1

Computer Networks And Internet Applications

SUBMITTED BY:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to thank and acknowledge several individuals without whom this project could not have been carried through.

I am thankful to the management of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) for giving me this wonderful opportunity of working with them for these 8 weeks. It has been the most enriching experience.

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to all my guides and mentors who made it possible for me to complete this submission. I would like to thank Shri Rajnikanth, DGM IT Communication and my guide Shri Manish Kumar Srivastava, Manager, IT Communication, without whose guidance this submission would not have been possible.

I would also like to acknowledge the teachers, staff and my fellow friends of IGIT (Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology) who encouraged me during the course of the project and helped me make it a success.

Lastly I take this opportunity to thank my co-trainees who have been kind supports throughout.

ABOUT YOUR GUIDE

Mr. Manish Kumar Srivastava, Manager, IT Communication, NTPC has guided us throughout our project on computer networks and internet applications. His vast knowledge about the subject and his experience in the same field over a decade proved to be highly fruitful for us. He not only guided us through every detail of the project but also helped us observe things practically. His qualifications include BE, MS, MBA. He also holds international certification in the following areas: MCP (Microsoft Certified Professional) MCSE (Microsoft Certified System Engineer) CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate) CEH (Certified Ethical Hacker) CWNA ( Certified Wireless Network Administrator) DCCA (APC Certified Associate for Data Centre) CPMA (Certified Project Management Associate) PMP ( Project Management Professional) Certified in Carbon Emission & Trading He is also a member of the following Special Interest Group ( SIG ) of TERI-NASSCOM BCSD For Corporate Action Plan on Climate Change: IT as Game Changer

BITS Alumni Association IETE (Institution of Electronic and Telecommunication

Engineers) IE (Institution of Engineers)

Contents
Section 1
1.

Chapter 1

Evolution of networking

2.

Chapter 2

The 7 layers of OSI model CSMA/CD

3.

Chapter 3

LAN devices

Ethernet Hub Switch

4.

Chapter 4

Extension of LAN

Repeater Bridge

5.

Chapter 5

6.

Broadcast domain Collision domain VLAN Subnetting

Chapter 6

Structured Cabling

7.

Chapter 7

Addressing Scheme

8.

Chapter 8

Classical examples of Local Area Networks Classical examples showing broadcast domain and collision domain in various networks

Section 2

1.

Chapter 1

WAN History E1 & T1

2.

Chapter 2

Signalling Antenna gain Link budget calculation Antenna Polarisation Line of sight

3.

Chapter 3

Modem Leased lines VSAT

4.

Chapter 4

Router

Routing Protocol

General terms To begin our project on Computer networks and internet applications, there are certain terms and their definitions which we must know. 1). Amplifier An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current or power of the analog signal. An amplifier amplifies everything equally fed into it. Thus we can say that in an amplifier signals are restrengthened which unfortunately also amplifies the noise along with the information. 2). Repeater In contrast to an amplifier a repeater is an electronic device that does not amplify the signal, it regenerates the signal. It receives digital signal and regenerates the signal along the next leg of the medium. Repeaters need to be placed rather frequently at 2000 to 6000 meters intervals. This is because of the fact that digital signals

tend to dissipate more quickly than analog signals and need more frequent repeating.

3). Baseband channel A channel is defined to be baseband when the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single signal. Bi-directional transmission is possible in a baseband channel but no frequency division multiplexing can be performed. Digital signals travel in this media and they can travel only for short distances.

4). Broadband channel A channel is defined to be broadband when there are many signals which can be sent on multiple frequencies. This allows multiple signals to be sent simultaneously. Uni-directional transmission is only possible in this channel and also this channel can be multiplexed using frequency division multiplexing technique. Analog signals travel in this media and they can travel over long distances before being attenuated. 5). TDMA (Time division multiple access) In this each user in the channel owns the channel bandwidth for some time in a round robin fashion. Each user is allocated the complete channel but only for a fixed interval of time.

In TDMA users transmit information over the channel in rapid succession one after the other each using his own time slot. All GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) handsets use TDMA. 6). FDMA ( Frequency division multiple access) In this many users are allowed to transmit through the same channel at the same time. They use part of the bandwidth. In FDMA users are sharing the same channel, multiple access to the same channel. Individual frequencies are allocated for each communication signal within the band. All CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) handsets use FDMA technology. 7). Synchronous communication Synchronous communication is direct communication where the communicators are time synchronised. This means that all parties involved in the communication are present at the same time. To establish this type of communication we need to

synchronise all the devices present in our network before the communication begins. Example:
Equipment Modem

SERVER

Modem

Equipment

10

To

establish

communication

between

one

equipment

at

transmitters end and the other equipment at receivers end clock pulses are sent which synchronise all the devices present in the network. Only once all the devices are synchronised with one another communication can take place. This process of complete synchronisation may take a long time but once synchronised this setup can be used as a very efficient and reliable means of communication. 8). Asynchronous communication Asynchronous communication on the contrary does not require all parties involved in the communication to be present at the same time. To establish this type of communication we do not need any prior synchronisation between the devices present in the network. The devices which need to communicate are connected or synchronised only when there is communication. Example: the dial up internet. Whenever a device needs to connect to the internet, it dials up to the server and thus we say it is synchronised with the server at that instant to establish a link for communication.

11

Chapter 1 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING: The history of evolution of networking goes way back to 1960s when there was a cold war going on between USA and USSR. In such war like conditions prevention of leaking out of information was of prime concern. In those times information was transferred from one computer to another through very large sized floppy disks. The major problem which erupted in this type of

communication was DATA HACKING. These floppy disks were very vulnerable to data hacking and thus to find a solution to this problem which could pose a threat to the nations security an agency was formed which was named ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network). After a lot of study and research ARPANET came out with the following recommendations :
1)

NIC CARDS :

12

The first recommendation by this agency was to design NIC Cards (Network Interface Cards) which would be used to transfer data from one computer to another.

Figure 1: NIC card

The basic block diagram of a NIC card :

13

Figure 2: B lock diagram of NIC card

From this block diagram arises a question that why do we need a memory in the NIC card? The answer to this question is the fact that the speed of processing of a C.P.U is much greater than the speed at which data input occurs. Thus we need a device that stores the information for some time i.e act like a buffer. But due to this memory device the problem of latency evolved in the NIC cards.
2)

The second recommendation was that the communication channel should be baseband as it is immune to hacking.

Thus

according

to

ARPANET

two

computers

should

be

connected through their NIC cards if they wish to communicate.

14

Figure 3

15

But this system of communication failed. According to the above mentioned recommendations a machine would need a separate NIC card for every other machine with which it needs to communicate.

