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7. Power amplifier.
Introduction One of the important functions of the output stage of amplifiers are to provide high power and low output impedance so that the output signal could be delivered to the load without loss of gain. Due to handling of large power, important parameters for the power amplifiers are different form small signal amplifiers, the most important being, efficiency, and linearity. Inefficient large signal amplifier means large power will be dissipated in the transistors, which in turn will increase the internal junction temperature. The maximum junction temperature (ranging from 150 o C to 200 o C for silicon devices) if breached will destroy the transistors. Efficiency is also important to prolong the life of batteries in battery-powered circuits, to permit a smaller lowcost power supply or to forgo the need for cooling fans. Linearity determines the goodness of the output stage design. None linearity will introduce large total harmonic distortion (THD).THD is the rms value of the harmonic components of the output signal, excluding the fundamental, expressed in a percentage of the rms of the fundamental. A high fidelity audio power amplifier features a THD of less than 1 %.
7.1.
VCC
vin R iE1
Tr 1
iL
Vout RL
Tr 2
d1 VCC
VCC
Dc load line
ICQ
VCE
ICQ
Figure 7.1c: The collector current waveform of class A amplifier Transistor conduction is 360 o of input cycle.
Class B
Class B circuit is shown in Figure 7.1d. Class B operation is the opposite of class A. Both output devices are never allowed to be on at the same time. Thus each output device is on for exactly one half of a complete sinusoidal signal cycle as shown in Figure 7.1e and f respectively. The bias is set so that current flow in a specific output device is zero when not stimulated with an input signal, i.e., the current in a specific output flows for one half cycle. The Q point and the collector current output waveform are shown in figure 7.1f and g respectively. Due to this operation, class B designs show high efficiency but poor linearity around the crossover region. This is due to the time it takes to turn one device off and the other device on, which translates into extreme crossover distortion. The Transfer characteristic and the cross over distortion are shown in Figure 7.1j and k respectively. This distortion, restricting class B designs to power consumption critical applications, e.g., battery operated equipment, such as 2-way radio and other communications audio.
VCC
Tr 1
vin
Tr 2
iL
Vout
RL
VCC
vin
Tr1
iL
RL
Vout
Figure 7.1e: one half of class B amplifier. The npn transistor is on when input is positive.
iL
vin Tr 2 RL
Vout
VCC
Figure 7.1f: the other half of class B amplifier. Pnp transistor is switched on when the input is negative.
IC
Dc load line
I CQ
0
VCE
iC
ic
Figure 7.1i: collector current waveform of Class B amplifier. Transistor conduction is exactly 180 o of input cycle.
Vo u t
( VC C VC E sat)
0.67V
0.67V
vL
( VC C + VC E sat)
vL
Figure 7.1k: The dead band in the class B transfer characteristic results in cross over distortion in its output waveform.
Class AB The simplified circuit of class AB amplifier is shown in Figure 7.1l. It behave like a class B amplifier. Class AB operation allows both devices to be on at the same time (like in class A), but just barely. The output bias is set so that current flows in a specific output device appreciably more than a half cycle but less than the entire cycle., as shown in Figure 7.1m n. That is, only a small amount of current is allowed to flow through both devices, unlike the complete load current of class A designs, but enough to keep each device operating so they respond instantly to input voltage demands. Thus the inherent non-linearity of class B designs is eliminated as illustrated in the transfer characteristic plot in Figure 7.1o . It is this combination of good efficiency (around 50%) with excellent linearity that makes class AB the most popular audio amplifier design. Several circuits exist for the implementation of class B. Such circuits are shown in Figure 7.1p q and r.
VCC
Tr1
VBB 2
vin
VBB 2
Vout Tr 2
RL
VCC
IC
Dc load line
I CQ
0
VCE
Figure 7.1m. Q point of class AB amplifier. The devices are always just on iC
I CQ
0 2
Figure 7.1n: collector current waveform of class AB amplifier. Transistor conduction is more than 180 o of input cycle.
Vout
vL
Figure 71o: Transfer characteristic of Class AB. The elimination of dead zone removes the cross-over distortion.
