Michael Mc Macken

080007020

Poetry Essay

Keats famously complained that: Philosophy will clip an Angels wings, / Conquer all mysteries by rule and line, / Empty the haunted air, and gnomed mine - / Unweave a rainbow (Lamia). Discuss the role and importance of the mysterious and nonrational in the work of ONE OR MORE poets on the module. During the romantic period, a successful piece of romantic literature would usually, through the author or poets use of language and imagery, evoke an air of mystery surrounding the environment and setting of the story; and indeed even the story itself would be fantastical, using the miraculous rather than the rational to aid the narrative. John Keats, whose poetry at the time he stopped writing (twenty-four) exceed[ed] the accomplishment at the same age of Chaucer, Shakespeare and Milton1, drew strongly upon the mysterious and non-rational in his poems, incorporating images of the unknown and the uncanny to enhance the romantic effectiveness of his poems. These images are prominent in his famous poem The Eve of St. Agnes. Similarly, Samuel Taylor Coleridge employs the non-rational in his poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Coleridge himself was well known to believe in the notion that culture, the nations artistic and spiritual heritage, represents a force with the power to combat the fragmentation of a modern [] society2. This belief may have strongly influenced the choices which Coleridge made when writing The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, focusing on the spiritual and mystical as a narrative driving force. In Keats poem The Eve of St. Agnes, the mysterious is used to create a sense of wonder and foreboding in the minds of the reader/audience. An air of mystery is created right in the opening stanza: St Agnes Eve Ah, bitter chill it was! The owl, for all his feathers, was a-cold;3 Already, there is a sense of unknown created, as owls are associated with wisdom and depicted as being companions for goddesses, for example Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth) and the Greek goddess Athena. This association with these supernatural beings gives the setting of the poem an almost otherworldly feeling, which is reflected in the language used to describe how cold the night was, even being too cold for the mystical owl not to feel it. The use of adjectives such as frozen4, numb and frosted add to this air of mystery, setting the scene as a dream-like, unknown world, in which the beadsmans breathe takes flight for heaven5.
Stillinger/Lynch, The Romantic Period, John Keats, Ed. By M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature: eighth edition, volume 2 (New York; London: W. W. Norton, 2005) pp. 880 2 Stillinger/Lynch, The Romantic Period, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Ed. By M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature: eighth edition, volume 2 (New York; London: W. W. Norton, 2005) pp. 426 3 Keats, John, The Eve of St Agnes, Ed. By M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature: eighth edition, volume 2 (New York; London: W. W. Norton, 2005) p. 888, l. 1-2
1 4 5

Ibid, p. 889, ls 4-6 Ibid, l. 8

Michael Mc Macken

080007020

Poetry Essay

In Coleridges 625-line ballad The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the supernatural and the non-rational play a crucial role in the poems overall effect. This is obvious from the beginning, as the mariner himself is surrounded in mystery, the adjective ancient6 describing him, and the wedding guest pointing out his long grey beard and glittering eye7. Indeed, this glittering eye is very mysterious as the mariner holds him [] like a three years child8 in a state of hypnosis with it, forcing the wedding guest to sit and listen to the story which the mariner is about to tell. This supernatural ability which the mariner possesses serves to intrigue the audience, begging the question of how he came to attain such powers which could not possibly exist in a rational world. The very nature of the framed narrative told by the mariner adds to the mystery of the poem, as the mariner and his crewmates are all sailing into the unknown. This adds to the romantic air of the poem, as it sets the story up for that of adventure and beyond the rational. In a like manner, The Eve of St. Agnes story employs the use of the non-rational, in which young virgins have visions of delight9 after they have performed the correct ritual. This further enhances the otherworldly quality of the poem, as the virgins rely on guidance from a higher force to choose their lover rather than using logic to decide for themselves. This otherworldly quality is also hinted at in the second stanza: The sculpturd dead, on each side, seem to freeze, Emprisond in black, purgatorial rails: Kinghts, ladies, praying in dumb oratries10 The image of the knights and ladies being trapped alive as sculptures could be associated with fairytales and other fantastical stories. Therefore there is a sense that there is something more to this church, beyond the normal physical boundaries, something which is rooted in its unknown and conceivably dark past. Perhaps this ancient buildings past is connected to that of the ancient11 beadsman, whose background is as big a mystery as the building. This mystery which shrouds the setting and character of the beadsman is important as it allows the tone for the rest of the poem to be set, a forewarning of future events which are also mystical. In The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Coleridge uses several techniques in which to anchor [] the readers suspension of disbelief throughout the work12. These techniques come in the form of narrative choices, such as the wedding day, which is a common and rational occurrence in everyday life, also serving to frame the narrative at the same time. The other element is the sympathy which Coleridge evokes from the audience/reader towards the ancient mariner13, who has suffered
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Ed. By M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature: eighth edition, volume 2 (New York; London: W. W. Norton, 2005) p. 430, l. 1 7 Ibid, l. 3 8 Ibid, p. 431, ls 13-15 9 Keats, p. 890, l. 47 10 Ibid, p. 889, ls 14-16 11 Ibid, l. 28 12 Coffin, Tristram P., Coleridges Use of the Ballad Stanza in The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner, Modern Language Quarterly 1951 12(4):437-445; DOI:10.1215/00267929-12-4-437 13 Ibid
6