Figure 4

For example if a network comprises of 100 computers then we would require nCr i.e n*(n-1)/2 = 100*(99)/2 = 4950 NIC cards.

16

Thus as the number of machines in a network would increase, the number of NIC cards required would also increase. And handling and using such a large number of these cards lead to the failure of this agency.

To solve these problems DARPANET was formed. The U.S government had announced that whoever would provide a solution to the above mentioned problem would be given a PhD degree for the same. Bob Metcalfe, a graduate student worked on the ARAPNET at MIT. In a time span of less than 8 months he came up with a new technology, called Ethernet, for connecting computers in a local network.

Figure5

Once at a press conference someone asked Bob MetCalfe what is the channel between the terminators where we connect the computers made of? What is flowing in the channel? To this he replied that ether is flowing in the channel. And thus his new

17

technology was named as ETHERNET. Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3.

Figure 5: ethernet

Bob

Metcalfe

developed

channel

by

connecting

terminators at both the ends and suggested to connect computers through their NIC cards in this channel. He later sold his idea to a company 3COM which stands for computers, communication and compatibility. Bob Metcalfe truly provided a break through and is thus always remembered as the father of Ethernet. Many modifications have been made thereafter. There are four cabling standards as per 802.3, each one has evolved over the time for their special advantages. The four types of cables are, 1. 10Base5 2. 10Base2 3. 10Base-T 4. 10Base-F

18

Note: Initially only 10Base5 and 10Base2 were used. 10Base-T and 10Base-F came into usage only after the invention of hub and switch. These technologies are included here only for the sake of comparison and clear understanding. The table below compares all four types of cables: Maximum number ent 100 Long cable length of Advantag Nodes/Segm es

Technic Cable/Wi al Name re type

Max. Segment/wi re Length

10Base5

Thick coaxial RG58

500 meters

10Base2 (thin) coaxial Twisted 10BaseT pair wire) (like telephone

185 meters

30

Low cost

100 meters

1024

Easy maintain

to

No 10BaseF Fiber-optic 2,000 meters 1024 e

noise

interferenc

The 10 in the technical name refer to data speed of 10Mbits/sec, base refers to the baseband channel and the character following it refers to the specific characterstics of

19

the channel. For example in 10base5 5 refers to the length of the channel which is 500 meters.

Figure 7

20

Chapter 2: The 7 Layers of the OSI Model The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It divides network communication into seven layers. Layers 1-4 are considered the lower layers, and mostly concern themselves with moving data around. Layers 5-7, the upper layers, contain applicationlevel data. Networks operate on one basic principle: "pass it on." Each layer takes care of a very specific job, and then passes the data onto the next layer. The specific description for each layer is as follows:

Layer 7: Application Layer It defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in network. This layer is basically what the user sees and understands. Everything at this layer is applicationspecific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level.

21

For example it includes clicking on the e symbol for internet explorer.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer In this layer the data gets converted to low level machine language i.e into a language that the computer can understand. For example when we type in www.rediff.com the computer does not understand this. So it is this layer which converts the site that we type in into a language that the machine can understand. Thus we can see that this layer encodes and decodes data or compresses and decompresses data.

Layer 5: Session Layer We can open e any number of times. That implies that we can have different number of presentation layers but only one session layer.

Layer 4: Transport Layer This layer manages end-to-end message delivery in network. It ensures complete data transfer.The information above this layer travels in packets, this layer breaks the packets and this process is called as FRAGMENTATION.

22

Layer 3: Network Layer

This layer determines how data are transferred between network devices. It as routes well packets as according to unique network error device

addresses. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, addressing, internetworking, handling, congestion control and packet sequencing. This layer tells us how to transfer the data to the main server. Now the packet is known as datagram and is about to move.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. This layer defines procedures for operating the communication links. Now the data is send as frames. It is now just about to move to the cables. Also in this layer footers are also are added along with headers. This layer also has a FCS-frame check sequence.

Layer 1: Physical Layer This layer defines physical means of sending data over network devices

23

Interfaces between network medium and devices It includes the physical means to send the data like through cables.As data travels through each layer a header is added to it so as to ensure that the data has successfully travelled through all the layers.

Fi gure 6

These layers present in the OSI model show us how packets of data are passed from one machine to another. Now we move

24

over to study how these data packets when sent through a channel can travel without any collisions. And if any collisions occur then how to solve the problem. The main motive is to establish a proper and error free communication with least latency possible.

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), in computer networking, is a network control protocol in which the terms have the following meaning: Carrier Sense means that every Ethernet device listens to the Ethernet media/channel before it attempts to transmit. If the Ethernet device senses that another device is transmitting, it will wait to transmit. Multiple Access means contention i.e. more than one

Ethernet device can be sensing (listening and waiting to transmit) at a time. Collision Detection means that when multiple Ethernet devices accidentally transmit at the same time collision occurs, and this protocol helps each device making use of a random back off scheme. CSMA/CD is actually a combination of two things: CSMA A protocol which helps in preventing any collision and CD A

25

protocol which helps us when a collision has occurred. Thus we now study them separately. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) has three types:
o o o

1 persistent CSMA P persistent CSMA non-persistent CSMA

1)1-persistent CSMA 1-persistent CSMA Protocol: 1. If the medium is idle, transmit immediately 2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium becomes idle, and then transmit immediately Too selfish: there will always be a collision if two stations want to retransmit P=1 2)p-Persistent CSMA p-Persistent CSMA Protocol: 1. If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay for one time unit with probability (1 - p) (time unit = length idle, of propagation go to delay) Step 1

2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium becomes then

26

3. If transmission is delayed by one time unit, continue with Step 1 Can be a good trade-off between non-persistent and 1persistent CSMA

3) Non-Persistent CSMA Non-Persistent CSMA Protocol: 1. If the medium is idle, transmit immediately

2. If the medium is busy, wait a random amount of time and repeat Step 1 Random back-off reduces probability of collisions Wasted idle time if the back-off time is too long May result in long access delays CSMA helps us prevent any collision but if a collision occurs then we move over to CSMA/CD. Collision detection is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is detected, and reducing the probability of a second collision on retry.

Time : Nth second

27

Fig no (a) being transmitted

the media is busy and packets of data are

Time : N + Qth second

Fig no (b)
Time : N+Q + p th secon d

the media is now free

Fig no (c) any packet of information.

the machine now waits for a pre before sending

determined amount of time ( p seconds)

Fig no (d)

the packet of information is now sent.

