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A Journey Through the Secret History of the Flying Geese Model Satoru KUMAGAI*
June 2008
'
Abstract
Economic development in East Asia is characterized by the sequential take-off of member countries. This multi-tiered economic development in East Asia is often termed the Flying Geese pattern of economic development. However, some authors argue that the traditional Flying Geese pattern is not applicable to some industries such as electronics. Here, Japan may no longer be the sole leading goose, with followers such as China (now producing cutting-edge products) having caught-up. Does this mean that the Flying Geese Model has become obsolete in the 21st century? The main objective of this paper is to clarify the two concepts of Flying Geese which now seem confused: (1) application of the pattern of economic development in one specific country, and (2) application of the pattern of economic development to multiple countries in sequence. This paper provides validity checks of Flying Geese Models after differentiating these two concepts more clearly.

Keywords: Flying Geese Model, East Asia JEL classification: O10, F19, N75

* Researcher, Economic Integration Studies Group, Inter-disciplinary Studies Center, IDE (kumagai@ide.go.jp)

The Institute of Developing Economies (IDE) is a semigovernmental, nonpartisan, nonprofit research institute, founded in 1958. The Institute merged with the Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO) on July 1, 1998.'' The Institute conducts basic and comprehensive studies on economic and related affairs in all developing countries and regions, including Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, Oceania, and Eastern Europe.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s). expressed within. INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPING ECONOMIES (IDE), JETRO 3-2-2, WAKABA, MIHAMA-KU, CHIBA-SHI CHIBA 261-8545, JAPAN

Publication does

not imply endorsement by the Institute of Developing Economies of any of the views

2008 by Institute of Developing Economies, JETRO No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the IDE-JETRO.

A Journey Through the Secret History of the Flying Geese Model

Satoru KUMAGAI*
Abstract

Economic development in East Asia is characterized by the sequential take-off of member countries. This multi-tiered economic development in East Asia is often termed the Flying Geese pattern of economic development. However, some authors argue that the traditional Flying Geese pattern is not applicable to some industries such as electronics. Here, Japan may no longer be the sole leading goose, with followers such as China (now producing cutting-edge products) having caught-up. Does this mean that the Flying Geese Model has become obsolete in the 21st century? The main objective of this paper is to clarify the two concepts of Flying Geese which now seem confused: (1) application of the pattern of economic development in one specific country, and (2) application of the pattern of economic development to multiple countries in sequence. This paper provides validity checks of Flying Geese Models after differentiating these two concepts more clearly.

"Researcher, Economic Integration Studies Group, Inter-disciplinary Studies Center, IDE (kumagai@ide.go.jp)"

1 Introduction Economic development in East Asia is characterized by the sequential take-off of member countries. First, Japan succeeded in modernizing its economy after the Meiji Restoration during the latter half of the 19th century. Japan continued to develop its economy for a century, despite the interruption by World War II, and became virtually the sole developed country in Asia in the 1960s. The second wave of industrialization in East Asia started in the Asian NIEs or the four tigers (Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore) during the 1960s, and leading ASEAN countries (Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia) then followed. The third wave of industrialization in East Asia in the 1990s was led by China after the Economic Opening of 1994. India and some late arriving ASEAN countries such as Vietnam then followed. This multi-tiered economic development in East Asia is often termed the Flying Geese pattern of economic development. Akamatsu (1935, 1937, 1962) originally developed the concept of Flying Geese. Most notably, Kojima (1960, 1970, 1995) then elaborated on the concept and expanded it further. Some authors argue that the traditional Flying Geese pattern is not applicable to some industries such as electronics. In this industry, Japan is no longer the sole leading goose, but some followers like China (now producing cutting-edge products) have caught up. Does this mean that the Flying Geese Model has become obsolete in the 21st century? In this paper, the historical development of the Flying Geese Model and its variants are re-introduced and assessed relative to empirical quantitative data to determine whether or not the model and variants are still valid. This paper thus has two objectives: One is to clarify two concepts of the Flying Geese that seem now to be confused. One concept involves the application of the pattern of economic development in one specific country, and the other involves application of the pattern of economic development in multiple countries in sequence. Because of the confusion of these two

concepts, the debate on the validity of the Flying Geese Model is also quite confused. Thus, the second objective of the paper is to provide validity checks of Flying Geese Models after differentiating the two concepts more clearly. The paper is structured as follows: The original Akamatsu Flying Geese Model and its variant are introduced in Chapter 2. Empirical evidence is then presented in Chapter 3 to check the validity of these models. Chapter 4 concludes the paper by revisiting the original Akamatsu Flying Geese model and interpreted in the context of East Asia in the 21st century

