Hydrological Processes and Hazards Management 2011

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2. Factors affecting the hydroIogic cycIe at the basin scaIe

Learning outcome:

$tudents will be able to:

(i) discuss the factors that influence the hydrologic cycle at the basin scale

A. CIimate (comprises of precipitation and temperature)

Precipitation

Types of Precipitation

O precipitation provides the initial input of water to the hydrologic system and helps
to determine the manner in which the system operates.
O rainfall is the most readily available for infiltration to occur. $now does not allow
for infiltration until it melts. The rate at which snow melts influences its infiltration.
O the type of precipitation also closely controls the amount and timing of runoff.
for example, in cold temperate and polar climates, there is a considerable
buildup of snow cover during winter. $now acts as a temporary store of water
in the drainage basin and the hydrologic system becomes virtually inactive.
However, in spring or early summer thaw, this large store of precipitation is
released quite suddenly, leading to rapid and intense runoff, known as the
nival flood, especially where the soil is still frozen and infiltration is impeded.
O the timing and speed of the snowmelt would determine the nature of the water
input and hence the seasonal flood risk. For example, the 1983 floods along the
Colorado were caused in part by a sudden late snowmelt in the mountains.
O several of the world's major rivers such as the Colorado in the U$ and Yangtze
in China depend on snow and ice as important water sources.

Magnitude of Precipitation

O total annual precipitation varies widely from almost nil in the 'hyper arid' hot
desert interiors to over 10 000 mm/annum in some tropical uplands, such as
ssam Hills (ndia) and Hawaii.
O the amount of rainfall does influence the overall scale of evapotranspiration and
run-off losses. However, there is no straightforward relationship between annual
precipitation and the volume of runoff.
for example, runoff losses are proportionately at a maximum in tropical semi-
arid regions where annual rainfall is low but rainfall intensity is high and the
vegetation cover is scanty.

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$easonality of Precipitation

O the seasonality of precipitation influences the way in which the hydrologic system
operates at different times within the year.
monsoon climates may generate floods during the wet season and cause
droughts during the dry season in the form of intermittent streams.
in arid environments, there may be no seasonal regularity. Occasional and
irregular storms may however generate short-lived streamflows in the form of
ephemeral streams.
O seasonal climatic contrasts also produce fluctuations in the water table.
it rises to the surface during the wet season or at times of prolonged rain.
During the dry periods it falls as groundwater flows out through springs and
into streams and is pumped out of wells. The water table then flattens.
O seasonal fluctuations of the water table can also take place in areas with less
contrasted climatic regimes.
for example, in Britain, precipitation occurs mainly in winter. This results in the
water table rising to a maximum elevation in early spring (March - pril).
in many chalk valleys, this is sufficient to bring the zone of saturation to the
surface; resulting in temporary streams called winter bournes and lavants in
southern England and gypseys in east Yorkshire. These are known as
intermittent channels.

ntensity of Precipitation

O intensity of precipitation is another factor of major importance in determining the
amount and rate of runoff.
O it has a significant effect on the route water takes through the drainage basin
system.
O infiltration rate is roughly inversely proportional to the intensity of rainfall. The
more intense the rain the less the infiltration and the greater the possibility of
surface runoff. This is due to the fact that soil aggregates are broken up by
raindrop impact of intense, heavy rainfall. The disintegrated soil particles quickly
fill up the voids in the soil. s the pore spaces are blocked, infiltration falls and
the surface becomes puddled.









#elationship between
rainfall intensity, infiltration
and overland flow
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O heavy intensity rain increases runoff rapidly because the soil may be incapable of
accepting and storing such large amounts of water.
O light intensity rain (drizzle about 0.5mm/hr) on the other hand allows time for
water to enter the soil thus increasing its infiltration capacity.
O interception storage by plants is effective for low intensity and short duration
rainfall.
pine forests are said to intercept up to 94% of low intensity precipitation but
only 15% of high intensity.
O in tropical latitudes, rainfall rates tend to be much greater. For example, on 1
December 1978, at the onset of the northeast monsoon, 512 mm of rain fell on
$ingapore on an 18-hour period the wettest day in the city's history! The mean
rainfall intensity was thus 28mm/hour and at the height of the rain storm probably
exceeded 50mm/hour.

