Neagu Iulia

Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

The development of the modern day computer was the result of advances in technologies and mans need to quantify. Papyrus helped early man record language and numbers. The abacus, a wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them, was one of the first counting machines. 5 Websters Dictionary defines computer as any programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve and process data. The basic idea of computing develops in the 1200 when a Moslem cleric proposes solving problems with a series of written procedures. As early as 1640 mechanical calculators are manufactured for sale. Records exist of earlier machines but Blaise Pascal invents the first commercial calculator, a hand 10powered adding machine. It added numbers entered with dials and was made to help his father, a tax collector. In 1801 a Frenchman, Joseph Marie Jacquard, builds a loom that weaves by reading punched holes stored on small sheets of hardwood. These plates are then inserted into the loom which reads the pattern and creates the weave. Powered by water, this 15machine came 140 years before the development of the modern computer. Shortly after the first mass-produced calculator (1820), Charles Babbage begins his lifelong quest for a programmable machine based on the principles of punched cards, storing data in a memory and a sequence of instructions clearly set out in a programme. This machine will be released in 1830. By 1842, Ada Lovelace, his assistant, uses 20Babbages analytical engine to mechanically translate a short written work. She is generally regarded as the first programmer. In 1925, unaware of the work of Charles Babbage, Vannevar Bush of MIT builds a machine he calls the differential analyzer, which is in fact the first analog computer. Using a set of gears and shafts, much like Babbage, the machine can handle simple 25calculus problems but accuracy is a problem. In 1945, Von Neumann performed an abstract study of computation that showed that a computer should have a very simple, fixed physical structure, and yet be able to execute any kind of computation by means of a proper programmed control without the need for any change in the unit itself. 30 J. Eckert and J. Mauchly heralded the computer era in 1946 by building the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes. They named their invention ENIAC but these types of machines were too bulky and unreliable to be used in any but largest firms. In 1947 and 1956 two further technological breakthroughs materialized the tendency towards miniaturization: the transistor, invented in Bell laboratories, and the 35integrated circuit, invented by Jack Kilby. The secret of the new technology was to etch transistors and other components onto a thin silicon wafer, called a chip, in order to create an integrated circuit. In 1956 FORTRAN is introduced. Two additional languages, LISP and COBOL are added in 1957 and 1958. Other early languages include ALGOL and BASIC. 40Although never widely used, ALGOL is the basis for many of todays languages. Over the last decades computers have undergone more transformations: MOS technology has been supplanted by C-MOS and RISC and laptops and powerful 1

Neagu Iulia

Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

computers no larger or thicker than an A4 notepad have become commonplace. Despite these transformations, however, the same basic pattern emerges: data is inputted using an 45input device, usually a keyboard, a mouse, a pen or a scanner. This information is then stored in the computers memory until the user needs to retrieve it. Once the retrieval of data is complete, the relevant information is either displayed on a screen (soft copy) or can be printed out by a printer (hard copy). Progress in the area of software has not matched the great advances in hardware. 50Software has become the major cost of many systems because programming productivity has not increased very quickly. New programming techniques, such as object-oriented programming, have been developed to help relieve this problem. Despite difficulties with software, however, the cost per calculation of computers is rapidly lessening, and their convenience and efficiency are expected to increase in the early future. The computer 55field continues to experience huge growth. Computer networking, computer mail, and electronic publishing are just a few of the applications that have grown in recent years. Advances in technologies continue to produce cheaper and more powerful computers offering the promise that in the near future, computers or terminals will reside in most, if not all homes, offices, and schools. 60

INFO
65 FORTRAN one of the first high-level programming languages, initially invented to allow a concise wording of numerical problems; other high-level programming languages: BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++, JAVA; low-level programming languages: the assembly language (the assembler) and machine language (machine code) LISP programming language invented by John McCarthy in 1960 in order to process character rows and lists COBOL programming language created in 1958 for financial administration program writing; it allowed large file processing, alphanumeric information handling, report editing ALGOL scientific programming language created in 1958 that obeyed three exigencies: to be as close as possible to regular mathematical notations; to be legible enough to become an algorithm communication language; to be compilable BASIC - programming language whose purpose was to provide scientific learning programming tools by means of an interactive environment MOS, C-MOS technology commonly used to manufacture integrated circuits RISC elementary processor architecture whose purpose was to obtain performances by using a regular set of instructions which allowed instruction pipeline processing.

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Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

a) Give synonyms for the following words from the text:

Brief; machine (l. 4); dial (l.10); quest (l. 17); to handle (l. 24); computation (l. 28); to herald (l. 30); bulky (l. 32); to undergo (l. 42); however (l. 45); to relieve (l. 53); growth 90(l. 57)

b) What do the following abbreviations stand for?

MIT; ENIAC; FORTRAN; LISP; COBOL; ALGOL; BASIC; MOS; C-MOS; RISC 95

II. Match the following words (1 10) with their appropriate definitions (A J):
1. Bulky 1002. Silicon chip 3. Transistor 4. Reliable 5. Scanner 6. Laptop 1057. To etch 8. To retrieve 9. Wafer 10. Accuracy 110 A. a computer that can be carried easily B. an essential component of a microprocessor C. to recover or regain lost information or data D. condition or quality of being true, correct or exact E. taking up a lot of space F. a thin, small disk G. you can count on it H. the type of technology that made miniaturisation possible I. an automatic electronic means of inputting data J. to engrave as to form a design

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Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

III. The following names are related to the history of computers. Read the above text once again and decide whos who using the list below. Two
115names are not in the text: 1. Charles Babbage; 2. Blaise Pascal; 3. Bill Gates; 4. Vannevar Bush; 5. Grace Hopper; 6. Ada Lovelace; 7. Von Neumann; 8. J. Eckert and J. Mauchly 120A. The inventor of the first analog computer B. Allegedly the first programmer C. The inventor of the analytical engine and alleged father of computers D. The one who developed the idea of keeping instructions for the computer inside the computers memory 125E. Mathematician, inventor of a hand powered adding machine F. Creator of the first spreadsheet program and former Microsoft CEO G. Inventors of the ENIAC, the first digital mainframe H. The US army colonel who helped develop COBOL 130

IV. a) Fill in the table with the appropriate dates and inventions:
DATE .. 1946 1947 .. 1956 135b) Answer the following questions: PERSON AND/OR INVENTION Babbages calculating machine .. The invention of the .. in .. Laboratories J. Kilby invented the . .. ..