2 The Flying Geese Model Kojima (2000, p. 385) explains the Flying Geese Model by citing the famous speech of Sabro Okita, an economist and a former foreign minister of Japan:

The division of labor in the Pacific region has aptly been called the FG1 pattern of development. (. . .) Traditionally, there have been two patterns or types of international division of labor: the vertical division of labor such as prevailed in the 19th century to define relations between the industrialized country and the resource-supplying country or between the suzerain and the colony; and the horizontal division of labor typified by the EEC with its trade in manufactures among industrialized countries, often among countries at the same stage of development and sharing a common culture. By contrast with both of these types, the FG pattern represents a special kind of dynamism. In the Pacific region, for example, the United States developed first as the lead country. Beginning in the late 19th century, Japan began to play catch-up development in the non-durable consumer goods, durable consumer goods, and capital goods sectors in that order. Now the Asian NICs and the ASEAN countries are following in Japans footsteps. (. . .) Because there is such great variety in the Asian nations stages of development, natural resource endowments, and cultural, religious, and historical heritages, economic integration on the EEC model is clearly out of the question. Yet it is precisely this diversity that works to facilitate the FG pattern of shared development as each is able to take advantage of its distinctiveness to develop with a supportive division of labor (Okita, 1985, p. 21).

FG stands for Flying Geese.

Okitas speech triggered much interest in the Flying Geese Model and it seems East Asia had actually developed as Okita described (at least before the Asian Currency Crisis in 1997-1998). The Flying Geese pattern of economic development, as described by Okita, may be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Famous Flying Geese Pattern of Economic Development in East Asia

Okitas description was based on Akamatsu (1962) and applied to the actual economic situation in East Asia around the middle 1980s. On the other hand, the original Flying Geese Model in Akamatsu (1935, 1937) is significantly different from this version. There are actually two significantly different concepts of the Flying Geese Model. One is applied to the pattern of economic development in one specific country, and the other is applied to the pattern of economic development of multiple countries in sequence.2

Aside from the original Akamatsu (1935, 1937, 1962) articles, Kojima (2000) provides the most comprehensive review of the variants of the Flying Geese Model. This chapter is primarily based on the literature of these two scholars.

2.1 One-Country Model The basic pattern of Flying Geese appeared in Akamatsu (1935, 1937) and is named here as the "one-country" model. There are two versions of the one-country model. One is the one-country - one-product model and the other is the one-country - multi-product model. 2.1.1. One-country one-product model The One-country - one-product model explains a historical pattern of the development of an industry in a country from the viewpoint of import, export, and production of one specific product. Akamatsu explained this basic pattern as follows:

Wild geese fly in orderly ranks forming an inverse V, just as airplanes fly in formation. This flying pattern of wild geese is metaphorically applied to the below figured three time-series curves each denoting import, domestic production, and export of the manufactured goods in less-advanced countries (Akamatsu 1962, p. 11). The figure that Akamatsu mentioned above is just like Figure 2. It differs from the flying geese described by Okita (Figure 1), but this is the origin of the Flying Geese pattern of economic development3. Akamatsu (1962, p. 12) called this the fundamental wild-geese-flying pattern.

It is quite confusing to refer to both the original one-country version and the famous multi-country version as Flying Geese.

Figure 2: Akamatsus Fundamental Flying Geese Pattern of Economic Development

Akamatsu (ibid) explained the fundamental pattern of the Flying Geese Model in the following four stages:

Stage 1: Stage 2:

Import of manufactured consumer goods begins. Domestic industry begins production of previously imported manufactured consumer goods while importing capital goods to manufacture those consumer goods.

Stage 3: Stage 4:

Domestic industry begins exporting manufactured consumer goods. The consumer goods industry catches up with similar industries in developed countries. Export of the consumer goods begins to decline, and capital goods used in production of the consumer goods are exported.4

Akamatsu mentions multi-industry ingredients in the fourth stage, but this concept is dealt with separately in the next subsection for simplicity.