CSMA has an inefficiency:

o

If a collision has occurred, the channel is unstable until colliding packets have been fully transmitted

CSMA/CD overcomes this as follows:

28

While transmitting, the sender is listening to medium for collisions. Sender stops if collision has occurred

Note:
o o

CSMA: Listen Before Talking CSMA/CD: Listen While Talking

Generic CSMA/CD Protocol:

o

Use one of the CDMA persistence algorithm (nonpersistent, transmission 1-persistent, p-persistent) for

If a collision is detected during transmission, cease transmission and transmit a jam signal to notify other stations of collision After sending the jam signal, back off for a random amount of time, then start to transmit again

29

Chapter 3: LAN DEVICES ETHERNET HUB Intel Corporation, Hp, &digital Equipment Corporation these companies started to make different networking devices for easy communication. 1st device was HUB. The general meaning of hub is a center of circle. A network hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and thus making them act as a single network segment. Essentially, a hub simply receives incoming packets, possibly amplifies the electrical signal, and broadcasts these packets out to all devices on the network - including the one that originally sent the packet. Hub is a single bus device. All the computers are connected to hub in star topology. Hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pairs. The device is thus a form of multiport repeater

30

Hubs works at 1st layer of OSI MODEL i.e. physical layer which comprises the basic hardware transmission technology. Computers are connected to Hubs by UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cables. These cables are used because UTP cables are highly sensitive to noise, and twisted pairs nullify the noise which is induced over the cables. This is a four port hub:

Figure 7

31

This

is

block

diagram

of

Ethernet

hub.

Figure 8: Block diagram of HUB Ethernet hub uses a single bus to transmit or receive the data, so a finite delay comes out while communication. As we connect a 10 mbps hub from 10 ports. So each port will have the speed of 1 mbps then it is further connected to other hub of 10 mbps. In which again there are 10 ports, then the speed when communication in between local pcs is of speed 1 mbps and if communication in b/w

32

Hub 1

1mbps

Hub 2

1/9mbps

other network it will be of 1/9 mbps. This problem is called latency. Some hubs have special (and generally manufacturer specific) stack ports allowing them to be combined in a way that allows more hubs than simple chaining through Ethernet cables. There were certain problems associated with the hub which led to the development of a SWITCH. The problems associated with a hub included the following: Latency Speed

These problems are overcome in a switch effectively. A hub is inexpensive compared to a switch but its disadvantage is that it broadcast all signals i.e. data is going to all the

33

computers one by one which is the reason for the slow speed of the network. A hub allows all machines to send packets to every machine connected and waits for the required machine to reply in the network. This is because there is only one transceiver chip and only 1 buffer for each port. This causes delays. A network switch is more efficient. It remembers which machines are connected to each port, so it passes any transmission straight to the correct port. This reduces collisions on the network when it is busy and is also much faster. This is possible because each port has its separate transceiver chip and a separate buffer. Thus came the SWITCH :

34

switch

s a multi bus device which has the following block diagram:

Figure 9

For each port in a switch there is a separate transceiver chip. Also there is a separate buffer for each port. As a result of which the speed is not divided. Therefore a switch is much faster than a hub.

35

A switch

Switches can figure out the source, the contents of the data, and identify the destination of the packets sent. Because of this uniqueness; it sends the data to the relevant connected system only, thereby using less bandwidth at high speed. Switches are used to connect the various computers together and provide a network. Switches can communicate through different methods such as packet switching. Packet switching includes matrix switching which can consist of a 8x8 matrix and each port can thus easily communicate with the other ports. We can have different switch ports depending on our requirement. Thus we can have a 24 port switch, or a 48 port switch or a 96 port switch etc.

36

Rack-mounted 24-port 3Com switch

A 48-port switch

A switch uses either of the two technologies to broadcast data : store and forward technology or cut through technology. In store and forward technology the switch first stores the data in a buffer, performs an error checking operation and then if the information is error free it transmits or in other words forwards it. In cut through technology the switch does not store data. It just receives data and transmits it as it is.

37

A rack contains all the switches together which then form the required network.

A rack-mounted switch with network cables

There are a lot of companies wich manufacture switches .these include Cisco, Nortel, Bay Networks, Juniper etc. Out of these the two major companies which manufacture switches are NORTEL and Cisco which dominate 93% of the market share.

38

Chapter 4 EXTENTION OF LOCAL AREA NETWORK: If we have to extend the local area network then we use repeater. REPEATER: repeater is a device which receives data and retransmits it to other network to which it is connected. so that network can cover longer distance. repeater is a relay one state device that means it is a 1st layer device. But repeater has a drawback that it forwards traffic also .In a repeater only two lans can be connected. In repeater data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades.this distance is about 500m.

39

BRIDGE A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two segments. Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward or discard it. An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC addresses, and sometimes the frame size - in making individual forwarding decisions.

40

Bridges serve a similar function as switches, that also operate at Layer 2. Traditional bridges, though, support one network boundary, whereas switches usually offer four or more hardware ports. Switches are sometimes called "multi-port bridges" for this reason. A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets. Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular networks. Bridging occurs at the data link layer of the OSI model, which means the bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost hardware address of the packet. In our case the bridge can read the ethernet data which gives the hardware address of the destination address, not the IP address. Bridges forward all broadcast messages. The Bridge when in operation works in two states Bridge is learning : the bridge studies or learns about the various devices which are present in its networks and makes a table carrying information about the networks and their computers. Bridge is forwarding: once the bridge has learned about all its networks components it now can send the packets of data to the desired destination directly. Let us explain this with an example.

41

In the figure let us name the Corporate LAN Segment as network N 1 and the Manufacturing segment as network N 2. When the bridge is learning it forms table carrying information about all the networks and the machines in that network.

Network 1 ( N1) Machine A Machine B

Network 2 ( N2) Machine M Machine N

Once the bridge forms this table, it has a complete idea about the scenario and thus we say that the bridge has learned and is ready to forward.

42

Thus now when the bridge is forwarding, data is sent from machine A in network N1 to machine N in network N2 directly. There is no need to involve other machines present in the network. Chapter 5: BROADCAST DOMAIN: A broadcast domain is any logical division of the network in which all devices can reach each other by broadcast on the data-link layer. A broadcast domain can be on the same lan or routed to another broadcast domain. This is typical to a switched environment. I.e. A broadcast domain is a logical part of a network (a network segment) in which any network equipment can transmit data directly to another equipment or device without going through a routing device. When we have to transmit data from one pc to another pc in a switch, Frames are normally addressed to a specific destination device on the network. While all devices detect the frame transmission on the network, only the device to which the frame is addressed actually receives it. So the network segment in which packet gets transferred is called broadcast domain. Broadcast domain limitations: Any computer connected to the same Ethernet repeater or switch is a member of the same broadcast domain. Further, any computer connected to the same set of inter-connected switches/repeaters is a member of the same broadcast domain. Broadcast domains can be started at several protocol layers,

43

therefore the broadcast domain as a whole can be within a single LAN segment but it can be routed over other segments as well.