Duration of Precipitation

O other things being equal, water from a short rainfall will be infiltrated as compared
to a prolonged rainstorm. The C is exceeded after a period and no more water
can infiltrate the ground. The rate of infiltration declines rapidly during the early
part of a storm and reaches an approximately constant value after one or 2 hours
of rain.










The reasons include:

i) impact of raindrops during rain splash breaks up soil aggregates and these will
quickly fill up the voids in the soil

ii) as they are moistened, clay minerals swell and reduce the size of the pores


#elationship between
duration of rainfall,
infiltration and overland
flow
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%emperature

O the main energy source for evaporation is solar radiation. s this varies across
the earth, so will the potential for such loss. Higher temperatures allow more
evaporation than cooler conditions. Consequently, evaporation rates will vary in
different parts of the world, at different times of the year, and at different times of
the day.
in summer, temperature is higher higher evapotranspiration
lower temperatures in winter means evapotranspiration outputs are much
reduced.
O evaporative and transpirative losses are highest when air temperature is at its
maximum. The reason is that as air temperature increases, so does its potential
for holding water vapour and hence greater evaporation occurs.
O if evapotranspiration rates are high, then there will be less water available to flow
into the main river.
O as temperatures rise, transpiration increases.
occurs because as warmer air surrounds a plant, its stomata (the openings
where water is released) will open. Cooler temperatures cause the stomata to
close; releasing less water. This lowers the rate of transpiration.
O in a hot and arid environment, grounds that have been baked hard in the sun
discourage infiltration. This means that when rainfall intensity is high, the soil is
unable to absorb the rain and HOF results.

. Vegetation

O the type of vegetation, the size and nature of individual trees, the actual density
of the tree cover, and seasonal changes in the forest, such as the annual
shedding of leaves by deciduous trees will affect the drainage basin.
O the type of vegetation cover will determine the interception characteristics.
interception storages are particularly high in tropical rainforests, estimating
about 70% of rainfall (30% of which may later evaporate) whereas arable land
may intercept only 10%.
due to the seasonal leaf cover of deciduous trees, interception storages in
winter may be as low as 4 7%.








Tye oj veyetaton

Loss oj water by nterceton (averaye er
year)
Temperate pIne forest 94 If low IntensIty raIn; 15 If hIgh IntensIty
Amazon raInforest 66
Crass J060
Pasture (clover) 40 In growIng season
ConIferous forest J0J5
Temperate decIduous
forest
20 wIth leaves; 17 wIthout leaves
Cereal crops 715 In growIng season

8elaLlonshlp beLween
vegeLaLlon Lype and
lnLercepLlon losses
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O vegetation cover also helps to increase the infiltration capacity of the ground. The
stems and trunks of trees and leaf litter all help to retard surface water
movements, giving water more time to infiltrate into the ground.
O plant root systems also help to break up the soil, increasing air space and
promote infiltration. Hence, in vegetated areas, excess surface flow is unlikely
under most rainfall conditions.









#elationship between vegetation cover, infiltration and overland flow

O on the other hand, a bare surface will have low infiltration capacity. n the
absence of vegetation, the ground faces direct raindrop impact. The impact
breaks up soil aggregates into small particles, clogs up pores and seals the
surface. s a result, this encourages overland flow. t has been observed that the
infiltration rates for old permanent pasture is 57mm/hr as compared to bare,
crusted soil with 6mm/hr.
O deforestation results in the acceleration of runoff and erosion, leading to an
increased likelihood of flooding whilst afforestation can help to slow down runoff
and control erosion.


C. SoiI conditions

O when rain falls onto the land surface, a proportion will infiltrate into the soil. Entry
of the rainwater is facilitated by the fact that there are pores within the soil.
O there are several factors controlling this infiltration capacity:

$oil Texture

O determined primarily by the proportions of the constituent particles, such as sand,
silt or clay, present in the soil.
O ffects the degree of porosity and permeability which in turn affects the ease of
infiltration


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i) Porosity of soil - The property of a rock possessing pores or void is called poros-
ity. #ocks containing a relatively large proportion of void space are described as
porous or are said to have high porosity.
Definition of porosity of rock = volume of water absorbed by the rock * 100
volume of the rock

Thus if the volume of a sample of a particular rock is 100cc and after immersing
it in water, it soaks up 40cc of water, its porosity is *100 = %

This means that % of the rock can be occupied by water. Porosity is
therefore a measure of a rock's ability to store water.















