Motivation

Organizational Organizational
Behavior, 8e Behavior, 8e
Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Schermerhorn, Hunt, and
Osborn Osborn
Prepared by
Michael K. McCuddy
Valparaiso University
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6 2
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Chapter 6
Motivation and ReinIorcement
Study questions.
What is motivation to work?
What are reinIorcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
Chapter 6
Motivation and ReinIorcement
Study questions cont.
What do the process theories suggest about
individual motivation?
How can satisIaction and its linkage with
perIormance help tie together insights oI the
motivation theories into an integrated
motivational model?
Motivation.
The individual Iorces that account Ior the
direction, level, and persistence oI a person`s
eIIort expended at work.
Direction.
An individual`s choice when presented with a
number oI possible alternatives.
Level.
The amount oI eIIort a person puts Iorth.
Persistence.
The length oI time a person stays with a given
action.
ReinIorcement theories.
Emphasize the linkage between individual
behavior and speciIic outcomes.
Focus on observable behavior and outcomes.
Managers can alter the outcomes to inIluence
direction, level, and persistence oI motivation.
Content theories.
Focus on individual physiological and
psychological needs.
Manager`s job is to create a work environment
that responds positively to individual needs.
Process theories.
Focus on the cognitive processes that
inIluence behavior.
Examines why a person behaves in particular
ways relative to available outcomes.
Motivation across cultures.
North American motivation theories are
subject to cultural limitations.
Motivation determinants and responses are
likely to vary considerably throughout the
world.
Sensitivity to motivational variations is
important.
ReinIorcement.
The administration oI a consequence as a
result oI a behavior.
Proper management oI reinIorcement can
change the direction, level, and persistence oI
an individual`s behavior.
Classical conditioning.
A Iorm oI leaning through association that
involves the manipulation oI stimuli to
inIluence behavior.
Involves an initial stimulus (unconditioned
stimulus) and a conditioned stimulus in the
learning oI behavior.
The classical conditioning process.
Behavior is caused by an unconditioned
stimulus.
A conditioned stimulus is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
The conditioned stimulus is able to evoke the
behavior.
Operant conditioning.
The process oI controlling behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
Focuses on the interplay oI antecedents,
behavior, and consequences.
Antecedents.
The condition leading up to or cueing
behavior.
Behavior.
The action taken by the person.
Consequences.
The outcome received by the person.
Law oI eIIect.
Theoretical basis Ior manipulating
consequences.
Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is
likely to be repeated while behavior that
results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely
to be repeated.
ReinIorcement emphasizes consequences
that can be manipulated.
Extrinsic rewards:
Positively valued work outcomes that are give to
the individual by some other person.
Contrived rewards have direct costs and budgetary
implications.
Natural rewards have costs only in terms oI the
manager`s time and eIIorts.
Organizational behavior modiIication (OB Mod).
The systematic reinIorcement oI desirable work
behavior and the nonreinIorcement or punishment oI
unwanted work behavior.
Uses Iour basic strategies:
Positive reinIorcement.
Negative reinIorcement.
Punishment.
Extinction.
Positive reinIorcement.
The administration oI positive consequences
to increase the likelihood oI repeating the
desired behavior in similar settings.
Rewards are not necessarily positive
reinIorcers.
A reward is a positive reinIorcer only iI the
behavior improves.
Principles governing reinIorcement.
Law oI contingent reinIorcement.
The reward must be delivered only iI the desired
behavior is exhibited.
Law oI immediate reinIorcement.
The reward must be given as soon as possible aIter
the desired behavior is exhibited.
Shaping behavior.
The creation oI a new behavior by the positive
reinIorcement oI successive approximations
leading to the desired behavior.
Behavior is shaped gradually rather than
changed all at once.
Scheduling reinIorcement.
Continuous reinIorcement.
Administers a reward each time the desired
behavior occurs.
Intermittent reinIorcement.
Rewards behavior periodically either on the
basis oI time elapsed or the number oI desired
behaviors exhibited.
Schedules oI intermittent reinIorcement.
Variable schedules typically result in more
consistent patterns oI behavior than do Iixed
schedules.
Types oI intermittent schedules:
Fixed interval.
Fixed ratio.
Variable interval.
Variable ratio.
Negative reinIorcement.
Also known as avoidance.
The withdrawal oI negative consequences to
increase the likelihood oI repeating the desired
behavior in similar settings.