VCC
Ibias
Tr1 d1
d2
Vout Tr 2
vin
RL
VCC
R1 P3
R2 vin Tr 3
Vout
RL Tr 2
VCC
Figure 7.1q: Class AB amplifier biased using VBE multiplier as its biasing circuit.
VCC
R1 C1
R5
Tr1
vin
R2 RL
Tr 2 C2
Vout
R3
R4
VCC
Class C The circuit of class C is shown in Figure 7.1s. In Class C the transistor conducts for less then 180 o of input cycle. In Class C, the amplifying device is deliberately not operated linearly. Instead, it is operated as a switch in order to reduce resistance loss. The Q point is set at imaginary negative extension of the dc load line, as shown in Figure 7.1t. It requires the input to be larger than VBB to switch on the transistor. In effect, the tank circuit makes the RF output sine wave--like a bell that is struck at a constant rate by a hammer. A shown in Figure 7.1u The efficiency of a typical Class C amplifier is very high. As is the case with Class B operation, the distortion from Class C operation is so high that SSB operation is precluded. Only CW, FM or FSK operation is practical. The harmonic output level from a Class C amplifier is substantial. Extra filtering is usually needed to control harmonic radiation.
VCC
c
Vout
vBB
vin
RFC
Tr1
Vout
VBB
IC
Dc load line
I CQ
0
VCE
Q
X
Figure 7.1u: collector waveform of class c, transistor conduct for less than 180 o of input cycle.
Class D Class D does not stand for digital. The class D amplifier block diagram is as shown in Figure 7.1v while its detail is shown in Figure7.1w.The input is converted to a two-state (binary) representation of the audio waveform.
VDD D1
Low Pass Filter
Q1
PWM Generator and Mosfet Driver
vin
Q2
D2
RL
VSS
Class D facts Class D is a power-amplifier principle which using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to achieve high efficiency. The PWM signal consists of square waves, which minimize the power losses in the output stage of the power amplifier. The efficiency of Class D can be up to 95% at full power. This means that a Class D amplifier delivering 950W, only waste 50W in heat and consume 1000W. At normal music, the average power will be around 10dB down from full power. At such level the Class D efficiency will be around 80%. This is the value that can be compared with the Class AB efficiency of 20% or the Class H of 50% at normal music level. The high efficiency is the only benefit for the Class D compared to Class A, AB and B. There are no benefits in the sonic quality for the Class D over the Class A, AB and B amplifier!
Class D drawbacks The Class D power amplifier needs a recovery filter between the output stage and the load (loudspeaker) to filter out the audio signal from the PWM square wave signal. This filter can only be optimised for one load impedance, which means that it will create a non-flat frequency response for reactive loads. This will colour the sound. The recovery filter has to be steep filter slope to reduce the radio interference, which will be conducted via the speaker cables. To create a steep filter it requires several reactive components, which destroy the damping factor at high frequencies. A steep filter also destroys the phase behaviour of the signal. Too much phase distortion minimizes the ability to compensate the output stage and filter with negative feedback. Negative feedback is needed to minimize non-linearity that produce distortion and lower the output impedance to achieve a good damping factor.
The only way to use a simpler recovery filter in Class D power amplifiers is to increase the switch frequency. Most Class D amplifiers use frequencies from 200-500 kHz. A switch frequency around 3MHz (3000kHz) will be needed to get the same performance of the simpler filter. The problem is that there are no output transistors available today, which can switch at such high frequency at high power. Class D power amplifier suffers from bad reliability, as the high switch frequency makes the positive and negative transistors to cross conduct. Special timing circuits have to be used to solve the problem. However, these circuits produce crossover distortion. A full bridge Class D is a solution that can be reliable for reactive loads. A bridged Class D power amplifier cant be bridged as a conventional Class AB, H or Class TD, as the Class D is already bridged. The exception is if the two bridged channels has separate power supplies. A Class D amplifier needs a regulated power supply or some kind of ripple compensation. The power supply rejection used to be bad (<60dB) due to the low negative feedback around the Class D amplifier. A PWM modulated signal is very sensitive for power supply ripple, as the ripple will be multiplied with the audio signal and create intermodulation distortion. Figure 7.1x shows the graphic diagram of major cause of imperfection of class D amplifier.
