Natural Science Geology

Weathering and Soils

David McConnell University of Akron Table of Contents
Summary Introduction Physical Weathering
Pressure Release Ice Wedging

Chemical Weathering
Dissolution Hydrolysis Oxidation

Weathering Rates Soils: An Introduction

Regolith Soil Profile Pedalfer Pedocal

Exercise

Summary This lecture introduces the processes that occur during weathering and provides a brief description of soils. After reviewing this material you should know: What is the difference between physical and chemical weathering? How do sediment and regolith differ? What happens during pressure release and ice wedging? What is an exfoliation dome? What is the difference between dissolution, hydrolysis and oxidation? How does carbonic acid form? What processes lead to the formation of caves in limestone regions? How does physical weathering help promote chemical weathering? What factors control weathering rate? What are the basic components of soil? What are the elements of a soil profile? How do pedocals and pedalfers differ?
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David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

Introduction
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the earth's surface. Weathering results in the formation of sediment that is carried away by erosion to form sedimentary rocks, and regolith that remains in place to form soils. Weathering can be subdivided into two types: physical (mechanical) and chemical.

Physical (Mechanical) Weathering

Physical weathering represents the disintegration of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces. Physical weathering can be further subdivided into pressure release and ice wedging. Pressure Release Rocks below the earth surface support the weight of the overlying column of rock. Erosion strips away this overlying rock and decreases pressure on buried rocks. All rocks are slightly elastic, so the buried rocks respond to the reduction of pressure by expanding upwards. This results in the formation of pressure release fractures (cracks) that form parallel to the surface. With continued erosion, these rocks are exposed on the surface and slabs of rock break off along the pressure release fractures. This weathering creates bare rock surfaces that may be more resistant than surrounding rocks. These features are termed exfoliation domes; the slabs of rock that break off are termed exfoliation sheets.

Independence Rock, Wyoming; an example of an exfoliation dome. Note bare rock and rounded surfaces. Image courtesy of Dr. Annabelle Foos. Click here to see another example of an exfoliation dome, Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, California.

Ice Wedging Ice wedging occurs as the result of the expansion (9%) of water as it is converted to ice. Cracks filled with water are forced further apart when it freezes. This process requires a range of temperatures to generate alternating freeze - thaw activity. Both pressure release and ice wedging break up rocks and minerals, creating more surface area for chemical weathering.
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David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

Chemical Weathering
The decomposition of rock by the chemical breakdown of minerals. Results in a change in rock composition; typically replacing strong minerals with weaker minerals, thus hastening the break down of the rock. The three common chemical reactions associated with chemical weathering are dissolution, hydrolysis, and oxidation. Dissolution Dissolution occurs when rocks and/or minerals are dissolved by water. The dissolved material is transported away leaving a space in the rock. One consequence of this process is the formation of caves in limestone areas.
The details of marble statues and tombstones will be gradually worn away by dissolution. Image on right courtesy of Dr. Annabelle Foos.

rain + carbon dioxide (from air) carbonic acid (reacts with rocks) H2O + CO2 H2CO3

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air is dissolved in rainwater to create a weak acid, carbonic acid (H2CO3), that preferentially dissolves certain rocks and minerals, e.g. limestone, marble. All rain is mildly acidic (average pH ~5.6, compared with neutral fluids [pH 7] and highly acidic [pH 1] substances).

Crystal Ball Cave, Utah. Features hanging down from the ceiling are stalactites. Pillarlike features on the cave floor are stalagmites. Both stalagmites and stalactites are formed from the precipitation of limestone within the cave. Image courtesy of Dr. Ira Sasowsky.

David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

Caves form when dissolution occurs along a series of fractures in limestone to create a larger opening. Water passing through the rock enlarges the cave and associated reprecipitation can form a variety of features. The dissolved limestone is transported through the cave and may be precipitated to form new features such as stalagtites that grow downward from the cave ceiling and stalagmites that grow up from the floor. If they meet they form a compound cave formation such as a column. The Virtual Cave website contains images and descriptions of a variety of cave formations. You can review pictures of Lechuguilla Cave in Carlsbad Caverns National Park and effectively take your own virtual tour of the cave. Not all the products of dissolution are below ground. Sinkholes form at the surface from the collapse of the roof of an underlying cavern or by dissolution of rock along a series of fracture surfaces.
Image on right shows a sinkhole, (Watlings Blue Hole) in the Bahamas. Road at bottom left of image for scale. Image courtesy of Dr. Ira Sasowsky.

Hydrolysis Carbonic acid ionizes (breaks down) into two ions, hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-1). H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 The free hydrogen ions may alter mineral composition by replacing other ions in a minerals atomic structure; this reaction is termed hydrolysis. Hydrolysis occurs when minerals react with water to form other products. Feldspar, the most common mineral in rocks on the earth's surface, reacts with water to form a secondary mineral such as kaolinite (a type of clay) and additional ions that are dissolved in water. The weaker clay is readily worn away by physical weathering. feldspar + hydrogen ions + water clay + dissolved ions 4KAlSi3O8 + 4H+ + 2H2O Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 4K+ + 8SiO2

Oxidation Oxygen, the second most common element in the air we breathe, reacts with iron in minerals to form iron oxide minerals, e.g. hematite (rust). As many minerals contain iron, it is not unusual to see redcolored rocks like the example from Arches National Park shown here.
Delicate Arch, Arches National Park, Utah.