Broadcast address: Broadcast address is the IP address of destination device on the network. A special broadcast address consisting of all 1s is used to send frames to all devices on the network. In a single local area network there is only one broadcast domain.

COLLISION DOMAIN A collision domain is one of the logical network segments in which the data packets can collide to each other. A collision occurs when two or more network devices are trying to transmit packets at the exact same time. .Devices "listen" on the network and detect whether something is already transmitting on the bus, via voltage changes on the wire. When a device is no longer transmitting, if others are waiting to transmit, they will all try to transmit at the same time, thus creating a collision. Devices attached to a hub are in a collision domain as shown in fig:

44

The

figure

shows

two

repeater

hubs

connecting

three

computers. Since only repeater connections are used between segments in this network, all of the segments and computers are in the same collision domain. Switches creates separate collision domains as shown fig:

In this figure, Instead of propagating collision signals between Ethernet segments, packet switches interrupt the collision domain and allow the Ethernets they link to operate independently. VLAN A Virtual LAN is commonly known as Vlan. A vlan is a group of hosts on a switch which can communicate to each other but they cannot communicate to other hosts which are connected to that switch but not in same vlan.i.e vlans are created to

45

provide segmentation services. We can say that Vlan is a local area network that extends to a group of LAN segments. The hosts connected to a VLAN can communicate with each other locally but they cant communicate with the host of other VLAN. By default all ports of a switch are in a VLAN1. VLAN is a logical entity so, its creation and configuration all is done in software. The VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) technology can also create a so-called "virtual" broadcast domain. A network built with switching devices could see each network devices as an independent system. These groups of independent systems can be joined into one broadcast domain, even if the computers are not physically connected to each other. This is very useful when administrating large networks where there's the need for better network management and control.

In other words A VLAN is a virtual LAN. In technical terms, a VLAN is a broadcast domain created by switches. Normally, it is a router creating that broadcast domain. With VLANs, a switch can create the broadcast domain. Because switches can talk to each other, some ports on switch A can be in VLAN 10 and other ports on switch B can be in VLAN 10. Broadcasts between these devices will not be seen on any other port in any other VLAN, other than 10. However, these devices can all communicate because they are on the same VLAN. Without additional configuration, they would not be able to communicate with any other devices, not in their VLAN.

46

VLAN ID: A unique number between 1 and 4094 that identifies a particular VLAN, is called VLAN id. In Ethernet networks VLANs are used with frame tagging. In which when a packet is transferred to any port, the frame is tagged by an individual VLAN ID. Range of vLAN id: For 4-port, 8-port, and 12-port Fast Ethernet PICs, and for management and internal Ethernet interfaces, 1 through 1023.

47

For 48-port Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet PICs, 1 through 4094. VLAN ID 0 is reserved for tagging the priority of frames.

Why use VLAN's? VLAN's offer a number of advantages over traditional LAN's. Local Area Networks are defined as a single broadcast domain. This means that if a user broadcasts information on his/her LAN, the broadcast will be received by every other user on the LAN. Broadcasts are prevented from leaving a LAN by using a router. The disadvantage of this method is routers usually take more time to process incoming data compared to a bridge or a switch. More importantly, the formation of broadcast domains depends on the physical connection of the devices in the network. Virtual Local Area Networks (VLAN's) were developed as an alternative solution to using routers to contain broadcast traffic.

Performance In networks where traffic consists of a high percentage of broadcasts and multicasts, VLAN's can reduce the need to send such traffic to unnecessary destinations. For example, in a broadcast domain consisting of 10 users, if the broadcast traffic

48

is intended only for 5 of the users, then placing those 5 users on a separate VLAN can reduce traffic .. Reduced Cost VLAN's can be used to create broadcast domains which eliminate the need for expensive routers.

Security Periodically, sensitive data may be broadcast on a network. In such cases, placing only those users who can have access to that data on a VLAN can reduce the chances of an outsider gaining access to the data. VLAN's can also be used to control broadcast domains, set up firewalls, restrict access, and inform the network manager of an intrusion USAGE you dont have to configure a VLAN until your network gets so large and has so much traffic that you need one. VLANs are enabled by default and ALL devices are already in a VLAN. The VLAN that all devices are already in is VLAN 1. So, by default, you can just use all the ports on a switch and all devices will be able to talk to one another.

TRUNK PORT

49

When there is a link between two switches or a router and a switch that carries the traffic of more than one VLAN, that port is a trunk port. Trunk Link All the devices connected to a trunk link, including

workstations, must be VLAN-aware. All frames on a trunk link must have a special header attached. These special frames are called tagged frames

Port-based VLANs With port-based VLAN membership, the port is assigned to a specific VLAN independent of the user or system attached to the port. This means all users attached to the port should be members of the same VLAN. The network administrator typically performs the VLAN assignment. The port configuration is static and cannot be automatically changed to another VLAN without manual reconfiguration.

50

As with other VLAN approaches, the packets forwarded using this method do not leak into other VLAN domains on the network. After a port has been assigned to a VLAN, the port cannot send to or receive from devices in another VLAN without the intervention of a Layer 3 device. The device that is attached to the port likely has no understanding that a VLAN exists. The device simply knows that it is a member of a subnet and that the device should be able to talk to all other members of the subnet by simply sending information to the cable segment. The switch is responsible for identifying that the information came from a specific VLAN and for ensuring that the information gets to all other members of the VLAN. The switch is further responsible for ensuring that ports in a different VLAN do not receive the information. Port-based VLANs require that specific ports on a network switch be assigned to a VLAN. For example, ports 1 through 8 might be assigned to marketing, ports 9 through 18 might be assigned to sales, and so on. Using this method, a switch determines VLAN membership by taking note of the port used by a particular packet.

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Protocol based vlan: With protocol-based VLAN membership, computers are

assigned to VLANs by using the protocol that is in use and the Layer 3 address It is important to note that although VLAN membership might be based on Layer 3 information, this has nothing to do with routing or routing functions. The IP numbers are used only to determine the membership in a particular VLAN not to determine routing. a protocol based VLAN enabled switch, traffic is forwarded through ports based on protocol. Essentially user tries to segregate or forward a particular protocol traffic from a port using the protocol based VLANs, traffic from any other protocol is not forwarded on the port. For example, if you have connected a host, pumping ARP traffic on the switch at port 10, connected a Lan pumping IPX traffic to the port 20 of the switch and connected a router pumping IP traffic on port 30. then if you define a protocol based VLAN supporting IP and including all the three ports 10, 20 and 30 then IP packets can be forwarded to the ports 10 and 20 also , but ARP traffic will not

52

get forwarded to the ports 20 and 30, similarly IPX traffic will not get forwarded to ports 10 and 30.