Class T The block diagram of Class T is shown in Figure 7.1y. Class T (Tripath) is similar to class D with these exceptions: This class does not use analog feed back like its class D cousin. The feedback is digital and is taken ahead of the output filter, avoiding the phase shift of this filter. Because class D or T amplifier distortion arises from timing errors, the class T amplifier feeds back timing information. The other distinction is that this amplifier uses a digital signal processor to convert the analog input to a PWM signal and process the feedback information. The processor looks at the feedback information and makes timing adjustments. Because the feedback loop does not include the output filter, the class T amplifier is inherently more stable and can operate over the full audio band. Most listeners can not hear the difference between class T and good class AB designs. Both
class D and T designs share one problem: they consume extra power at idle. Because the high frequency waveform is present at all times, even when there is no audio present, the amplifiers generate some residual heat. Some of these amplifiers actually turn off in the absence of music, and can be annoying if there is too much delay turning back on.
Class G Class G operation involves changing the power supply voltage from a lower level to a higher level when larger output swings are required. There have been several ways to do this. The simplest involves a single class AB output stage that is connected to two power supply rails by a diode, or a transistor switch. The design is such that for most musical program material, the output stage is connected to the lower supply voltage, and automatically switches to the higher rails for large signal peaks. Another approach uses two class AB output stages, each connected to a different power supply voltage, with the magnitude of the input signal determining the signal path. Using two power supplies improves efficiency enough to allow significantly more power for a given size and weight. Class G is becoming common for pro audio designs. Class H Class H operation takes the class G design one step further and actually modulates the higher power supply voltage by the input signal. This allows the power supply to track the audio input and provide just enough voltage for optimum operation of the output devices. The efficiency of class H is comparable to class G designs.
7.2.
Class A Let analyse the class A power amplifier as shown in Figure 7.2a. The power conversion efficiency of an output stage is defined as
Since the output waveform is sinusoid, with peak voltage of v o with load impedance of R L
PL =
1 vo2 2 RL
Since the current in Q 2 is constant (I) and the average current in Q 1 is equal to I (sinusoidal current sitting on I ) The average power drawn from the power supply is
Ps = I( 2 VCC )
Combining the relevant equation,
P 1 v = L = o IR Ps 4 L
v o V CC
Since v o VCC and v o IR L the maximum efficiency is obtained when v o = VCC = IR L giving the maximum efficiency of 25%
VCC
vin R iE1
Tr 1
iL
Vout RL
Tr 2
d1 VCC
VCC
Figure 7.2a. Class A amplifier.
Worked example 1 For the circuit in Figure 7.2b, calculate: The power delivered to the load, the average power drawn from the supplies and the power conversion efficiency if I = 100 mA and v in = 18 Vp p .
10V
vin R iE 1
Tr1
iL
V out 100
Tr 2
d1 10 V 10 V
Figure 7.2b:
Solution
Since its a common collector circuit v o = v in = 9 Vp
Maximum output current iL is 100mA, hence maximum peak output voltage v o is 10V.
PL =
Ps = I( 2 VCC ) = 100 mA ( 2 )( 10 ) = 2 W
P 0.405 = L = = 20.25% Ps 2
Worked example 2 For the class A amplifier in Figure 7.2c calculate the output power, the power drawn from the supply and the conversion efficiency, given that VBE = 0.7 V , = 25 and v in provides maximum output signal.