Akamatsus fundamental model is based on the case of Japans industrial development, specifically industries involving cotton yarn and wool. He provides statistical evidence to support the Flying Geese pattern and completes a picture of import, production, and export in Japans cotton yarn and wool industries from the 1860s to the 1930s (Akamatsu 1935, 1937).

2.1.2. One-country multi-product model Akamatsu expanded the one-country - one-product model to the one-country multi-product model in his first paper on the Flying Geese Model (Akamatsu 1935). He compared the above one-country - one-product pattern of industrial development between the cotton yarn industry and the wool industry relative to final goods, intermediate goods, and capital goods within each industry. He found that there are sequential patterns in economic development both between and within industries. Later, he generalized this pattern indicating that the time for the curves of domestic production and export to go beyond that of import will come earlier in crude goods and later in refined goods, and similarly, earlier in consumer goods and later in capital goods (Akamatsu 1962, p. 11). Figure 3 is based on the above description5. The vertical axis is the net export ratio of goods instead of the three lines of import, production, and export found in Figure 2. This may be called the Flying Fish diagram of industrial development; the inverse-V shape crosses the horizontal axis twice, metaphorically just like flying fish jumping from the surface of the sea and then sinking below again.

"Kosai and Tran (1994) also explain the Flying Geese Model based on similar figures to those in Figure 3. They set the vertical axis as the production/consumption ratio. Kwan (2002) sets it as competitiveness.

Figure 3: Flying Fish Diagram of Industrial Development for a Country

2.1.3 Mechanism behind the one-country - multi-product model One problem of the Flying Geese Model relates to the fact that Akamatsu did not explain the mechanism behind the pattern using terminology of neo-classical economics. He referred to his model as a historical theory (Akamatsu 1962, p. 11)." Kojima (1960) offered the explanation that the accumulation of capital (the Heckscher-Ohlin factor) is the fundamental driving force of the Flying Geese Model. Kojima (2000) further mentioned the Ricardian advantage by learning-by-doing and economies of scale as a driving force.

2.2 Multi-Country Model 2.2.1. Multi-country - multi-product model While the Akamatsu model focused on the industrial development of a country, the theory was fundamentally structured around the existence of countries that are in different development stages. Thus, the Flying Geese Model can naturally be extended

to a multi-country model. He explicitly proposed a multi-country model as Development of Advanced and Less-Advanced Countries in a Wild-Geese-Flying Pattern (1962, p. 17). This multi-country model, as in Figure 1, is now well known as The Flying Geese Model as though it were the ultimate such model.

2.2.2. Mechanism behind multi-country - multi-product model Actually, Akamatsus Flying Geese model was a building block for his larger theory of the historical development of the world economy, driven by country based iterant heteronization and homogenization. The theory is meticulous but descriptive (see Akamatsu 1962) and not integreted into the theories of mainstream international economics. Later, Fujita and Mori (1999) tried to reproduce the multi-country multi-product Flying Geese pattern of economic development using a simulation model of spatial economics (new economic geography).

3 Empirical Evidence Empirical studies have been conducted to verify the Flying Geese Model. Kojima (2000) provides a comprehensive review of these studies. Kwan (2002) checked the relationship between Japan and China to determine whether or not it is still one of flying-geese or has changed to a metaphorical leaping-frog by U.S. trade statistics. He concludes that exports of Japan are still more high-tech than those of China in 2000. 3.1 One-Country Model The one-country multi-product model may be checked relative to the Flying Fish diagram. Below, diagrams for Thailand, Korea, and Japan from the 1960s to 2005 have been drawn using the COMTRADE database by UNCTAD. Development of the clothing industry (SITC rev.1: 841), textile, yarn, and thread industry (651), passenger car industry (7321) and iron and steel industry (674) may be seen. These four industries are selected based on the typology described in Table 1.