Punishment.
The administration oI negative consequences
or the withdrawal oI positive consequences to
reduce the likelihood oI repeating the behavior
in similar settings.
Implications oI using punishment.
Punishing poor perIormance enhances
perIormance without aIIecting satisIaction.
Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to
poor perIormance and dissatisIaction.
Punishment may be oIIset by positive
reinIorcement Irom another source.
Extinction.
The withdrawal oI the reinIorcing
consequences Ior a given behavior.
The behavior is not 'unlearned; it simply is
not exhibited.
The behavior will reappear iI it is reinIorced
again.
Summary oI OB Mod strategies.
Positive and negative reinIorcement.
Used Ior strengthening desirable behavior.
Punishment and extinction.
Used to weaken undesirable behavior.
Extinction may inadvertently weaken desirable
behavior.
Ethical issues with reinIorcement usage.
Is improved perIormance really due to reinIorcement?
Is the use oI reinIorcement demeaning and
dehumanizing?
Will managers abuse their power by exerting external
control over behavior?
How can we ensure that the manipulation oI
consequences is done in a positive and constructive
Iashion?
Content theories.
Motivation results Irom the individual`s
attempts to satisIy needs.
Major content theories.
Hierarchy oI needs theory.
ERG theory.
Acquired needs theory.
Two-Iactor theory.
Hierarchy oI needs theory.
Developed by Abraham Maslow.
Five distinct levels oI individual needs.
Physiological.
SaIety.
Social.
Esteem.
SelI-actualization.
Hierarchy oI needs theory cont.
Five need levels occur in a hierarchy oI
importance.
Assumes that a given need level must be
satisIied beIore the next higher level need can
be activated.
Research evidence on hierarchy oI needs
theory.
Actually may be a more Ilexible hierarchy oI
lower order needs and higher order needs.
Needs vary according to:
A person`s career stage.
Organizational size.
Geographic location.
Research evidence on hierarchy oI needs
theory cont.
SatisIaction oI one need level may not
decrease it importance and increase
importance oI next need level.
Hierarchy oI needs diIIers across cultures.
ERG theory.
Developed by Clayton AlderIer.
Collapses Maslow`s Iive categories into three
categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and
growth needs.
Adds a Irustration-regression hypothesis.
More than one need category may be activated at the
same time.
ERG theory cont.
Existence needs.
Desire Ior physiological and material well-being.
Relatedness needs.
Desire Ior satisIying interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs.
Desire Ior continued personal growth and
development.
Research evidence on ERG theory.
Supporting evidence is encouraging.
Addition oI Irustration/regression hypothesis
is a valuable contribution.
OIIers a more Ilexible approach to
understanding human needs.
Acquired needs theory.
Developed by David McClelland.
Three needs achievement, aIIiliation, and
power are acquired over time, as a result oI
experiences.
Managers should learn to identiIy these needs
and then create work environments that are
responsive to them.
Need Ior achievement.
The desire to do something better or more
eIIiciently, to solve problems, or to master
complex tasks.
High need Ior achievement people:
PreIer individual responsibilities.
PreIer challenging goals.
PreIer perIormance Ieedback.
Need Ior aIIiliation.
The desire to establish and maintain Iriendly
and warm relations with others.
High need Ior aIIiliation people:
Are drawn to interpersonal relationships.
Seek opportunities Ior communication.
Need Ior power.
The desire to control others, to inIluence their
behavior, or to be responsible Ior others.
High need Ior Ior power people:
Seek inIluence over others.
Like attention.
Like recognition.
Research evidence on acquired needs
theory.
IdentiIication oI the the need proIiles that are
required Ior success in diIIerent types oI jobs.
People can be trained to develop the need Ior
achievement, particularly in developing
nations.
Two-Iactor theory.
Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
Also known as motivation-hygiene theory.
Portrays two diIIerent Iactors hygiene
Iactors and motivator Iactors as the primary
causes oI job dissatisIaction and job
satisIaction.
Hygiene Iactors.
Sources oI job dissatisIaction.
Associated with the job context or work
setting.
Improving hygiene Iactors prevent people
Irom being dissatisIied but do not contribute to
satisIaction.
Motivator Iactors.
Sources oI job satisIaction.
Associated with the job content.
Building motivator Iactors into the job enables
people to be satisIied.