20 V
1k0
18R
V out Tr1
Ci
vin
Solution
IB =
IC = 25 ( 19 .3 ) = 0.483 A
VCEQ = 20 ( 0.483 )( 18 ) = 11 .31V
Poaverage =
vo2 2R L
( 8. 7 ) 2
36
= 2.1W
Tr 1
vin
io Tr 2
Vout RL
VCC
Po peak =
vo2 RL
vo 2
With v oave =
Po ave
vo2 = 2R L
The current drawn form the supplies are unidirectional as shown in Figure 7.2e.
io
iodc
0
2
Ps = 2i odc VCC
io
vo io V VCC = 2 R L CC
Conversion efficiency, =
Poave v o 2 R L = Ps 2R L 2 v o VCC
vo 4 VCC
when v o = VCC 4
max =
max = 78.5%
With that
Poavemax =
VCC2 2R L
P2 d 2
P2 d = 2
vo v 2 VCC o R L 2R L
dP2 d 2v o V = 2 CC dv o R L 2R L
For maximum P2 d
dP2 d =0 dv o
vo = 2
VCC
P2d m ax = 2
2 VC C VCC 4 VC C2 1 RL 2 2R L
P2d m a x = 2
VC C2 2R L
VCC2 2R L
Maximum power dissipated by each transistor, (also the minimum power rating required for the power transistor ) is Pd max =
Note: For circuits with biasing current. Ps = 2i odc VCC + Ibias 2 VCC
Worked example 3 For the circuit in Figure 7.2f, calculate the output power, the power drawn from the supplies and the conversion efficiency, , when the input signal v in = 60 Vp p .
40 V
1k 5
C1
Tr 1
vin
R2 C2
Tr 2
1k 5
Vout
40 V
Solution
Ibias =
vo =
40 40 2 VBE = 26.2mA 3k 0
2 = 30V
v in ( p p )
Po ave =
= vo io RL
v o 2 ( 30) 2 = = 112.5 W 2R L 2( 4 )
iodc =
io
vo R L
= 2.39A
Ps = 2
Ps = 2 ( 40 )( 2.43 ) = 194 .4 W
Power conversion efficiency,
VCC 2 2R L
Pd =
VCC2 2R L
( 40) 2
4 2
= 40.5 W
Worked example 4 For the circuit in Figure 7.2g, calculate the output power, the power drawn from the supplies and the conversion efficiency, , when the input signal v in = 30 Vp p .
40V
1k0 C1
Tr 1 Co
vin
R2 C2
Tr 2
1k0
Vout
Solution
Ibias =
vo =
40 2 VBE = 19.3mA 2k 0
2 = 15 V
v inp p
Po rms =
= vo io RL
i odc = io
v o 2 ( 15) 2 = = 28.1W 2R L 2( 4 )
vo R L
15 = 1.19 A 4
Ps =
vo R L
Ps = ( 40 )( 1.21) = 48 .5 W
Power conversion efficiency,
VCC 2 2R L
7.3.
7.3.1. Introduction
With the increase in heat dissipation from microelectronics devices and the reduction in overall form factors, thermal management becomes a more important element of electronic product design. Performance reliability and life expectancy of electronic equipment are inversely related to the component temperature of the equipment. A reduction in the temperature corresponds to an exponential increase in the reliability and life expectancy of the device. Thus controlling the device operating temperature within the limits set by the device design engineers, is necessary to maintain high reliability and life expectancy of the equipment. Heat sinks are devices that enhance heat dissipation from a hot surface, usually the case of a heat generating component, to a cooler ambient, usually air. In most situations, heat transfer across the interface between the solid surface and the coolant air is the least efficient within the system, and the solid-air interface represents the greatest barrier for heat dissipation. A heat sink lowers this barrier mainly by increasing the surface area that is in direct contact with the coolant. This allows more heat to be dissipated and/or lowers the device operating temperature. The primary purpose of a heat sink is to maintain the device temperature below the maximum allowable temperature specified by the device manufacturers.
range from 115C in typical microelectronics applications to as high as 180C for some electronic control devices. In special and military applications, 65C to 80C are not uncommon.
Tc : case temperature of the device in C. Since the case temperature of a device depends on the location of measurement, it usually represent the maximum local temperature of the case. Ts : sink temperature in C. Again, this represents the maximum temperature of a heat sink at the location closest to the device. Ta : ambient air temperature in C.
