)2
rJ data. To overcome this all of the four equations should be
Lm yP+ dt used, which has been used in the follwing observer.
(1 1)
Fig. 7 shows the observer pole locus, the amplitude of
D. TLS EXIN Full Order Observer
poles vs rotor speed, the damping factor 4 vs rotor speed
and gain locus (Gim vs Gre) as obtained with the FPP gain 1) Induction motor equations
matrix choice. It shows that this solution permits the The state equations of the induction machine in the
dynamic of the flux estimation to be kept constant, stationary reference frame are given by:
because the amplitude of the poles is the constant R and
the damping factor 4 is always equal to 1. This last dt xV'rj ]A
K21]+[I 1]US =AX+BUs
feature is particularly important for sensorless control in (13a)
high speed range: in fact most of the choices of the matrix
gain results in a low damping factor at high rotor speeds, i =Cx (13b)
which can easily cause instability phenomena. Actually where the meaning of all matrices and vectors have been
higher values of the damping factor result in low explained in II.B. 1. For the rest of symbols, see the list at
sensitivity to estimated speed perturbations or parameter the end.
variations.
2) The adaptive speed observer
Proposed Gain Choice
The full order Luenberger state observer estimating the
stator current and the rotor flux is given as usual by
R
9c [1][2][12]:
.2)
a)

.E 0
04
real(eig(A 22G A12))
C,
E 0
speed (rad/s)
Fig. 7 Pole locus, amplitude vs speed, 4 vs speed and gain locus with
the proposed gain matrix choice
3) MCA EXIN + Speed Estimation
The MCA EXIN + based speed estimation derives from
the exploit of the two first equations of the complete state
equations of the induction motor [8], as shown below in
discrete form for digital implementation:
Fa2Ts
1 r (k -1)1
a12Ts
~~ 1)
isD (k) -isD (k -1)-al Ts isD (k -1)- a2 P Ts @,d (k -1)-b Ts fiSD (k -1)
LisQ (k)- isQ (k-1) - a,1 7s isQ (k -1) - a2 P. 7s 7^1rq (k-1) -b 7s isQ (k -1)
(12)
where pr=l1Tr, Ts is the sampling time of the control
algorithm and k is the current time sample. Note that the
on the stator voltage space vector means that it is
computed from the DC link voltage considering also the
blanking time of the inverter and the voltage drop on the
power devices of the inverter as proposed in [4]. The
same symbol on the rotor flux stands for the estimated
flux. This matrix equation can be solved by any
regression technique and here the MCA EXIN +
technique has been adopted to retrieve the rotor speed on-
dt =AX+Bus+G( s-is) (14)
speed (rad/s)
where A stands for estimated values and G is the observer
gain matrix which is designed so that the above observer
can be stable.
The Total Least-Squares (TLS) based speed observer
stems from a modification of (14), in the sense that it
E
exploits all of the four scalar equations to estimate the
rotor speed, as shown below in discrete form for digital
implementation:
real(G) al2 Ts @rq (k - 1)
-a22 Ts X,f -(k 1)1
a22 Ts @frd (k -1)
isD(k) -isD(k -1) al T iD(k 1)a2 p T rd (k -1) bT isD(k -1)
_isQ (k) -isQ (k-1)- all Ts isQ (k - 1)2 Pr Ts tfrq(k -1) - b T su(k -1)
-t/rd (k) + 8frd (k-1) + a2l Ts isd (k -1) + a22 Ts ITr Yfrd (k-1)
ITr
-Yfrq (k) + Yfrq (k-1) + a2l Ts isq (k -1) + a22 Ts l/frq (k-1)
(15)
where pr= 1Tr, Ts is the sampling time of the control
algorithm and k is the time sample. Note that also here
1 JTk(k-)
TZ2Q(
the symbol has the same meaning as in the previous
observer. Here the TLS EXIN technique has been
adopted to retrieve the rotor speed on-line. For all the
details on the TLS EXIN algorithm and its features see
[25]-[28].
It should be remarked that, to compute the rotor speed,
all the four scalar equations of (14) have been used. Fig. 8
shows the corresponding block diagram. It should be
remarked that the computation of the rotor speed by
means of the TLS estimator is performed through the
minimization of the residual of the matrix equation (15).