Porous vs non-porous rock

Porosity varies considerably between different rock types:

Clay, sand, gravel, volcanic ash have very high porosity (over 40%). f the soil
particles are large (sand and gravel) the soil is likely to have a high porosity,
hence moisture will readily percolate through. n open porous soil allows rapid
drainage and good aeration; promoting infiltration.

lthough clay has greater total pore spaces than a sandy soil, water movement
is less rapid because the very fine texture of clay (small pores) holds water
more tightly due to surface tension. $uch soil is apt to be wet (because of
interstitial water) and even suffer water logging. t is the size of pore that is most
important in determining water retention. n summary, clay is less permeable
despite its high porosity.










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Most igneous and metamorphic rocks have porosity of lesser than 5%. This is
because the openings between the crystals of these rocks are few. The denser
granite and basalt may only have 1% of porosity.

ii) Permeability - is the ease with which water flows through soil or rock. #ocks that
allow water to pass through them easily are permeable while those, which permit
water to pass only with difficulty or not at all, are impermeable. #ocks that are
permeable increases infiltration whilst reducing surface runoff.











#elationship between soil permeability, infiltration and overland flow

Permeability depends in part on the:

porosity of the rock in terms of the size of the openings and the extent to which
they are interconnected
presence of joints and faults permits secondary permeability

n some rocks the openings may consist of large tunnels such as limestone caves
through which groundwater can flow easily.


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Nature of openings which favour permeability:

O openings between individual particles e.g. inter-granular spaces in well-sorted
gravels










Well sorted sandstone favours higher permeability than poorly sorted sandstone

O massive interconnected openings (fault fractures, crevices or joints) n limestone,
these are enlarged by c and s weathering.

n sum, permeability depends on the volume of pores and openings and how these
openings are connected to each other, and the existence of faults, joints and
b______ p________.

#eIationship between porosity and permeabiIity

(i) both porous and permeable
O a rock that holds much water and can allow water to flow through easily is
known to be porous and permeable.
O examples include sandstone, chalk and conglomerate

(ii) porous but impermeable
O a rock may be porous but impermeable either because the pores are not
connected or because they are so minute that water can only be forced
through them with difficulty.
O examples include clay and shale









Poorly connected pore spaces reduces permeability


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(iii) permeable but non-porous
O a rock which has no voids except for one or two cracks will have a low
porosity and will be a poor store of water. But because water will be able to
pass through easily through the fissures, the permeability will be high.
O example include well-jointed granite











Well-jointed granite encourages the infiltration of water into the rock

(iv) low porosity and low permeability
O a rock which has no voids or lines of weaknesses
O examples include unjointed igneous/metamorphic rock










Unjointed igneous rock as represented by the B$W makes the granitic rock non-porous and
impermeable

$oil structure

O refers to the manner in which individual soil grains are aggregated into:
peds, which may be 'crumb-like' allow good infiltration and drainage whilst
horizontal 'plates' impede downward water movement






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$oil $tructure

ntecedent soil moisture

O antecedent soil moisture (wetness of the soil at start of rain) - a dry soil takes in
more water as compared to a soil which has a higher level of soil moisture
(recent rainfall). n early winter or spring, the soil moisture content is generally
high and the value of C is _____ while in summer, the soil moisture content is
and so the C value ____. rain falling on a hard sun-baked surface will tend to
result in infiltration but ________ runoff.










nfluence of antecedent soil moisture on infiltration rates

O water from previous rainstorm fills up the soil pores, and this impedes the entry
and passage of fresh rainwater
O the infiltration rate varies over time as the storm proceeds. When the rain begins
to fall, it usually infiltrates at a relatively rapid rate. (Exceptions to this rule occur
when the soil is already saturated, or has been baked hard by a drought as both
conditions impede infiltration right from the start)