Table 1: Types of Selected Industries Light Industry Up Stream Down Stream Textile Clothing Heavy Industry Iron and Steel Passenger Car

Interpretations of Akamatsu predictions on the order of industrial development are that light industries develop first followed by heavy industries. Downstream industries come first, and then upstream industries follow. Unfortunately, it is not possible to check these predictions for a single country; coverage of the COMTRADE database, about fifty years, is too short to check the Flying Geese pattern of economic development6. To overcome this problem, the diagram for Thailand may be assumed to be similar to that of Japan in its take-off stage of economic development. That for Korea may be assumed to be similar to that of Japan a few decades ago. Thus, figures for Thailand-Korea-Japan may be assumed to be figures for the sequential development stage of a hypothetical single country. Figure 4 includes the Flying Fish diagram for Thailand. It shows that: (1) the clothing industriy developed first followed by the textile industry, (2) the passenger car industry came first, and then the iron and steel industries followed, and (3) clothing and textile industries developed earlier than passenger car, ,iron, and steel industries. This diagram closely matches hypotheses (a) and (b) of Akamatsu.

Akamatsu used 80 to 100 years of trade data for Japan in order to depict the Flying Geese pattern.

Figure 4: Flying Fish Diagram for Thailand

Figure 5 shows the Flying Fish diagram for Korea. It indicates that: (1) the clothing industry had already developed in the 1960s and declined during the 1990s, (2) the textile industry followed the clothing industry but started declining before the clothing industry, and (3) iron and steel industries developed before the passenger car industry but soon caught-up. The Korean case diverges from Akamatsu predictions in an interesting way. Upstream industries do not always follow dowstream industries in a steady manner. Sometimes upstream industries are not fully-developed and decline before downstream industries.

Figure 5: Flying Fish Diagram for Korea

Figure 6 contains the Flying Fish diagram for Japan. It shows that: (1) the clothing industry declined ealier than the textile industry and (2) iron and steel industries developed earlier than the passenger car industry. Japans case also differs from Akamatsus predictions in an interesting way. Upstream heavy industries of iron and/or steel developed earlier, and dowstream industries (passenger cars) followed.

Figure 6: Flying Fish Diagram for Japan

Because Figures 4, 5, and 6 are for three countries, not one country, the analysis is not an exact check of the validity of Akamatsus one-country - multi-product model. However, findings of this quasi-one-country analysis show pros and cons for his one-country Flying Geese Model quite clearly. First, light industries seem to dvelop earlier than heavy industries. This fact follows an Akamatsu prediction that development occurs earlier in crude goods and later in refined goods. Akamatsu does not explicitly explain what the driving-force for a country is to upgrade its product from crude to refined. Later, Kojima (1960) explained this using H-O theory with some Ricardian ingredients. It is reasonable to think that less-developed countries begin industrialization from labour intensitve goods and then move into more capital intensive industries with the accumulation of capital in the country.

Second, upstream industries do not always follow downstream industries. In some countries, upstream industries do not develop sufficiently, and in other countries, upstream industries develop earlier than those downstream. This tendency is especially obvious in heavy industries. This fact is contrary to another Akamatsu prediction, that development occurs earlier in consumer goods and later in capital goods. Akamatsus fundamental Flying Geese Model is that industrialization is driven by domestic demand, or driven by backword linkage. In the case of Japans cotton and wool industry, a large market ensured the development of the consumer industry first, and the demand from that consumer industry fostered the intemediate or capital industry later. However, there are less-developed countries which do not have enough large markets to foster upward industries. In addition, industrialization driven by domestic supply, or that driven by forward industry, is also a reasonable route for economic development. The industrial revolution in England is a typical case. Invention of the steam engine enhanced various industries that used the engine as a capital good. Japans iron and steel industry is another example. All in all, industrial development from crude to more elaborate goods is quite robust. Industrilization driven by backword linkage is also valid, but it is not the way but a way of industrial development.

3.2 Multi-Country model Next, the multi-country - multi-product model was checked using the correlation of export structures between Japan and other countries. Japan may be assumed to be the leading goose. Countries that have an export structure similar to Japan are more advanced as flying geese. Correlations of the export structure of 8 countries (ASEAN 5 + China, Korea, and Taiwan) with Japan in 1985, 1990, 1995, and 2000 were compared using the 24-sector Asian International IO Table. In 1985, the order of the flying geese was clear. Japan was the leading goose, and Taiwan and Korea followed. Then the ASEAN 5 and China came. However, following geese had caught-up by 2000, and the slope of the flying geese became flatter. It seems that the Flying Geese pattern of economic development in East Asia changed

dramatically from 1985 to 2000, and Japan is not now the sole leading goose in the region. Figure 8 shows the same picture except for the machinery sector, mainly consisting of the electronics industry. This picture is quite different from Figure 7. The order and slope of the Flying Geese pattern in East Asia has changed little in the last two decades. This result is understandable. The development of the electronics industry in East Asia is quite different from the pattern assumed in the 70-year-old Akamatsu Flying Geese Model. The development of the electronics industry in East Asia, especially after the 1970s, was based on off-shore transactions through Free Trade Zones (FTZs). This is fundamentally different from the market-driven industrial development in Japan which was the base of the Akamatsu model.