Using temperatures and the rate of heat dissipation, a quantitative measure of heat transfer efficiency across two locations of a thermal component can be expressed in terms of thermal resistance , defined as
= T Q
Were T is the temperature difference between the two locations. The unit of thermal resistance is in C/W, indicating the temperature rise per unit rate of heat
dissipation. This thermal resistance is analogous to the electrical resistance R e , given by Ohm's law:
R= V I
sa cs
jc
Consider a simple case where a heat sink is mounted on a device package as shown in Fig 4. Using the concept of thermal resistance, a simplified thermal circuit of this system can be drawn, as also shown in the figure. In this simplified model, heat flows serially from the junction to the case then across the interface into the heat sink and is finally dissipated from the heat sink to the air stream. The thermal resistance between the junction and the case of a device is defined as
jc = T jc Q = T j Tc Q
This resistance is specified by the device manufacturer. Although the jc value of a given device depends on how and where the cooling mechanism is employed over the package, it is usually given as a constant value. It is also accepted that jc is beyond the user's ability to alter or control. Similarly, case-to-sink and sink-to-ambient resistance are defined as jc = jc = Tcs Tc Ts = Q Q Tsa Ts Ta = Q Q
respectively. Here, cs represents the thermal resistance across the interface between the case and the heat sink and is often called the interface resistance. This value can be improved substantially depending on the quality of mating surface finish and/or the choice of interface material. sa is heat sink thermal resistance. Obviously, the total junction-to-ambient resistance is the sum of all three resistances:
ja = jc + cs + sa =
T j Ta Q
Interface Dry joint Thermal Grease Thermal compound elastomer Adhesive Film
k W mK
cs ,
o
ja ,
o
C W
C/ W
Material
W/in C There-O-Link Thermal Compound High Performance Thermal Compound A-Dux (Thin film) 1080 Ther-A-Grip (double sided tape) 1081 Ther-A-Grip (double sided tape) A-Phi 220 @ 20psi (gap fillers) 1897 in Sil-8 (pads) 0.010 0.030 0.008 0.010 0.019 0.074 0.010
With all the parameters on the right side of the sa expression identified, it becomes the required maximum thermal resistance of a heat sink for the application. In other words, the thermal resistance value of a chosen heat sink for the application has to be equal to or less than sa value for the junction temperature to be maintained at or below the specified T j .
Flow condition m/s (lfm) natural convection 1.0 (200) 2.5 (500) 5.0 (1000)
Volumetric Resistance cm3 C/W (in3 C/W) 500-800 150-250 80-150 50-80 (30-50) (10-15) (5-10) (3-5)
The volume of a heat sink for a given low condition can be obtained by dividing the volumetric thermal resistance by the required thermal resistance. Table 3 is to be used only as a guide for estimation purposes in the beginning of the selection process. The actual resistance values may vary outside the above range depending on many additional parameters, such as actual dimensions of the heat sink, type of the heat sink, flow configuration, orientation, surface finish, altitude, etc. The smaller values shown above correspond to a heat sink volume of approximately 100 to 200 cm3 (5 to 10 in3) and the larger ones to roughly 1000 cm3 (60in3). The above tabulated ranges assume that the design has been optimized for a given flow condition. Although there are many parameters to be considered in optimizing a heat sink, one of the most critical parameters is the fin density. In a planar fin heat sink, optimum fin spacing is strongly related to two parameters: flow velocity and fin length in the direction of the flow. Table 4 may be used as a guide for determining the optimum fin spacing of a planar fin heat sink in a typical application.
Table 4: Fin spacing (in mm) versus flow and fin length
Fin length, mm Flow condition m/s (lfm) Natural convection 1.0 (200) 2.5 (500) 5.0 (1000) 75 6.5 4.0 2.5 2.0 150 7.5 5.0 3.3 2.5 225 10 6.0 4.0 3.0 300 13 7.0 5.0 3.5
The average performance of a typical heat sink is linearly proportional to the width of a heat sink in the direction perpendicular to the flow, and approximately proportional to the square root of the fin length in the direction parallel to the flow. For example, an increase in the width of a heat sink by a factor of two would increase the heat dissipation capability by a factor of two, whereas and increase
the heat dissipation capability by a factor of 1.4. Therefore , if the choice is available, it is beneficial to increase the width of a heat sink rather than the length of the heat sink. Also, the effect of radiation heat transfer is very important in natural convection, as it can be responsible of up to 25% of the total heat dissipation. Unless the component is facing a hotter surface nearby, it is imperative to have the heat sink surfaces painted or anodized to enhance radiation.