SUBNETTING AN IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 140.179.220.200 It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 140 .179 .220 .200 10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000 Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node. The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs to the node address. Address Classes

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There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address.

Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal. Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal. Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal. Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal. Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal.

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local machine; [pinging 127.0.0.1, which points to the pc itself]. Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting; Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses. Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N, in blue) and which part belongs to the node (n, in red).

Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn

In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a Class B address so by default the Network part of the address (also known as the Network Address) is defined by the first two octets (140.179.x.x) and the node part is defined by the last 2 octets (x.x.220.200). In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the node section is set to all "0"s. In our example, 140.179.0.0 specifies the network address for 140.179.220.200. When the node section is set to all "1"s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network. 140.179.255.255 specifies the example broadcast address. Note that this is true regardless of the length of the node section.

54

Private Subnets There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0, Subnet Mask 255.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, Subnet Mask 255.240.0.0, and 192.168.0.0, Subnet Mask 255.255.0.0. These addresses are also notated 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers on the Internet by default will never forward packets coming from these addresses. These addresses are defined in RFC 1918.

Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including organization, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.), preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to control network traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all the packets transmitted by all the other nodes on that segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads, due to collisions and the resulting retransmissions. A router is used to connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive. Subnet Masking Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing a bitwise logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network Address or Number. For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we get: 10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 Class B IP Address 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 Default Class B Subnet Mask 140.179.240.200 255.255.000.000

55

-------------------------------------------------------10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 Network Address Default subnet masks:

140.179.000.000

Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 11111111.11111111.00000000.0000000 0 Class C - 255.255.255.0 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000 000

Additional bits can be added to the default subnet mask for a given Class to further subnet, or break down, a network. When a bitwise logical AND operation is performed between the subnet mask and IP address, the result defines the Subnet Address (also called the Network Address or Network Number). There are some restrictions on the subnet address. Node addresses of all "0"s and all "1"s are reserved for specifying the local network (when a host does not know its network address) and all hosts on the network (broadcast address), respectively. This also applies to subnets. A subnet address cannot be all "0"s or all "1"s. This also implies that a 1 bit subnet mask is not allowed. This restriction is required because older standards enforced this restriction. Recent standards that allow use of these subnets have superseded these standards, but many "legacy" devices do not support the newer standards. If you are operating in a controlled environment, such as a lab, you can safely use these restricted subnets. To calculate the number of subnets or nodes, use the formula (2n-2) where n = number of bits in either field, and 2n represents 2 raised to the nth power. Multiplying the number of subnets by the number of nodes available per subnet gives you the total number of nodes available for your class and

56

subnet mask. Also, note that although subnet masks with noncontiguous mask bits are allowed, they are not recommended. Example of Class C IP Address Subnetting Subnetting varies in difficulty, depending on which class you are subnetting. More often than not, you will need to create a subnet for a class C network. A class C network allows for many networks to be created, but not as many hosts. In fact, you can create a hefty 2,097,152 networks- but only 254 hosts per network are allowed. Lets say we are subnetting a schools network. We need 5 separate networks that have 30 computers on each subnet. First we calculate how many usable subnets we need. Next we will need to determine how many hosts are required. Both of these values can be calculated with the following equations: Two Important Equations to Remember:

1. Usable Subnets = (2^n) 2 , where N = power of bits assigned 2. Usable Hosts = (2^n) 2 , where N = power of bits remaining

Lets start with usable subnets. Review the diagram below for a visual example.

57

If you are wondering what the -2 part of the equation is for, this is how we account for the two addresses in each subnet we cant use. We will review what these addresses are for more specifically later on. For now, lets find out what our usable hosts are!

Whats my subnet mask? Getting your subnet mask at this point is incredibly easy. Simply take all of your network bits, and add them up. Look at the diagram below for a visual guide.

Keep in mind that every computer must have the subnet mask set in order for them to be on the same network. Also note that since we are using a class C network, the first three octets will always be 255. When subnetting other classes, be sure to keep the network portions in mind.

Example:

58

10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000 IP Address 11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000 Subnet Mask -------------------------------------------------------10001100.10110011.11000000.00000000 Subnet Address 10001100.10110011.11011111.11111111 Broadcast Address

140.179.220.200 255.255.224.000 140.179.192.000 140.179.223.255

In this example a 3 bit subnet mask was used. There are 6 (23-2) subnets available with this size mask (remember that subnets with all 0's and all 1's are not allowed). Each subnet has 8190 (213-2) nodes. Each subnet can have nodes assigned to any address between the Subnet address and the Broadcast address. This gives a total of 49,140 nodes for the entire class B address subnetted this way. Notice that this is less than the 65,534 nodes an unsubnetted class B address would have. You can calculate the Subnet Address by performing a bitwise logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask, then setting all the host bits to 0s. Similarly, you can calculate the Broadcast Address for a subnet by performing the same logical AND between the IP address and the subnet mask, then setting all the host bits to 1s. That is how these numbers are derived in the example above. Subnetting always reduces the number of possible nodes for a given network.

Chapter 6: STRUCTURED CABLE UTP(unshielded twisted pair) cable is used to connect

networking devices. UTP cable has four twisted pairs.these are twisted because in twisted pairs noise is in opposite direction to each other so it nulify the noise.UTP cables are highly sensitive to noise. No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be

59

untwisted otherwise it will be susceptible to crosstalk. Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components. UTP cables are of two types: Straight-Through Ethernet Cable Crossover Ethernet Cable Straight-Through Ethernet Cable: Straight cable is used to connect two dissimilar devices as switch to pc,hub to pc etc. Both the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used most often as patch cords for your Ethernet connections. A straight-thru cable has identical ends. Colour coading for Straight-Through Ethernet Cable is shown in dis fig:1.1

60

The TIA/EIA 568-A standard which was ratified in 1995, was replaced by the TIA/EIA 568-B standard in 2002 and has been updated since. Both standards define the T-568A and T-568B pin-outs for using Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and RJ-45 connectors for Ethernet connectivity.