Figure 7: Correlation of Export Structure with Japan

Figure 8: Correlation of Export Structure with Japan (Excluding the Machinery Sector)

4. Conclusions More than 70 years ago, Akamatsu discerned a general pattern of industrial development and international trade based on the case of Japan and called it the Flying Geese Model. This phrase is now generally used to depict the sequential development of a group of countries, and the concept is sometimes thought to be obsolete. However, Akamatsu clearly stated that these countries, advanced and less advanced, do not necessarily go forward at the same speed in their development of a wild-geese-flying pattern, nor do they always make gradual progress, but they are at times dormant and at other times make leaping advances (Akamatsu 1962, p. 18). In some ways, it is regrettable that Akamatsu used only the one term Flying Geese to refer to various models in his grand theory of the history of world economic development. However, since the phrase Flying Geese seems to fit the model depicted in Figure 1 so well, and since such nomenclature is now so popular, it is virtually impossible to rename. On the on the other hand, model versions of the concept seen in

Figures 2 and 3 have not drawn much attention, although the fundamental Flying Geese Model contains many research questions yet answered. For example:

Why do traces of the development of so many industries follow the

fundamental Flying Geese pattern? What is the mechanism behind it? Why do some products seem to follow a fundamental Flying Geese pattern for

a very short period, while other take much longer? What affects the shape of the fundamental Flying Geese pattern? Is it trade

policy, market size, or technological attributes?

For the last two decades, the Flying Geese Model may have drawn too much attention relative to the order and slope of the depicted Flying Geese. Now, in the era of economic integration in East Asia, interest in the fundamental Flying Geese pattern of industrial development must be renewed. However, for such a revival to occur, nomenclature other than the fundamental Flying Geese model may need to be developed.

References Akamatsu, Kaname. 1935. Waga kuni yomo kogyohin no boueki susei. Shogyo Keizai Ronso 13: 129-212. ________________. 1937. Waga kuni keizai hatten no sougou bensyoho. Shogyo Keizai Ronso 15: 179-210. ________________. 1962. Historical pattern of economic growth in developing countries. The Developing Economies 1: 3-25. Kojima, Kiyoshi. 1960. Capital accumulation and the course of industrialisation, with special reference to Japan. The Economic Journal LXX: 757-768 ______________. 1970. Towards a theory of agreed specialization: the economics of integration. In Induction, growth and trade, essays in honours of Sir Roy Harrod, eds. W. A. Eltis, M. FG. Scott and J. N. Wolfe, Oxford: Clarendon Press. ______________. 1995. Dynamics of Japanese investment in East Asia. Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics 36: 93-124. ______________. 2000. The flying geese model of Asian economic development: origin, theoretical extensions, and regional policy implications. Journal of Asian Economics 11: 375-401. Okita, Saburo. 1985. "Special presentation: prospect of Pacific economies." the Fourth Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference, April 29 through May 1: 18-29. Korea Development Institute: Seoul, Korea. Kosai, Yutaka and Tho. V. Tran. 1994. Japan and Industialization in Asia-An Essay in Memory of Dr. Saburo Okita-. Journal of Asian Economics 5 No. 2: 1155-176.

Kwan Chi Hung. 2002. The Rise of China and Asias Flying-Geese Pattern of Economic Development: An Empirical Analysis Based on US Import Statistics. NRI Papers 52 August 1 2002. Fujita Masahisa and Tomoya Mori. 1999. A Flying Geese Model of Economic Development and Integration: Evolution of International Economy a la East Asia. Discussion Paper 493.