Neagu Iulia

Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

1. What three modern principles were fundamental to Babbages theoretical machine? 2. Who wrote the first ever programme? 3. What was the general tendency after ENIAC? 140

V. Fill in the blanks with the words in the list:

binary, built, calculation, can, could, development, first, mechanically, most, moving, on, 145other, perforated, punched, worlds. Automatic (1) has a long history. The (2) calculators were (3) in the early 17th century. The German mathematician Gottfried Leibnitz speculated (4) the possibility of building a calculator using (5) balls to 150represent numbers in (6) code. Self-playing musical instruments and (7) automata incorporated the notion of storing a sequence of instructions (8) .In 1725 Basile Bouchon invented a method of producing woven patterns on a draw loom from instructions on a (9) paper tape. Jacquard later refined this method into a highly successful automatic loom controlled by (10) cards. (11) of the 155elements of a truly general-purpose computer (12) be found in the analytical engine conceived by Babbage in 1835. In 1941 Konrad Zuse in Germany built the (13) first working stored-program computer. In the USA, the mathematician Howard Aiken, in association with IBM (International Business Machines), worked independently on a large electromechanical calculator that (14) be programmed using paper 160tape. Computers later based on the electronic thermionic valve were a major (15) .

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VI. Fill in the gaps:

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Neagu Iulia

Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

In the early fifties, computers were so 1) and 2) that only very few big companies could 3) them. They used 4) and were the 170first generation of computers. In 1947, the use of 5) instead of 6) gave birth to the second generation of computers which were able to 7) calculations ten times 8) than their 9) . Second 10) computers were less 11) , 12) and more 13) than first generation computers. With the 13) of 14) circuits in the 175mid-sixties computers became even 15) and even more 16) . Yet they could not sit on a desk and were still expensive. In the seventies, 17) microminiaturization, thousands of integrated 18) could be 19) on a chip, a tiny piece of silicon a few millimetres in 20) .

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Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

180

GRAMMAR SPOTLIGHT The Articles in English

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

185Uses: 190 195 200 Before the representative of a class e.g.: The PC was a milestone in the development of computers. When it has already been mentioned or it is known e.g.: Yesterday I saw a film on my DVD player. The film was very interesting. Shut down the computer if you dont need it anymore. Before nouns that are considered to be unique e.g.: the Earth, the sun, the Web, the Internet Before nouns that are used in their most general sense e.g.: The computer is a machine. Before names of countries that contain smaller entities or are plural in form e.g.: the U.K., the U.S., the Netherlands Before names of rivers, oceans, seas, mountains or islands e.g.: the Thames, the Pacific, the Black Sea, the Isle of Man Before names of nationalities: the English, the French Before names of publications: the Guardian, the Times Before names of points of the compass: the North Before nouns preceded by prepositions: in the file, by the way, in the end

205 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE Uses: 210 Before a countable noun e.g.: A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions. Before nouns used as the representative of a class e.g.: Michael is a computer programmer. Before names of origin e.g.: Bill Gates, the creator of the first spreadsheet program, former Microsoft CEO and currently the richest man on the planet, is an American. Religion e.g.: He is a Catholic. Politics e.g.: He is a Republican.

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15Neagu Iulia 225THE ZERO ARTICLE Uses: 230

Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

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Before abstract nouns: death, life, love, freedom, hate etc. e.g.: Most people fear death. Before names with a general meaning e.g.: Computers are widely used nowadays. The GPS system my father bought me for my birthday is cutting-edge technology. before names of languages e.g.: Mike speaks English very well. Before names of days, months, seasons, holidays e.g.: On Monday, George starts work as a computer programmer for a famous computer firm. Before names of subjects (in school) e.g.: Computer science is a set of very efficient tools with which the common user can organize, process, present and transmit all kind of information. Before names of means of transport: by air, by boat, by bus, by car, by plane, by sea, by ship

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Unit 1 A Brief History of Computers

EXERCISES I. Translate into English: Magistrala; placa audio; unitatea central de procesare; cartuul; cifra; o eroare; o gril; 250jetonul; majuscula; mufa; un nucleu; panglica (de imprimant); versiunea; un portal; un releu; stiva; stratul; o sucursal; un ir; telecomanda. II. Fill in the blanks with a/an/the/zero article and motivate your choice: 1. Where are you going next week? 255 We are staying at home, because we have to study hard to pass exams. 2. computer shop is closed today. It is Sunday. 3. sound card you bought is less reliable than one I have at home. 2604. She is teacher and works in one of those schools near your house. 5. Numerical methods is one of hardest subjects in computer science faculty. 6. Shes visiting United States next month. 7. I cant remember where, but my best friend is studying in university in France. 2658. They have got two children: boy and girl. girls seven and boys nine. 9. How often does he go to London? He goes to London once year. 10. How much time do you work day? 270 I work 7 hours and half every day. 11. Ive decided to go freelance and hire myself out as computer programmer. 12. Because of crisis, company Microsoft has been forced to lay off several thousand employees. 13. good manager is not so easy to find. 27514. distributors will probably boost the price of .. software when .. next version is released.