1825
 observers, the TLS Full-Order Luenberger Adaptive
Observer is the only which can perform the speed reversal
at the lowest speed (2 rad/s). Then there is the MCA
EXIN + Reduced Order Observer which can perform the
speed reversal at 4 rad/s and finally the MCA EXIN +
MRAS Observer which can perform the speed reversal at
7 rad/s.
MCA EXIN +MRAS Obser er,

12 Rfeec

The residual is strongly dependant on the rotor flux 1.

estimation error, while all its other terms are dependant on

the measured values of the electrical variables (i, and us)
and they are also affected by measurement errors. The
TLS is inherently robust to these uncertainties as
explained above.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Fig. 9 Reference estimated and measured speed with the MCA EXIN +
The MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer with a speed step reference of 7 rad/s (experiment)
Reduced Order Observer and the TLS Full-order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer have been verified in
MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer

simulation and experimentally on a test setup

[6][7][12][16][23][24]. With regard to the experimental
tests, the speed observers as well as the control algorithms -2

have been all implemented by software on the DSP of the

dSPACE 1103. In the following only some experimental
results obtained with the three proposed observers in the
most challenging conditions are given; plenty of results 4-1

can be found in [6][7][12][16][23][24]. All the proposed

speed observers have been tested experimentally in a
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.7

rotor-flux-oriented Field Oriented Control (FOC) drive. In 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tm s

all tests, the measured speed has been used only for
comparison reason, while the estimated speed has been
fed back to the control system.
As a first test, a speed step reference of very low speed
at no load has been given to the drive. Figs. 9, 10, 11 show
2

the reference, the estimated and the measured speed

obtained with a speed step reference respectively of 7
rad/s for the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, 5 rad/s for -0 2 01 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0.7 0.6

the MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer and 5 rad/s for

the TLS Full-order Luenberger Adaptive Observer. The Fig
IIIO
Referenceetmtdadmaue pe ihteMAEI
figures show that both the MCA EXIN + Reduced Order
Observer and the TLS Full-order Luenberger Adaptive
Observer successfully work with the speed step of 5 rad/s,
with the TLS Full-order Luenberger Adaptive Observer
outperforming the MCA EXIN + Reduced Order RedeLucedberder Aatv
Observer with a speed step reference of
5ras
Observer, since it clearly presents a higher estimation rds(experiment)
accuracy during all the speed transient. The MCA EXIN +
MRAS Observer cannot work at the working speed of 5
rad/s, but can successfully work with the speed step of 7
rad/s.
As a second test, a speed reversal at very low speed at no
load has been given to the drive. Figs. 12, 13, 14 show the
reference, the estimated and the measured speed obtained
with speed reversal respectively from 7 to -7 rad/s for the
MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, from 4 to -4 rad/s for the
MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer and from 2 to -2
rad/s for the TLS Full-Order Luenberger Adaptive
Observer. These figures show that, among the three

1826
 As a third test, the drive has been operated with all the
three observers in zero speed operation at no load. Figs.
15, 16, 17 show the reference, the estimated and the
measured speed obtained at zero speed, respectively with
the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, the MCA EXIN +
Reduced Order Observer and the TLS Full-Order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer. This test has been
performed with all the three observer over the long time
interval of 60 s.
MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer
These figures confirm that all of the three observers can
work correctly at zero speed at no load. The correct
behaviour of the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer is caused
by the employment of the adaptive model in prediction
mode. The correct behaviour of the MCA EXIN +
Reduced Order Observer and the TLS Full-Order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer are caused by the fact that
the Least Squares algorithm estimates in both cases the
rotor speed by using the measured stator current signals
and not the estimated ones (only the Full-Order observer
estimates also the stator currents), as in the classic Full-
Order Adaptive Observer [8].
MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer

uiD AN1T
Real speed
I
Reference speed
10 20 30 40 50 60
time

| Estim. speed
~ ~ ~ -- Reference spe:e:d

Fig. 12 Reference estimated and measured speed with the MCA EXIN + L L
L
10 20 30 40 50 60
time (s)
MRAS Observer with a speed reversal from 7 to -7 rad/s (experiment)
Fig. 15 Reference estimated and measured speed with the MCA EXIN +
MRAS Observer at zero speed (experiment)
MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer
MCA EXIN + Reduced Order Observer