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75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51

DING Ke Emad M. A. ABDULLATIF Alani Tatsuya SHIMIZU Hitoshi SUZUKI Akifumi KUCHIKI Takayuki TAKEUCHI Shinichi SHIGETOMI Kozo KUNIMUNE Yasushi UEKI Toshihiro KUDO Akifumi KUCHIKI Ken IMAI Koichi FUJITA and Ikuko OKAMOTO Tatsufumi YAMAGATA Hisaki KONO Hiroshi KUWAMORI Tatsuya SHIMIZU Noriyuki YANAGAWA, Seiro ITO, and Mariko WATANABE Reiko AOKI, Kensuke KUBO, and Hiroko YAMANE Koji KUBO Jiro OKAMOTO Yusuke OKAMOTO Hikari ISHIDO and Yusuke OKAMOTO Masahiro KODAMA Arup MITRA and Yuko TSUJITA Bo MENG, Hajime SATO, Jun NAKAMURA,Nobuhiro OKAMOTO, Hiroshi KUWAMORI, and Satoshi INOMATA Maki AOKI-OKABE, Yoko KAWAMURA, and Toichi MAKITA Arup MITRA and Hajime SATO

Distribution System of Chinas Industrial Clusters: Case Study of Yiwu China Commodity City Crowding-Out and Crowding-In Effects of Government Bonds Market on Private Sector Investment (Japanese Case Study) Expansion of Asparagus Production and Exports in Peru The Nature of the State in Afghanistan and Its Relations with Neighboring Countries An Asian Triangle of Growth and Cluster-to-Cluster Linkages Integration under One Country, Two Systems - The Case of Mainland China and Hong KongBringing Non-governmental Actors into the Policymaking Process: The Case of Local Development Policy in Thailand Financial Cooperation in East Asia Export-Led Growth and Geographic Distribution of the Poultry Meat Industry in Brazil Myanmar's Economic Relations with China: Can China Support the Myanmar Economy? Negative Bubbles and Unpredictability of Financial Markets: The Asian Currency Crisis in 1997 Explaining the Persistence of State-Ownership in China Agricultural Policies and Development of Myanmar Agriculture: An Overview The Garment Industry in Cambodia: Its Role in Poverty Reduction through Export-Oriented Development Is Group Lending A Good Enforcement Scheme for Achieving High Repayment Rates?Evidence from Field Experiments in Vietnam The Role of Distance in Determining International Transport Costs: Evidence from Philippine Import Data Executive Managers in Peru's Family Businesses Trade Credits under Imperfect Enforcement: A Theory with a Test on Chinese Experience Indian Patent Policy and Public Health: Implications from the Japanese Experience The Degree of Competition in the Thai Banking Industry before and after the East Asian Crisis Australia's Foreign Economic Policy: A 'State-Society Coalition' Approach and a Historical Overview Integration versus Outsourcing in Stable Industry Equilibrium with Communication Networks Winner-Take-All Contention of Innovation under Globalization: A Simulation Analysis and East Asias Empirics Business Cycles of Non-mono-cultural Developing Economies Migration and Wellbeing at the Lower Echelons of the Economy: A Study of Delhi Slums Interindustrial Structure in the Asia-Pacific Region: Growth and Integration, by Using 2000 AIO Table

2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006

50

2006

49 48

International Cultural Relations of Postwar Japan Agglomeration Economies in Japan: Technical Efficiency, Growth and Unemployment

2006 2006

No.

Author(s)

Title

47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19

Shinichi SHIGETOMI Yasushi HAZAMA Kentaro YOHIDA and Machiko NAKANISHI Masanaga KUMAKURA Ikuko OKAMOTO Toshihiro KUDO Yukihito SATO Taeko HOSHINO Chang Soo CHOE Toshihiro KUDO Etsuyo MICHIDA and Koji NISHIKIMI Akifumi KUCHIKI Masami ISHIDA Masanaga KUMAKURA Akifumi KUCHIKI Takao TSUNEISHI Yuko TSUJITA Satoshi INOMATA Bo MENG and Asao ANDO Nobuhiro OKAMOTO, Takao SANO, and Satoshi INOMATA Masahisa FUJITA and Tomoya MORI Hiroko UCHIMURA Shinichiro OKUSHIMA and Hiroko UCHIMURA Banri ITO and Tatsufumi YAMAGATA Etsuyo MICHIDA Daisuke HIRATSUKA Masahisa FUJITA and Tomoya MORI Graciana B. FEMENTIRA Hitoshi SUZUKI