Michael Mc Macken

080007020

Poetry Essay

the wrath of higher, supernatural forces. Human sympathy reminds the reader that despite the mysterious forces at work in the poem, human nature remains unchanged. A more subtle choice which Coleridge has added lies in the poems form, the ballad. The ballads steady rhythm which beats objectively behind every scene and every event14 aids in making the non-rational story easier to digest to the audience/reader, as ballads are associated with actual historical events. These techniques employed by Coleridge show how important he considered narrating stories which where full of mystery and the supernatural, and the clever juxtaposition of the familiar structure and form with the unfamiliar and non-rational serves to allow these kinds of supernatural stories to be easily accepted by the audience. Keats enhances the romantic and mysterious feel of the poem through the use of language and phrases which could be construed as having fairy tale connotations. Keats states that the hallowd hour was near at hand15. What will happen at this hallowd hour is not entirely known, but the feeling which the reader gets is that it will be something magical, as associations with midnight could possibly be made. Midnight is affiliated with the magical occult, with witching hour occurring from midnight until 3am on a full moon, and of course the famously known folk story of Cinderellas coach turning back into a pumpkin at midnight. This idea is continued in the 12th stanza, in which it is explained that Porphyro is not welcome among Madelines family: Get hence! Get hence! Theres dwarfish Hildebrand; He had a fever late, and in the fit He cursed thee and thine, both house and land16 Porphyro has been cursed by one of Madelines family members. This conjures up images of witchcraft and magic which relates to the hallowd hour, and the line in which it is explained Madeline is Hoodwinkd with faery fancy17. The reader feels as though supernatural forces are at work to stop Porphyro from winning Madeline, which adds more to the air of mystery and the non-rational, making it seem more like a fantastical story of knights and princesses. Perhaps even a more magical take on the story of Romeo and Juliet. Coleridge uses the supernatural forces in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner to enhance the overall uncanny feel of the poem. The albatross, which is seen as a bird of good omen, one that made the breeze [] blow18, adds a sense of mystery to the poem. Is it actually the albatross which is causing the sailors good luck, or is their good luck just a coincidence? Another element of the narrative which evokes mystery is the actual killing of the albatross. No explanation is given as to why the mariner shoots the albatross with his crossbow, hence adding a level of perplexity to the poem. The mystical, otherworldly beings of Death and Life-in-Death are used to similar effect. It could be argued that the game of dice to decide the sailors fate (which is symbolic of the roll of the dice the mariner took when he chose to shoot the albatross) is just all an illusion or hallucination the mariner is having due to complete lack of
14 15 16 17 18

Ibid The Eve of St. Agnes, l. 66 Ibid, l. 100-03 Ibid, l. 70 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, l. 94