AVC heatsink with copper core The copper core helps the heat move to the upper parts of the heatsink.
A heat pipe provides substantially better thermal transfer than a solid piece of copper. c. Silver has an even higher thermal conductivity than copper, but only by about 10%. This does not justify the much higher price for heatsink production - however, pulverized silver is a common ingredient in high-end thermal compounds.
b. Extrusion: These allow the formation of elaborate two-dimensional shapes capable of dissipating large heat loads. They may be cut, machined, and options added. A cross-cutting will produce omni-directional, rectangular pin fin heat sinks, and incorporating serrated fins improves the performance by approximately 10 to 20%, but with a slower extrusion rate. Extrusion limits, such as the fin height-to-gap fin thickness, usually dictate the flexibility in design options. Typical fin height-to-gap aspect ratio of up to 6 and a minimum fin thickness of 1.3mm, are attainable with a standard extrusion. A 10 to 1 aspect ratio and a fin thickness of 0.8" can be achieved with special die design features. However, as the aspect ratio increases, the extrusion tolerance is compromised.
c. Bonded/Fabricated Fins: Most air cooled heat sinks are convection limited, and the overall thermal performance of an air cooled heat sink can often be improved significantly if more surface area can be exposed to the air stream. These high performance heat sinks utilize thermally conductive aluminium-filled epoxy to bond planar fins onto a grooved extrusion base plate. This process allows for a much greater fin height-to-gap aspect ratio
of 20 to 40, greatly increasing the cooling capacity without increasing volume requirements.
Bonded fin
d. Castings: Sand, lost core and die casting processes are available with or without vacuum assistance, in aluminium or copper/bronze. this technology is used in high density pin fin heat sinks which provide maximum performance when using impingement cooling.
e. Folded Fins: Corrugated sheet metal in either aluminium or copper increases surface area and, hence, the volumetric performance. The heat sink is then attached to either a base plate or directly to the heating surface via epoxying or brazing. It is not suitable for high profile heat sinks on account of the availability and fin efficiency. Hence, it allows high performance heat sinks to be fabricated for applications.
Figure 2 shows the typical range of cost functions for different types of heat sinks in terms of required thermal resistance.
The performance of different heat sink types varies dramatically with the air flow through the heat sink. To quantify the effectiveness of different types of heat sinks, the volumetric heat transfer efficiency can be defined as
= Q mc Tsa
where, m is the mass flow rate through the heat sink, c is the heat capacity of the fluid, and Tsa is the average temperature difference between the heat sink and the ambient air. The heat transfer efficiencies have been measured for a wide range of heat sink configurations, and their ranges are listed in Table 5.
Table 5 Range of heat transfer efficiencies
Heat sink type Stamping & flat plates Finned extrusions Impingement flow Fan heat sinks Fully ducted extrusions Ducted pin fin, Bonded & folded fins
range, %
10-18 15-22 25-32 45-58 78-90
The improved thermal performance is generally associated with additional costs in either material or manufacturing, or both
properly mounted, and the heat sink is in its normally used mounting orientation with respect to the direction of air flow. The first plot travelling from the lower left to the upper right is the natural convection curve of heat sink temperature rise, Tsa , versus Q. The natural convection curves also assume that the heat sink is painted or anodized black. The curve from the upper left to lower right is the forced convection curve of thermal resistance versus air velocity. In forced convection, Tsa is linearly proportional to Q, hence sa is independent of Q and becomes a function only of the flow velocity. However, the natural convection phenomenon is non-linear, making it necessary to present Tsa as a function of Q.
