Types of Loads

Resistive Inductive Capacitive

Resistive Circuit

Current in Phase with Voltage

Inductive Loads
V

Current Lagging Voltage by 900

Capacitive Loads
I

Current Leading Voltage by 900

Power Factor Improvement Concept

Reactive Power flow analogy Power Triangle analogy Resonance analogy

Reactive Power Flow Analogy

Voltage Current

+
V Pi

Active power
Reactive power

Inductive Load

Inductive Load

Reactive Power Flow Analogy

Inductive Load Active power

Capacitor
Reactive power

Inductive Load

Power Triangle Analogy

QC S(kVA) S(kVA)

1
P(kW)

Q(kVAr)

1 2
P(kW) -QC

kVA=(kW)2 + (kVAr)2 PF = kW/kVA = Cos 1 Q = P .Tan 1 Uncompensated Load

QC = P (Tan 1 - Tan 2) Cos 1 = Initial Power Factor Cos 2 = Final Power Factor Partially compensated Load

Resonance Analogy-1
Definition:Resonance is defined as a condition where Capacitive Reactance becomes equal to Inductive Reactance in magnitude. The frequency at which this occurs is called the Resonance Frequency.
| XL| = |XC |

Inductor
| XL| = |XC |

Inductor
|Z| = 0

Zeq = Z1 + Z2

|Z| = Zeq = Z1Z2 / (Z1+ Z2)

Series Resonance

Parallel Resonance

Resonance Analogy-2
Uncompensated load
Inductive Load

Compensated Load
Inductive Load

If you make |XL| of Load = |XC| of Capacitor at Fundamental Frequency, then the PF will be Unity due to Parallel resonance b/w capacitor & load inductor.

Inductor

Inductor

Resistor

Resistor

Resistor

Types of Power Factors

Displacement PF is defined as the cosine of the angle between fundamental voltage and fundamental current of the load. Presence of harmonics increases the RMS current and voltage relative to their respective fundamental values. This increases the kVA of the load. The PF taking into account the effect of harmonics, called True PF, is lower than or at best equal to displacement PF. The factor by which the displacement PF is related to true PF is called the Distortion PF True PF = Displacement PF x Distortion PF Capacitors can only improve displacement PF.

Mathematical expression of PF
Displacement Power factor = P/(V1I1) Where P = watts and V1 and I1 are fundamental voltage and current THDV 2 THDI 2 V = V rms 1 1+ 1+ 100 100 True Power factor = P/ (VrmsIrms) P = THDV 2 V1I1 1 + THDI 2 1+ 100 100 True Power factor = Displacement PF x Distortion PF 1 Where Distortion PF = THDI 2 THDV 2 1+ 1+ 100 100 Irms= I1

) ( ) (

Effect of harmonics on PF
%THD(V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 %THD(I) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Distortion PF 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.86 0.78 0.71

Three dimensional power triangle

kW kdVA

kVA kVA= kW2+kVAr2+kdVA2 kVAr Displacement PF = True PF = kW

kW2+kVAr2

kW kW2+kVAr2+kdVA2

Advantages of P.F Correction

Reduction in KVAR Demand

Reduction in Switchgear Rating

Reduction in KVA Demand

Reduction in Transformer Rating

Reduction in Cable / Bus-bar size

Reduction in Line Current

Reduction in Line loss

Methods of Improving Power Factor

Fixed Compensation
For Steady Loads No load compensation of Motors No load compensation of Transformers

Variable Compensation
For Varying Loads

Selection of Capacitor
1. Individual Compensation 2. Group Compensation 3. Central Compensation

Where to install Power Factor correction Equipment

Individual Compensation Directly at the Load terminals Ex. Motors, Steady loads Gives maximum benefit to user Not recommended for Drives Costly solution

Where to install Power Factor correction Equipment-2

Group Compensation Single compensation for Group of Loads Ex. Group of Motors Gives moderate benefit to user Few Capacitor Banks Relatively easy to maintain

Where to install Power Factor correction Equipment-3

Central Compensation Directly connected at the incomer Improves PF at the metering point Line losses continue to prevail down stream Least beneficial to user Extremely easy to maintain

Central Compensation Providing compensation at the main incomer of the installation is called central compensation (pos. No. 1). This is suitable for installations where the loads are few and situated close to the main supply. (Refer Fig. 3.1) Supply Bus