Crossover Ethernet Cable: Crossover Ethernet cable is usedto connect similar devices as computer to computer and switch to switch etc. If we require a cable to connect two Ethernet devices directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, we will need to use a Crossover cable . A crossover cable has different ends. Colour coading for crossover Ethernet cable is shown in fig 1.2 below:

61

we can more easily understand the colour coading of both the UTP cables the dig. Shown below in fig1.3:

By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable with a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding RX (receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. Ethernet Cable Instructions:

62

These are some instruction for cabling the network: Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. If you are pulling cables through holes, its easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a PC and a hub or between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet) for 100BASE-TX and 300 Meters for 10BASE-T. Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using a stripper or a knife. Be extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you will need to start over. Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end. Flatten the end between the thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so they are even with one another, leaving only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure there are no spaces between wires. Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away. Push the wires firmly into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Check the order of the wires. Double check again. Check that the jacket is fitted right against the stop of the plug. Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 with the crimper. Check the colours orientation, check that the crimped connection is not about to come apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If even one of these are incorrect, you will have to start over. Test the Ethernet cable.

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Comprehensive diagram In this diagram there is a computer which is first connected to a I/O port by a patch cable. I/O port is connected by UTP cable to patch panel and patch panel is connected to switch, thus a computer is connected to a network.

64

Patch panel

switch

rack

Chapter7 : TCP / IP Transmission Control Protocol

65

TCP

UDP IP

TCP is a transmission control protocol. In the OSI model when data is transferred and it comes to layer 4 then it decides the protocol. Either TCP/IP or UDP/IP is used. TCP is just like a transporter which transports the packet to a certain address that is IP address. On this layer packet is fragmented and each fragment is labelled by a sequence number. On the destination it is not compulsory that all packets will reach in sequence. After layer 4th packets are loaded on IP layer. Layer 5 puts the destination address & source address on each frame. When these packets reach to destination, these are arranged and then displayed. UDP is a user data gram protocol. UDP is reliable protocol because it gives acknowledgment when a packet is reached to the destination. UDP is not used in voice transfer. In UDP when one packet is reached, destination sends an acknowledgment.

P1, P2 source destination When one packet is delivered source starts to send more packets at a time. This limit is called window size which is considered by k/7. Ack1, Ack2

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ADDRESSING SCHEME : IP Address An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device on an IP network. The address is made up of 32 binary bits which can be divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot). For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100). The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 - 11111111 binary. Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit, of an octet holds a value of 20. The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 21. This continues until the left-most bit, or most significant bit, which holds a value of 27. So if all binary bits are a one, the decimal equivalent would be 255 as shown here: 1 1 1 11111 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255) Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1. 0 1000001 0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)

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And this is sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal. 10. 1. 23. 19 (decimal)

00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary) These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate large and small networks. There are five different classes of networks, A to E. We focus on addressing classes A to C.

In a Class A address, the first octet is the network portion, so the Class A example in Figure 1 has a major network address of

68

1.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255. Octets 2, 3, and 4 (the next 24 bits) are for the network manager to divide into subnets and hosts as he/she sees fit. Class A addresses are used for networks that have more than 65,536 hosts (actually, up to 16777214 hosts!). In a Class B address, the first two octets are the network portion, so the Class B example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255. Octets 3 and 4 (16 bits) are for local subnets and hosts. Class B addresses are used for networks that have between 256 and 65534 hosts. In a Class C address, the first three octets are the network portion. The Class C example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 192.0.0.0 - 233.255.255.255. Octet 4 (8 bits) is for local subnets and hosts - perfect for networks with less than 254 hosts. Network Masks A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the network and which portion of the address identifies the node. Class A, B, and C networks have default masks, also known as natural masks, as shown here: Class A: 255.0.0.0 Class B: 255.255.0.0 Class C: 255.255.255.0 In IP Addresses there is a defined range of address which are private and the rest of the IP Addresses are public and are free for use.

69

The private range of IP Addresses is 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255 169.254.255.255 172.31.255.255 192.168.255.255

169.254.0.0 through 172.16.0.0 through

192.168.0.0 through

Chapter 8: Classical examples of LAN Networks:

1.

There is an engineering college. They have to computerize their system. There are 70 pcs in C.S.department & servers.12 pcs in me department,30 pcs in E.C.Department &15 pc are in biotech department. But 50% pc are stand alone type. Draw the network diagram

70

Solution

71

There is a company of colored papers .A building has 22 floors. its 21 floor is for chairman and director, on this floor there are 23 users, 7th floor is marketing department there are 40 users,6th floor is IT, administration and finance department there are 102 users and 1st floor is reception and production department there are 12 users. Draw the network diagram and write down used inventory also. Solution:
2.

72

Classical examples showing the broadcast domain and collision domain of various LAN devices

The question here is How many broadcast domain and collision domains do these networks contain?

Q.1

Q.2

Q.3

73

Q.4

Q.5

74

75

Section2: Chapter1 WAN: Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area .WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. In wide area network routers are used to connect different networks which are in different locations so broadcast domain is devided. In a wide area network communication depends on IP address. History Going back into history one of the first media for transferring information were low grade UTP cable. AT & T had just used these cables for communication. These cables could very well support voice transmission and thus even today telephones are brought to our homes through these cables. The only limitation with these cables was that they could transmit data only up to a frequency of 4000 Hz. With the evolution of INTERNET these cables no longer could be used as they did not have sufficient properties to help transmit data along with voice. Thus there was a need to develop a new technology. But instead of changing the entire set up of these cables which were spread all over the world, convertors were used.

76

Diagram:

computer

D/A converter

A/D converter

Modems were used at transmitting and receiving end to convert digital to analog signal and analog to digital signal respectively. Thus the same UTP cables used along with A/D convertor modems helped us achieve greater levels of communication. Mathematical derivation To send any continuous signal over a channel we have to do its slicing which in technical terms is known as Sampling. This process of sampling has to be done in such a way that all the information is retained. The number of samples required so as to retain all the information sent across a channel of 4000 Hz is given by N N = 2* f (max) = 2 * 4000

77

= 8000 samples The number of bits required to represent a signal is 7 or 8. Thus we can show that 1 sample needs 8 bits 8000 samples need 8000 * 8 = 64000 or 64 Kbps This 64 Kbps channel is called the basic channel (DSO) 0 channel and similarly DS1 channel would be a 128 Kbps channel. These standards also have limitations. U.K has different standards and U.S has different standards. In U.K we have E1 standard and in U.S we have T1 standard. E1 An E1 link operates over two separate sets of wires, usually twisted pair cable. A nominal 3 Volt peak signal is encoded with pulses using a method that avoids long periods without polarity changes. The line data rate is 2.048 Mbit/s (full duplex, i.e. 2.048 Mbit/s downstream and 2.048 Mbit/s upstream) which is split into 32 timeslots, each being allocated 8 bits in turn. Thus each timeslot sends and receives an 8-bit sample 8000 times per second (8 x 8000 x 32 = 2,048,000). This is ideal for voice telephone calls where the voice is sampled into an 8 bit number at that data rate and reconstructed at the other end. The timeslots are numbered from 0 to 31. One timeslot (TS16) is often reserved for signaling purposes, to control call setup and teardown according to one of several standard telecommunications protocols