.1
81 siae
1

6 Reeec

o04I~44
4-

1411l1
2 4 4ub A + 4S t 5 + ; pl.ii.
111 T oT
101 1 11111 1

Fig. 13 Reference estimated and measured speed with the MCA EXIN +
Reduced Order Observer with a with a speed reversal from 4 to -4 rad/s Fig. 16 Reference estimated and measured speed with the MCA EXIN +
(experiment) Reduced Order Observer with at zero speed (experiment)

TLS Adaptive Observer

.p
~t 4 4~ 1~ 1
i
Fig. 14 Reference estimated and measured speed with the TLS Full-
Order Luenberger Adaptive with a speed reversal from 2 to -2 rad/s
(experiment) Fig. 17 Reference estimated and measured speed with the TLS Full-
Order Luenberger Adaptive at zero speed (experiment)

1827
 In particular, with all of the three observers, the
estimated speed has slight oscillations around 0 rad/s,
while the measured speed is always zero, except for some
spikes which are due to the non-perfect filtering of the
speed signal coming from the incremental encoder: in any
case the rotor does not move. Experimental tests
performed at zero speed at load show that of the MCA
EXIN + MRAS Observer can work at zero speed with a
slight load torque, while the MCA EXIN + Reduced Order
Observer and the TLS Full-Order Luenberger Adaptive
Observer can work at zero speed with a medium load
torque.
Tab. I summarizes and compares the results of the 3 tested
speed observers with regard to the main issues of
sensorless algorithms (score 1 corresponds to the best and
3 to the worst). It shows that the TLS Full-Order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer outperforms all the other
observers in all the specified issues, followed by the MCA
EXIN + Reduced Order Observer and finally by of the
MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer.
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper summarizes the research activity of the
authors in the field of sensorless control of induction
machine drives based on new linear neural techniques. In
particular it describes and compares three speed
observers: the MCA EXIN + MRAS Observer, the MCA
EXIN + Reduced Order Observer and the TLS Full-Order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer. All of the three observers
are characterized by the fact that the speed is estimated
on-line by a new linear neural technique, which solves in
a recursive way a Total Least-Squares problem: one of
them employs the TLS EXIN neuron and the other two
the MCA EXIN + neuron, which is an improvement.
These techniques are linear regression methods which
permits noisy data to be processed and in this respect it
can be exploited for retrieving the rotor speed in high-
performance electrical drives with induction motors. The
speed observers have been verified in numerical
simulations and experimentally on a test setup, and have
been also compared experimentally with one another. The
comparative analysis has shown that the TLS Full-Order
Luenberger Adaptive Observer outperforms all the other
observers in many aspects, followed by the MCA EXIN +
Reduced Order Observer and finally by of the MCA
EXIN + MRAS Observer. In particular the TLS Full-
Order Luenberger Adaptive Observer permits the lowest
steady-state working speed at no load and load and and
the best accuracy during the speed transient at low speed.
All the proposed observers can work properly with zero
speed reference and also in the field weakening region.
The required computational burden and complexity of
each technique is inverse proportional to its performance:
the TLS Full-Order Luenberger Adaptive Observer is the
most complex and the most demanding in terms of
computational burden, followed by the MCA EXIN +
Reduced Order Observer and finally by of the MCA
EXIN + MRAS Observer.
1828
LIST OF SYMBOLS
us= space vector of the stator voltages in the stator
reference frame;
UsD, usQ = direct and quadrature components of the stator
voltages in the stator reference frame;
is space vector of the stator currents in the stator
reference frame;
isD, isQ = direct and quadrature components of the stator
currents in the stator reference frame;
isxn isy = direct and quadrature components of the stator
currents in the rotor-flux oriented reference frame;
Vs= space vector of the stator flux-linkages in the stator
reference frame;
VsD, VsQ = direct and quadrature component of the stator
flux linkage in the stator reference frame;
'I'r= space vector of the rotor flux-linkages in the stator
reference frame;
Vrd, Vrq =direct and quadrature component of the rotor
flux linkage in the stator reference frame;
Ls stator inductance.
Lr rotor inductance.
Lm= total static magnetising inductance;
R = resistance of a stator phase winding.
Rr = resistance of a rotor phase winding.
Tr = rotor time constant;
0= I-Lm2/(LsLr) =total leakage factor;
p = number of pole pairs;
0L?nr = angular rotor speed (in mechanical angles);
Or = angular rotor speed (in electriical angles per
second);
Ts = sampling time of the control system.
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