One can use the performance graphs to identify the heat sink and, for forced convection applications, to determine the minimum flow velocity that satisfy the thermal requirements. If the required thermal resistance in a force convection application is 8 C/W, for example, the above sample thermal resistance versus flow velocity curve indicates that the velocity needs to be at or greater than 2.4 m/s (470 lfm). For natural convection applications, the required thermal resistance SA can be multiplied by Q to yield the maximum allowable Tsa The temperature rise of a chosen heat sink must be equal to or less than the maximum allowable Tsa at the same Q. The natural convection curves assume an optional orientation of the heat sink with respect to the gravity. The flow velocity in the forced convection graph represents the approach flow velocity without accounting for the effect of flow bypass. There have been a limited number of investigations2,3 on the subject of flow bypass. These studies show that flow bypass may reduce the performance of a heat sink by as much as 50% for the same upstream flow velocity. For further consultation on this subject, readers are referred to the cited references. When a device is substantially smaller than the base plate of a heat sink, there is an additional thermal resistance, called the spreading resistance, that needs to be considered I the selection process. Performance graphs generally assume that the heat is evenly distributed over the entire base area of the heat sink, and therefore, do not account for the additional temperature rise caused by a smaller heat source. This spreading resistance could typically be 5 to 30% of the total heat sink resistance, and can be estimated by using the simple analytical expression developed in Reference 4.
Another design criterion that needs to be considered in the selection of a heat sink, is the altitude effect. While the air temperature of an indoor environment is normally controlled and is not affected by the altitude change, the indoor air pressure does change with the altitude. Since many electronic systems are installed at an elevated altitude, it is necessary to derate the heat sink performance mainly due to the lower air density caused by the lower air pressure at higher altitude. Table 6 shows the performance derating factors for typical heat sinks at high altitudes. For example, in order to determine the actual thermal performance of a heat sink at altitudes other than the seal level, the thermal resistance values read off from the performance graphs should be divided by the derating factor before the values are compared with the required thermal resistance.
Table 6: Altitude derating factors
a. Aavid Engineering, Inc., EDS #117, Interface Materials, January 1992. b. R.A. Wirtz, W. Chen, and R. Zhou, Effect of Flow Bypass on the Performance of Longitudinal Fin Heat Sinks, ASME Journal of Electronic Packaging",Vol.~116,pp.~206-211,1994. c. S. Lee, Optimum Design and Selection of Heat Sinks, Proceedings of 11th IEEE Semi-Therm Symposium, pp. 48-54, 1995. d. S. Song, S. Lee, and V. Au, Closed Form Equation for Thermal Constriction/Spreading Resistances with Variable Resistance Boundary Condition, Proceedings of the 1994 IEPS Technical Conference, pp. 111121, 1994.
Q max =
Worked example 2 A 180-W silicon power transistor operated with heat sink ( sa = 1.2 o C / W ) and mounting insulation of cs = 0.9 o C / W . What is the maximum power the transistor could handle at ambient temperature of 60 o C when jc = 1o C / W and T j max = 200 o C ? Solution
ja = jc + cs + sa = T j Ta Q
200 60 Q
ja = ( 1 + 0.9 + 1.2 ) o C / W =
Q max =
140 W = 45 .2 W 3.1
Worked example 3 A power transistor need to dissipate a power of 60W at 50 o C . A range of heatsinks from sa = 1.2 o C / W to sa = 2.5 o C / W and a range of mounting
o o insulations form cs = 0.8 C / W to cs = 2.8 C / W is available. What is the
power rating and jc of the transistor required if, T j max = 200 o C , derating factor is 0.5 W / o C . Solution.
) Q( T2 ) = ( Q( Ta ) Q( T2 ) ) ( d eratin g facto r
Q ( Ta ) = Q ( T2 ) (1 + derating factor 60(1.5) = = 180 W derating factor 0 .5
Ta = 25 o C )
jc = jc =
T j Ta cs sa Q 200 50 cs sa 60
jc = 2.5 ( cs + sa )
reasonable