78

T1 Digital signal 1 (DS1, also known as T1, sometimes "DS-1") is a T-carrier signalling scheme devised by Bell Labs. A T1 circuit is made up of twenty-four 8-bit channels (also known as timeslots or DS0s), each channel being a 64 kbit/s DS0 multiplexed carrier circuit. A DS1 is also a full-duplex circuit, which means the circuit transmits and receives 1.544 Mbit/s concurrently. A total of 1.536 Mbit/s of bandwidth is achieved by sampling each of the twenty-four 8-bit DS0s 8000 times per second. In general, if we have to transmit 128 Kbps we would need two channels. But to send information simultaneously on these channels we would need a controlling channel (D) along with the basic channel (B). This can also be explained by the formula 2B+D. In general the 15/16th channel is only for controlling. It carries no information.

Chapter2: SIGNALING Signaling is the sending of a signal from the transmitting end of a circuit to inform a ANTENNA GAIN Antenna Gain relates the intensity of an antenna in a given direction to the intensity that would be produced by a

79

hypothetical ideal antenna that radiates equally in all directions (i.e isotropic antenna) and has no losses. Antenna gain is usually expressed in dBi. The unit of antenna gain is dBi. dbI means "Isotropic", a perfect point source. Antennas angles are specified by their half power point (3 dbi less than the specified max output). Now a +3dBi antenna means the power at the transmitting end of the antenna would be multiplied by 2 before signals transmission in the freznel zone and similalry -3dBi means the transmitting transmission. Basic dBi values using which all the calcuations are needed to be performed are: +3dBi = (power) * 2; -3dBi =(power) / 2; +10dBi = (power) * 10 and -10dBi = (power) / 10. power would be divided by 2 before the

dBm (sometimes dBmW) is an abbreviation for the power ratio in decibels (dB) of the measured power referenced to one milliwatt (mW). It is used in radio, microwave and fiber optic networks as a convenient measure of absolute power because of its capability to express both very large and very small values in a short form.

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CONVERSION OF POWER(mW) to power(dBm) Zero dBm equals one milliwatt. A 3 dB increase represents roughly doubling the power, which means that 3 dBm equals roughly 2 mW. For a 3 dB decrease, the power is reduced by about one half, making 3 dBm equal to about 0.5 milliwatt. To express an arbitrary power P as x dBm, or go in the other direction, the following equations may be used: x=10 log10(1000P) = 10 log10P + 30, and P= 10(x/10)/1000. where P is the power in W and x is the power ratio in dBm.

LINK BUDGET CALCULATION: A link budget is the accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter, through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication system. It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses.

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Let us consider an example for calculatio n of link budget. We want to estimate the feasibility of a 5km link, with one transmitting and one receiving antenna. The receiving antenna is having 20dBi gain. The transmitting power budget when path loss is 60dB. Solution: Transmitting power = 100mW is 100mW (or 20dBm) and its sensitivity is 0.001mW. Calculate the link

Power after the intentional point = 100 mW + 20dBi = 100mW + 10dBi + 10dBi = 100*10*10 = 10,000mW Path loss Therefore Receiver power = 90 dB = 10,000mW 90 dB

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= 10,000-10dB-10dB10dB-10dB-10dB-10dB =0.01mW Now, as the receiver power is 0.01mW which is greater than the receibver sensitivity, hence signal will be received without any deterioration.

System Operating Margin(SOM) System Operating Margin is the difference between the signal a radio is actually receiving vs. what it needs for good data recovery (i.e. receiver sensitivity). SOM = receiver signal level - receiver sensitivity

Antenna Polarization: The energy radiated by any antenna is contained in a transverse electromagnetic wave that is comprised of an electric and a magnetic field. These fields are always orthogonal to one another and orthogonal to the direction of propagation. The electric field of the electromagnetic wave is used to describe its polarization and hence, the polarization of the antenna. Wireless communication systems operate in environments that present a multitude of RF

83

propagation problems. In typical point to multi-point communication systems, linearly polarized antennas will be used at the base station and at the end user site. The antennas at the end user site may be used in fixed, mobile or portable applications. In many instances, these antennas may be oriented such that they are no longer physically aligned or parallel with the antenna at the base station. Any misalignment between antennas will result in a polarization mismatch and hence, some level of reduction in system efficiency. Mostly in wireless communication receiver antenna and transmitting antenna should be in direct line-of-sight (LOS) contact .If the transmit and receive sites are not in direct line-of-sight (LOS) contact and the majority of the signals arriving at the receive site are the multipath signals. The total signal received at the antenna will therefore be the vector summation of all of the multipath signals. Again, in these systems, receivediversity techniques are used to enhance system gain and improve signal reception. and electric field also should be parallel to antenna element.

3.0 POLARIZATION MISMATCH LOSS

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In order to transfer maximum energy or power between a transmit and a receive antenna, both antennas must have the same spatial orientation, the same polarization sense and the same axial ratio. When the antennas are not aligned or do not have the same polarization, there will be a reduction in energy or power transfer between the two antennas. This reduction in power transfer will reduce the overall system efficiency and performance. When the transmit and receive antennas are both linearly polarized, physical antenna misalignment will result in a polarization mismatch loss which can be determined using the following formula: Polarization Mismatch Loss (dB) = 20 log (cos q) where q is the misalignment angle between the two antennas. Table 1 illustrates some typical mismatch loss values for various misalignment angles.

Table 1. Polarization Mismatch Between Two Linearly Polarized Waves as a Function of Angular Orientation. Orientation Angle Polarization (dB) Mismatch

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0.0 (aligned) 15.0

0.0 0.3

30.0

1.25

45.0

3.01

60.0

6.02

75.0

11.74

90.0 (orthogonal)

infinite

One

of

the

common

misconceptions

regarding

polarization relates to the circumstance where one antenna in a transmit to receive circuit is circularly polarized and the other is linearly polarized. It is generally assumed that a 3 dB system loss will result because of the polarization difference between the two antennas. In fact, the polarization between these two antennas mismatch loss

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will only be 3 dB when the circularly polarized antenna has an axial ratio of 0 dB. The actual mismatch loss between a circularly polarized antenna and a linearly polarized antenna will vary depending upon the axial ratio of the circularly polarized antenna.

Polarization are of two types: Vertical polarization: Polarization when electric field is vertical is called vertical polarization. Vertical polarization is produced by a vertical dipole antenna. At an instant the top is positive voltage and the bottom is negative voltage - so the electric field produced is vertical, then antenna is vertically polarized.