David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

Physical weathering breaks rocks down into smaller pieces thus increasing the surface area over which chemical weathering can occur (see diagram). All forms of chemical weathering tend to promote the decomposition of minerals in rocks to a less resistant form. Working in concert, physical and chemical weathering can reduce a once resistant rock to nothing (dissolved limestone) or to easily eroded weaker materials (clays).
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Weathering Rates
Rock type, structure, and climate primarily control weathering rates. Rocks composed of minerals that are relatively unaffected by chemical weathering will be the most resistant to weathering. For example, quartz is unaffected by dissolution, hydrolysis and oxidation, therefore, rocks composed almost exclusively of the mineral quartz are more resistant than other common rock types. Rocks such as sandstone and quartzite often form resistant ridges separating valleys formed in weaker rocks. Sand on a beach is made up almost exclusively of quartz grains as chemical weathering alters less resistant feldspar minerals and the resulting clays are deposited elsewhere by streams or shoreline currents. Rock structures such as fractures represent natural surfaces for physical and chemical weathering processes. Consequently, rocks that contain abundant fractures are typically weathered more rapidly than equivalent unfractured rocks.

Weathering has been concentrated along vertical fractures separating these panels of sandstone at Arches National Park, Utah.

David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

A temperature range that varies between freezing and thawing conditions and plentiful supply of water are essential for physical weathering. Warm temperatures and a plentiful supply of water are necessary for chemical weathering. Areas with little water or low temperatures have relatively slow rates of chemical weathering. How would climate influence weathering rates at locations on the map? 1. Tropical rainforest (equatorial regions including South America, Africa, Indonesia, southeast Asia): chemical weathering rates would be rapid as these regions have both high temperatures and plenty of rainfall. 2. Hot desert (subtropical regions including North Africa [Sahara], southwest South America [Atacama], southwest Africa [Namib], Asia [Gobi], southwestern U.S., central Australia): plenty of heat but insufficient water to cause significant physical and/or chemical weathering. 3. Temperate mountains (Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada Mountains, Alps, Andes Mountains): insufficient temperatures for rapid chemical weathering but elevations contribute to freeze-thaw cycles necessary for ice wedging. 4. Polar Regions (Alaska, Antarctica, Siberia): too much cold weather to permit thawing. Water in solid form (ice) unable to react with rock.

Inscription carved in granite on Independence Rock, Wyoming. Settlers travelling on the Oregon Trail aimed to arrive at the landmark before July 4 to ensure sufficient time to cross the mountains before winter. The inscription is was carved by someone with the surname Fox and is dated June 29, (18)52. The phrase CIN. Ohio can be seen in the top right corner. The inscription is still preserved due to the dry climate of the region. go to top of document

David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

Soils: An Introduction
Regolith is composed of rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering. If this material is transported by wind, water, or ice it is termed sediment. Soil is that portion of the regolith that supports plant life and includes organic material, water and air. Weathering rate controls soil thickness. Bare rock surfaces will take thousands of years to develop even thin soils in cold climates (e.g. Alaska). Soil is absent on bare rock surfaces in northern Canada that were scrapped clean by glaciers thousands of years ago Soils are two to three feet thick in the temperate Midwest where soil formation occurs at rates of 1 inch per 250 years. The thickest soils may approach 100 feet in thickness in tropical regions with warm temperatures and plentiful rainfall. Unfortunately, soil erosion in much of the U.S. outpaces soil formation. Soil can be divided into a series of distinct horizontal layers (soil horizons) that collectively are termed a soil profile. Each horizon is designated by a letter. Beginning at the top the horizons are; O horizon: organic debris, dead leaves etc. A horizon: topsoil, dark organic material mixed with mineral grains. Soluble ions and fine particles are carried downward (leached) from the A horizon to the B horizon. B horizon: dissolved ions precipitated in B horizon. Little organic material present. The accumulation of iron oxide will give the soil a red color (see image), forming a pedalfer soil. The accumulation of calcium carbonate will form a white layer, creating a pedocal soil. Pedalfer soils are common in the eastern U.S., pedocals in the dryer western U.S. C horizon: soil parent material. Composed of either weathered bedrock or unconsolidated sediment.
Soil Profile Willamete Valley Oregon. Image courtesy of Dr. Annabelle Foos.

David McConnell, 1998

Natural Science Geology

Soil scientists have identified thousands of soil types. Pedalfers and pedocals are simple designations given to soils in the wetter (pedalfer) and dryer (pedocal) regions of the U.S. The relatively abundant precipitation in the eastern U.S. results in iron minerals being leached from the topsoil and precipitated in the B horizon. In contrast, in dry regions the more soluble calcium ions (Ca2+) are leached and combine with carbonate ions (CO32-) to form calcium carbonate (limestone) in the B horizon.

Distribution of pedalfer and pedocal soils in the U.S. Areas to the east of the blue line receive more than 30 inches of rain per year; areas to the west (except in the northwest) receive less.

Exercise
This weeks exercise examines groundwater and water resources. The exercise can be accessed through the weekly exercises page (http://enterprise.cc.uakron.edu/geology/natscigeo /Exercises/).
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last update: 3/3/98, David McConnell email: dmcconnell@uakron.edu

David McConnell, 1998