Michael Mc Macken

080007020

Poetry Essay

hydration, which provokes the question of whether any of the seemingly otherworldly forces which aid and punish the mariner are actually real. These forces include the spirit from the land of mist and snow19, the spirits blest20 which inhabit the dead bodies of the other sailors, and the voices of the spirits the mariner hears whilst in his trance. All of these supernatural entities add to the uncanny feeling throughout the poem, and suggest something in control of us which is beyond our own logic. An important element which adds to the mystery surrounding The Eve of St. Agnes is the ambiguity of some of the narrative devices and the ending itself. Whilst it could be argued that the story is a take on Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, one could speculate that the character of Porphyro was intent on taking Madelines virginity from the very beginning: Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose, []A stratagem, that makes the beldame start21 Porphyro devises a stratagem which perhaps he thought could trick her into thinking he was her true love, taking advantage of the almost spellinduced state of Madeline. Indeed, Madeline is only informed that she is not having sex in a dream, but with Porphyro in real life after the deed is done (This is no dream, my bride, my Madeline!22). This ambiguity leaves the story open to interpretation by individual readers, and adds a sense of mystery to the poem. Similarly, the ending of the story is an enigma. It is unknown whether these lovers [who] fled away into the storm23 survive the storm. Or perhaps the storm is metaphorical for the storm which will follow once their family finds out what has happened. The poem ends with the symbol of Death24, the beadsman, sleeping among his ashes cold25. This ending leaves a sense of mystery over the couples future; however, ending as it did, with the ancient beadsmans death, foreshadows their future and implies instability. Symbolism is a very important element of The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, and Coleridge incorporates powerful symbolism to evoke the feeling of the irrational and the supernatural. Coleridge uses the sun and the moon as a symbol of the two sides of the Christian God: Nor dim nor red, like Gods own head, The glorious Sun uprist26 This simile compares the sun directly to God, adding to the supernatural feel of the poem, giving God a physical location in the sky, as if he/she/it is the one thing we depend on most for survival. The sun is symbolic of the wrathful, vengeful God, as during the day usually troublesome things happen to the mariner:

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Ibid, l. 403 Ibid, l. 349 The Eve of St Agnes, ls 136, 139 Ibid, l. 326 Ibid, l. 371 Taniuchi, Ritsuko, The Moonlight Eve of St. Agnes, p. 6 The Eve of St. Agnes, l. 378 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, ls 97, 98

Michael Mc Macken

080007020

Poetry Essay

All in a hot and copper sky, The bloody Sun, at noon, []Day after day, day after day, We stuck, nor breath nor motion27 The mariner and his crew are stuck, as no wind will blow on their sail, and their water provisions run out, causing the whole crew to become dehydrated. The adjective bloody used to describe the sun is effective here, as it reflects that God is vengeful, and out for blood as the blood of one of his creatures was spilled unprovoked. In stark contrast to this, the moon represents the forgiving, repentant God, and usually more favourable things happen to the mariner when the moon is up. For example, when his curse begins to lift for the first time (The selfsame moment I could pray/ / The Albatross fell off28), the moon is in the sky. Likewise, when the mariner returns to his homeland, the moon is out. The symbolism of the moon and sun adds to the overall non-rationality of the situation in which the mariner is in, and implies that logic cannot explain everything, and that some things are out of our hands. Both Keats and Coleridge have effectively conveyed their narrative stories to the audience/reader whilst incorporating elements and themes of mystery and the non-rational. Be it Keats use of mystery and enchantment surrounding the setting of his story, arguably including connotations to old folk fairy tales which were fantastical and full of the non-rational and adventure, or Coleridges supernatural forces and entities surrounding the ambiguous shooting of the albatross and the mysterious character of the mariner himself, it is undeniable that there is a place in stories for the mysterious in non-rational, and when used affectively could enhance the romantic feel of a narrative plot. Word Count: 2,103 Bibliography 1. Stillinger/Lynch, The Romantic Period, Ed. By M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature: eighth edition, volume 2 (New York; London: W. W. Norton, 2005) 2. Coffin, Tristram P. Coleridges Use of the Ballad Stanza in The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner, Modern Language Quarterly 1951 12(4):437-445; DOI:10.1215/00267929-12-4-437 3. Taniuchi, Ritsuko, The Moonlight Eve of St. Agnes

27 28

Ibid, ls 111-116 Ibid, ls 288, 290