Transformer Circuit Breaker No 1 M M M Fig. 3.1 M

Central,Group and Individual Compensation

Providing compensation at main incomer bus central compensation. (pos. No 1) At power distribution boards group compensation (pos. No. 2). At individual load terminals individual compensation. (pos. No. 3) This is suitable for installations consisting of main receiving station, substations, several load feeders and a wide variety of loads. (refer fig 3.3)

Supply Bus Transformer Circuit Breaker

No 1 No 2 No 3 M No 3 M No 2 No 3 M No 3 M

Fig. 3.3

Session 7
Some basic formulae capacitance,capacitor currents

Capacitor Connection
R

Capacitor Rated Current

KVAR = 3. VL IL 1000 KVAR .1000 3 .VL

IL

Change in Current Vs. Change in Voltage

VOLTAGE KVAR CURRENT

440 415 400 380 360

28.10 25.00 23.23 20.96 18.81

36.88 34.78 33.52 31.85 30.17

Capacitance
6 f C VL2 KVAR = C CM = = 10 KVAR X 10 9 6f 1.5. C VL2
9

*
F
C

CM

Calculate Capacitance C and CM for 25 KVAR, 415 V, 50 Hz. capacitor * C in F

and VL in Volts

Peak inrush current of capacitor

Ip = Ir

MVA SC X 103 kVArc

Ip Ir MVAsc kVArc

= Peak inrush Current in Amps = Capacitor Rated Current in Amps. = Short circuit MVA of the System = Capacitor Rating in kVAr.

Fault Level Calculation

Maximum Fault Current =
Transformer % Z = 5 1000 KVA , 22.0kV/415V

1.1 VL 3 ZT 1.1 x 415 3 x 0.00861 30607 Amp

= =

ACB

Transformer = impedance =

%Z x 10 x kV2 kVA 5 x 10 x 0.4152 1000

0.00861 Ohm

Short Circuit MVA of the System

Short circuit MVA of the System = 3 VL Isc 10 6 = 3x 415 x 30607 10 6 = 22.0

Peak Current Calculation

Capacitor Rating = 25 KVAR, 415V, 50 Hz. Ip = Ir . 2

MVA SC X 103 kVARc

Ip= 34.78. 2

22.0 X 103 25

= 1459.1 Amp

Parallel Switching of Capacitor

Ip =

2 3

1 VL

X C XL

Ip = Peak inrush current in Amps. VL = Line to Line Voltage in Volts

XC = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms XL = Inductive Reactance Between the Capacitors in Ohms.

Voltage Rise Due To Capacitor

Q V = S V V = Voltage Rise V = System Voltage Without Capacitors Q = Capacitors Rating in MVAR S = System Fault Level In MVA

Voltage Rise Due To Capacitor

For a 25 kVAr, 415V capacitor & System fault level of 22 MVA.

Q V = S V V = 415 x 0.025 22

= 0.47 volts

Discharge Time

Discharge Time < = 60 sec for LT capacitors < = 10 min for HT capacitors Voltage at the end of Discharge time should be < = 50 volts taking into account the plus side tolerances of the Capacitance value and supply voltage. C

Discharge Time
t R< K C log e
R = t =

Vn.2 VR

Discharge Resistance in M Ohm Discharge Time in Sec. 1/3 or 1 or 3 depending upon discharge resistor Configuration. Capacitance in F Capacitor Rated Voltage Permissible Residual Voltage

K =

C = Vn = VR =

Configuration of Discharge Resistors

R K=1 C C R K=1 R C K=3 R
C

K = 1/3

R C

R C
R

K=3

C K=1

3. Calculation of Capacitor kVAr Required for PowerFactor Improvement

Capacitor kVAr Where 1 2

= kW (tan1 - tan2) = Cos-1(PF1) and = Cos-1(PF2)

PF1 and PF2 are initial and final power factor respectively.