Organization Capability of Local Societies in Rural Development: A Comparative Study of Microfinance Organizations in Thailand and the Philippines

2006

Retrospective Voting in Turkey: Macro and Micro Perspectives 2006 Factors Underlying the Formation of Industrial Clusters in Japan and Industrial Cluster Policy: A Quantitative Survey Trade and Business Cycle Correlations in Asia-Pacific Transformation of the Rice Marketing System and Myanmar's Transition to a Market Economy The Impact of United States Sanctions on the Myanmar Garment Industry President Chain Store Corporation's Hsu Chong-Jen: A Case Study of a Salaried Manager in Taiwan Executive Managers in Large Mexican Family Businesses Key Factors to Successful Community Development: The Korean Experience Stunted and Distorted Industrialization in Myanmar North-South Trade and Industly-Specific Pollutants Theory of a Flowchart Approach to Industrial Cluster Policy Effectiveness and Challenges of Three Economic Corridors of the Greater Mekong Sub-region Trade, Exchange Rates, and Macroeconomic Dynamics in East Asia: Why the Electronics Cycle Matters Theoretical Models Based on a Flowchart Approach to Industrial Cluster Policy The Regional Development Policy of Thailand and Its Economic Cooperation with Neighboring Countries Economic Reform and Social Setor Expenditures: A Study of Fifteen Indian States 1980/81-1999/2000 Towards the Compilation of the Consistent Asian International I-O Table: The Report of the General Survey on National I-O Tables An Economic Derivation of Trade Coefficients under the Framework of Multi-regional I-O Analysis Estimation Technique of International Input-Output Model by Non-survey Method Frontiers of the New Economic Geography Influence of Social Institutions on Inequality in China Economic Reforms and Income Inequality in Urban China Who Develops Innovations in Medicine for the Poor? Trends in Patent Applications Related to Medicines for HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria and Neglected Diseases Management for a Variety of Environmental Pollution and North-South Trade The "Catching Up" Process of Manufacturing in East Asia Transport Development and the Evolution of Economic Geography Case Study of Applied LIP Approach/Activities in the Philippines: The Training Services Enhancement Project for Rural Life Improvement (TSEP-RLI) Experience Structural Changes and Formation of Rst-shahr in Postrevolutionary Rural Society in Iran 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2004

No.

Author(s)

Title

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Tomokazu ARITA, Masahisa FUJITA, and Yoshihiro KAMEYAMA Karma URA Masahisa FUJITA and Toshitaka GOKAN Koji KUBO Marcus BERLIANT and Masahisa FUJITA Gamini KEERAWELLA Taeko HOSHINO Hikari ISHIDO Akifumi KUCHIKI Sanae SUZUKI Masahisa FUJITA and Shlomo WEBER Tatsuya SHIMIZU Katsumi HIRANO Masahisa FUJITA and JacquesFrancois THISSE Karma URA Gamini KEERAWELLA Takahiro FUKUNISHI Pk. Md. Motiur RAHMAN and Tatsufumi YAMAGATA

Regional Cooperation of Small & Medium Firms in Japanese Industrial Clusters Peasantry and Bureaucracy in Decentralization in Bhutan On the Evolution of the Spatial Economy with Multi-unit Multi-plant Firms: The Impact of IT Development Imperfect Competition and Costly Screening in the Credit Market under Conditions of Asymmetric Information Knowledge Creation as a Square Dance on the Hilbert Cube Formless as Water, Flaming as a Fire Some observations on the Theory and Practice of Self-Determination Family Business in Mexico: Responses to Human Resource Limitations and Management Succession East Asias Economic Development cum Trade Divergence Prioritization of Policies: A Prototype Model of a Flowchart Method Chairmanship in ASEAN+3: A Shared Rule of Behaviors On Labor Complementarity, Cultural Frictions and Strategic Immigration Policies Family Business in Peru: Survival and Expansion under the Liberalization Mass Unemployment in South Africa: A Comparative Study with East Asia Globalization and the Evolution of the Supply Chain: Who Gains and Who Loses? The First Universal Suffrage Election, at County (Gewog) Level, in Bhutan The LTTE Proposals for an Interim Self-Governing Authority and Future of the Peace Process in Sri Lanka International Competitiveness of Manufacturing Firms in SubSaharan Africa Business Cycles and Seasonal Cycles in Bangladesh

2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004