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fig:this is verticaly polarized antenna Horizontal polarization: Polarization when electric field is horizontal is called horizontal polarization.

fig: Horizontal polarisation adjusted by -13 deg anticlockwise, while facing the satellite.

Line Of Sight: Line of sight is the region of space between transmitting and receiving antenna. As transmission occurs by sending and receiving signals, the most important prerequisite is the presence of free space. So there must be a clear LOS for transmission of signals without deterioration. Now consider a case wherein the free space available for transmission is occupied by a tree or building or any other

88

object. In such a case, the object will hamper the transmission and distort the signal. To avoid such a condition we use a suitable margin i.e a suitable receiver sensitivity so that no such distortion occurs.

Chapter3 Modems:

89

Modem

(from an

modulator-demodulator) analog carrier signal

is to

device

that digital

modulates

encode

information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio.

LEASED LINES: A permanent telephone connection between two points set up by a telecommunications common carrier. Typically, leased lines are used by businesses to connect geographically distant offices. Unlike normal dial-up connections, a leased line is always active. For example, a T-1 channel is a type of leased line that provides a maximum transmission speed of 1.544 Mbps. You can divide the connection into different lines for data and voice communication or use the channel for one high speed data circuit.

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Dividing the connection is called multiplexing. And for multiplexing MUX is used.

VSAT VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite

communications system that serves home and business users. A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces between the user's computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite in a star topology. For one end user to communicate with another, each transmission has to first go to the hub station which retransmits it via the satellite to the other end user's VSAT. VSAT handles data, voice, and video signals. How does a VSAT work? A VSAT is a small fixed or mobile earth station which provides a communication link to a satellite which can handle data traffic. Depending on which satellite is used, the signal will be transmitted to a particular earth station with a direct link to an Internet backbone. This means that even in countries which have no direct access to these backbones (like many Asian countries), with system a one-stop (one hop in technical terms) connection to the main data routes of the Internet can be established.

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VSAT

systems

offer and

value-added can provide

satellite-based powerful,

services

capable of supporting the Internet, data, LAN, voice/fax communications, dependable, private and public network communications solutions. A VSAT has certain clear advantages over leased lines and other wireless communications media, as it is less sensitive to physical damages like cable breakages etc. VSAT Configurations Most of the current VSAT networks use a topology:

Star topology: This topology uses a central uplink site (eg. Network operations center (NOC)), which transports the data to and from each of the VSAT terminals using satellites Mesh topology: In this configuration, each VSAT terminal will relay data over to another terminal through the satellite, acting as a hub, which also minimizes the need for an uplink site Star + Mesh topology: This combination can be achieved (as some VSAT networks do) by having multiple centralized uplink sites connected together in a multi-star topology which is in a bigger mesh topology. This topology does not cost so much in maintaining the network while also lessening the amount of data that needs to be relayed through one or more central uplink sites in the network.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of VSAT networks Advantages

Availability: VSAT services can be deployed anywhere having a clear view of the sight Diversity: VSAT provides a wireless link completely

independent of the local terrestrial/wireline infrastructure especially important for backup or disaster recovery services

Deployability: VSAT services can be deployed in hours or even minutes (with auto-acquisition antennas) Homogeneity: VSAT enables customers to get the same speeds and service level agreements at all locations across their entire network regardless of location

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Security: Corporate-grade VSAT networks are private layer-2 networks over the air

Disadvantages

Latency: Since they relay signals off a satellite in geosynchronous orbit 22,300 miles above the Earth, VSAT links are subject to a minimum latency of approximately 500 milliseconds round-trip. This makes them a poor choice for "chatty" protocols or applications such as online gaming Encryption: The acceleration schemes used by most VSAT systems rely upon the ability to see a packet's source/destination and contents; packets encrypted via VPN defeat this acceleration and perform slower than other network traffic Environmental concerns: VSATs are subject to signal attenuation due to weather ("Rain Fade"); the effect is typically far less than that experienced by one-way TV systems (such as DirecTV, DISH Network or British Sky Broadcasting) that use smaller dishes, but is still a function of antenna size and transmitter power and frequency band Installation: VSAT services require an outdoor antenna installation with a clear view of the sky (southern sky if the location is in the northern hemisphere or northern sky if the location is in the southern hemisphere)

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chapter 4:connectivity devices ROUTER A router is used to route data packets between two networks. It reads the information in each packet to tell where it is going. If it is destined for an immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet, readdress the packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. If it is destined for another network and must be sent to another router, it will re-package the outer packet to be received by the next router and send it to the next router. Routing occurs at the network layer of the OSI model. They can connect networks with different architectures such as Token Ring and Ethernet. Although they can transform information at the data link level,

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routers cannot transform information from one data format such as TCP/IP to another such as IPX/SPX. Routers do not send broadcast packets or corrupted packets. If the routing table does not indicate the proper address of a packet, the packet is discarded. Router acts like a gate and ultimately should be connected to LAN. The router thus forms a part of the LANs broadcast domain. Thus all the computers which are part of the LAN can communicate which each other locally but if a computer wants to communicate to any other computer which is not in the LAN then it goes to the router and is then transmitted further, A router has two ports: one port connected to the LAN and the other is a sync port. The sync port in the router is connected to the media for transmitting the information. A router can have many sync ports. The sync port is connected to the media through a V.35 cable. The routers communicate with each other through protocols that are 1) Encapsulation point to point protocol : to connect two routers. Once we give this protocol the routers start communicating. 2) Routing protocol: this is to find out where to send our packet of information. It basically finds the route from the source to the destination. 3) Routed protocol: once we know the route the final step is to send the packet of information.

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Now with an example we study how a data packet is sent from one machine to another through a router. NETWORK ROUTING:

Diagram (Machine A machine B router a Ra n router B Rb ) Step 1: The machine A which is a source machine will send a request A (my MAC address is ________ I want the MAC address of the router which has IP address _________) This request is sent to Address Resolution Protocol ARP. Thus we find the MAC address of the router A. Step 2: Destination address is MAC address of router and

source address is MAC address of machine A. Till now we are dealing with network 1 only. Step 3: Now the router A requests the other router B to tell its MAC address. This request is sent to ARP and thus we find the MAC address of the router B. Step 4: The router B has the address of the destination machine but it still does not broadcast the information. The router B will ask the destination machine its IP Address. This is a way of cross checking the destination machine. Thus router B sends the request (what is the IP Address of the machine whose MAC address is _________)

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This request is sent to RARP (Reverse address resolution protocol). This is done in IP layer. Step 5: The final step is delivery of the packet of information to machine B.

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