Multiplying Factor Table to Calculate kVAr

Present PF 0.9 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.4 1.807 1.836 1.865 1.896 1.928 0.45 1.500 1.529 1.559 1.589 1.622 0.5 1.248 1.276 1.306 1.337 1.369 0.55 1.034 1.063 1.092 1.123 1.156 0.6 0.849 0.878 0.907 0.938 0.970 0.65 0.685 0.714 0.743 0.774 0.806 0.7 0.536 0.565 0.594 0.625 0.657 0.75 0.398 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.519 0.8 0.266 0.294 0.324 0.355 0.387 0.85 0.135 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.9 0.029 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.91 0.030 0.060 0.093 0.92 0.031 0.063 0.93 0.032 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 Final PF 0.95 1.963 1.656 1.403 1.190 1.005 0.840 0.692 0.553 0.421 0.291 0.156 0.127 0.097 0.067 0.034 0.96 2.000 1.693 1.440 1.227 1.042 0.877 0.729 0.590 0.458 0.328 0.193 0.164 0.134 0.104 0.071 0.037 0.97 2.041 1.734 1.481 1.268 1.083 0.919 0.770 0.631 0.499 0.369 0.234 0.205 0.175 0.145 0.112 0.078 0.041 0.98 2.088 1.781 1.529 1.315 1.130 0.966 0.817 0.679 0.547 0.417 0.281 0.253 0.223 0.192 0.160 0.126 0.089 0.048 0.99 2.149 1.842 1.590 1.376 1.191 1.027 0.878 0.739 0.608 0.477 0.342 0.313 0.284 0.253 0.220 0.186 0.149 0.108 0.061 1.00 2.291 1.985 1.732 1.518 1.333 1.169 1.020 0.882 0.750 0.620 0.484 0.456 0.426 0.395 0.363 0.329 0.292 0.251 0.203 0.142

4. For Single Phase Capacitor

1 lC 2 V

kVAr =

2 fCV2 109

kVAr . 103 IC = V

XC =

106 2 fC

C XC V kVAr IC

= Measured capacitance across terminals 1 &2 in F = Capacitive Reactance in ohms = Voltage in Volts = Rated output of capacitor = Capacitor Current in Amps.

5. For a Balanced Three Phase Delta Connected Capacitor

1 V 2 3 CM C C V = Vph C Vph CM 1.5 F

CM is the measured capacitance across any two terminals with the other terminal left open circuited.

106 XC / ph = 2fc

2fcV2 X 3 3 phase kVAr = 109

IL =

3ph kVAr X 103 3 V

Where

XC V kVAr IL

= Capacitive Reactance per phase in ohms = Voltage (line to line) in volts = Rated output of capacitor = Line current in Amps

6. For a Balanced Three Phase Star Connected Capacitor

1

IL

>
C
Vph

CM

V C
2 3

Vph = V/ 3 C C= 2CM

CM is the measured capacitance across any two terminals with the other terminal left open circuited.

XC/Ph

106 2fc 109

Where XC = Capacitive Reactance per phase in ohms V = Voltage (line to line) in volts kVAr = Rated output of capacitor 103

2 3 Ph kVAr = 2fcV x 3

IL

3 ph kVAr X 3 V

IL = Line current in Amps

Measured verses cell capacitance

Ca Cc C1 C2 Cb C3 1

C1,C2,C3 are the capacitance measured as indicated with the third line open-circuited. Ca,Cb,Cc are the cell capacitance, internal to the three phase capacitor. Using following formulae we can calculate cell capacitance, without opening and de-soldering/cutting the capacitor units.
1

Ca =

1 1 1 + C1 C 3 C 2

Cb =

1 1 1 + C1 C 2 C 3

Cc = 1

1 1 - 1 + C2 C 3 C 1

where
= C1+C2+C3 C1C2C3 1 2

1 1 1 + 2+ 2 C12 C2 C3

These are derived from the following basic relationships. C cC a CaCb C3 = Cb+ C 1 = C c+ C + C C c+ C a a b CbCc C2 = Ca+ Cb+ Cc

Measured verses cell capacitance

1 Ca Cc Ca Cc C2 2 Cb C1 3 Cb 3 2 Cb 2 C3 3 1 Ca Cc 1

C1,C2,C3 are measured capacitances across any line and other two lines short circuited. Full line to line voltages are applied across the cells. C1 = Ca+Cb C2 = Ca+Cc C3 = Cb+Cc 1 (C +C -C ) 2 3 1 2

The individual cell capacitances can be computed as follows.

Ca = 1 (C +C -C ) ; 1 (C +C -C ) ; Cb = 1 3 2 2 1 2 3 2 Cc =