Absence oI motivator Iactors in the job results
in low satisIaction, low motivation, and low
perIormance.
Research evidence on two-Iactor theory.
Theory may be method bound.
Theory Iails to:
Account Ior individual diIIerences.
Link motivation and needs to both satisIaction and
perIormance.
Consider cultural and proIessional diIIerences.
These Iailures also apply to other content
theories.
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
Equity theory.
Workplace development by J.Stacy Adams.
People gauge the Iairness oI their work
outcomes in relation to others.
Perceived inequity occurs when there is an
unIavorable social comparison oI work
outcomes.
When perceived inequity occurs, people will
be motivated to remove the discomIort.
Equity theory cont.
Felt negative inequity.
Individual Ieels he/she has received relatively less
than others in proportion to work inputs.
Felt positive inequity.
Individual Ieels he/she has received relatively more
than others in proportion to work inputs.
Equity restoration behaviors.
Change work inputs.
Change the outcomes received.
Leave the situation.
Change the comparison points.
Psychologically distort the comparisons.
Take actions to change the inputs or outputs oI
the comparison person.
Equity theory implications.
Inequity perceptions are entirely Irom reward
recipient`s perspective, not Irom reward
giver`s perspective.
The equity process must be managed so as to
inIluence the reward recipient`s equity
perceptions.
Research evidence on equity theory.
Overpayment (Ielt positive inequity) results in
increased quantity or quality oI work.
Underpayment (Ielt negative inequity) results
in decreased quantity or quality oI work.
Stronger support Ior underpayment results.
Research evidence on equity theory
cont.
Overpayment and underpayment results are
closely tied to individualistic cultures.
Collectivist cultures emphasize equality rather
than equity.
Expectancy theory.
Developed by Victor Vroom.
A person`s motivation is a multiplicative
Iunction oI:
Expectancy.
Instrumentality
Valence.
Expectancy.
The probability assigned by an individual that work
eIIort will be Iollowed by a given level oI task
accomplishment.
Instrumentality.
The probability assigned by the individual that a given
level oI achieved task perIormance will lead to various
work outcomes.
Valence.
The value attached by the individual to various work
outcomes.
Motivational implications oI expectancy
theory.
Motivation is sharply reduced when,
expectancy, instrumentality or valence
approach zero.
Motivation is high when expectancy and
instrumentality are high and valence is
strongly positive.
Managerial implications oI expectancy
theory.
Managers should act to maximize
expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences
that support organizational objectives.
Research evidence on expectancy theory.
Theory has received substantial empirical
support.
Multiplier eIIect is subject to some question.
May be useIul to distinguish between extrinsic
rewards and intrinsic rewards.
Does not speciIy which rewards will motivate
particular groups oI workers, thereby allowing
Ior cross-cultural diIIerences.
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
Job satisIaction.
The degree to which individuals Ieel positively
or negatively about their jobs.
Job satisIaction can be assessed:
By managerial observation and interpretation.
Through use oI job satisIaction questionnaires.
Key decisions that people make about their
work.
Joining and remaining a member oI an
organization.
Working hard in pursuit oI high levels oI task
perIormance.
Joining and remaining a member oI an
organization.
Concerns attendance and longevity at work.
DissatisIied workers are more likely than
satisIied workers to be absent and to quit their
jobs.
Working hard in pursuit oI high levels oI
task perIormance.
Concerns the relationship between job
satisIaction and perIormance.
Alternative points oI view.
SatisIaction causes perIormance.
PerIormance causes satisIaction.
Rewards cause both perIormance and satisIaction.
Argument: satisIaction causes
perIormance.
Managerial implication to increase
employees` work perIormance, make them
happy.
Job satisIaction alone is not a consistent
predictor oI work perIormance.
Argument: perIormance causes
satisIaction.
Managerial implication help people achieve
high perIormance, then satisIaction will
Iollow.
PerIormance in a given time period is related
to satisIaction in a later time period.
Rewards link perIormance with later
satisIaction.
Argument: rewards cause both satisIaction
and perIormance.
Managerial implications.
Proper allocation oI rewards can positively
inIluence both satisIaction and perIormance.
SatisIaction and perIormance are separate but
interrelated work results that are aIIected by
reward allocation.
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Amount &
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Net amount
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Equity
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Individual
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Organizational
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An Integrated Model of Individual Motivation to Work

Motivation

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