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O however, after a period of 10 to 20 minutes, the soil pores become filled by water
and the infiltration rate becomes reduced. Entry of additional water is then
dependent on the loss of water at the base of the slope profile.
O other factors which reduce the infiltration rate are the washing in by raindrops of
fine particles which block the pores, and the swelling of clay minerals in the soil
when they become wetted.
O after the initial period of relatively rapid infiltration, the rate settles down and
becomes more or less constant.
median rates are about 25mm/hr. n a sandy soil the rate may be as high as
50 or more mm/hr and in clay soil less than 5mm/hr.










nfiltration rates of different soil types
Presence of plant roots, animal burrows and worm-holes

O they provide ready-made passages for infiltrating rainwater

Degree to which the soil has been compacted

O by agricultural vehicles (tractors and combine-harvesters) or trampling by
humans and animals along well used tracks reduces infiltration whilst
increasing run-off.



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. GeoIogicaI structure

O infiltrated water upon recharging the soil moisture storage will move vertically
towards the bedrock under gravitational pull. This constant movement, called
percolation creates groundwater storage. Water eventually collects groundwater
above an impermeable rock layer in the zone of saturation. The upper surface of
the groundwater is known as the water table. Water may then be slowly
transferred as groundwater flow or baseflow when they intersect the channel
banks.







Formation of groundwater and water table

O The occurrence of groundwater depends mainly on geological structure such as
those associated with the alternation of permeable and impermeable strata in a
synclinal structure.

nfluence of geological structure on the formation of perched groundwater and
confined aquifer

(i) perched groundwater

O occurs where isolated impermeable or semi-permeable beds (i.e. aquifuges or
aquicludes respectively) are located well above the main water table and
groundwater zone, forming shallow and very localised water bodies in the zone
of aeration. Water table formed by the presence of impermeable strata is called
perched water table.










Formation of perched water table ($mall, 1989: pp. 18)

(ii) confined groundwater or artesian aquifer


Groundwater
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O occurs where impermeable strata exist above and below permeable bedrock.
Groundwater is confined under pressure so that if drilling pierces the aquifer,
groundwater will rise to a level above the base of the overlying confining bed.
This is so because water is subject to hydrostatic pressure. well dug through
such an aquifer yields water that often flows out automatically under hydrostatic
pressure.












Formation of confined aquifer and artesian well

The main aquifer recharge is not owing to rainfall percolation from above (unlike in
unconfined aquifer) but may take place many km away when permeable rocks are
exposed on the surface. However, the upper confining impermeable bed rarely
forms an absolute barrier to groundwater flow (especially if it is an aquifuge) so that
there is usually some water transfer from the above.














The London artesian basin ($mall: 1989: pp. 18)


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. #eIief

Gradient of slope

O smooth, steep slopes encourage overland flow. n steep-sided upland valleys,
water is likely to reach the river more quickly than in gently sloping lowland areas.
This reduces the time for water to infiltrate, encouraging overland flow.
O conversely, slopes with gentle gradients give more time for infiltration. However,
overland flow can also occur, if conditions are right. For example, if rain is
prolonged, the water table can rise to the surface (i.e. saturation would be
reached) and infiltration rate is reduced to zero.
O also, flatter areas are generally more densely vegetated than very steep ones
and vegetation reduces runoff. (vegetation favours infiltration; grass provides a
rough surface, leaf litter, trunks are all barriers to flow).









nfluence of slope angle
Length of slope

O for permeable soil, the longer the slope, the more chances the surface water has
to infiltrate the soil as it moves downslope, reducing overland flow.
O in the case of relatively less permeable soil, overland flow increases with length
of slope.

Concavity of slope foot

O slope foots, which are concave in profile, are often found close to stream
channels.
O in contrast to the other parts of the slope, they tend to have higher soil moisture
content due to presence of a water table located at shallow depth which could
easily rise to the ground surface, leading to $OF.
O slope foot are also zones of convergence in which throughflow emerge at the
ground surface (at times, in the form of springs in the form of return flow) to
contribute to the surface saturation and $OF.
O at the slope foot, even modest inputs of precipitation can cause rapid increases
of moisture potential in the surface layers resulting in $OF.

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nfluence of slope concavity