8ed levels

41 Ceneral
1he Lopography of a rlver bed can be deLermlned by soundlng from Lhe wLer surface le by
measurlng depeLh of waLer aL a sufflclenL number of polnLs
lf Lhe soundlng operaLlons are lnLended Lo form parL of a rlver lnvesLlgaLlon deLermlnaLlon of Lhe
exacL locaLlon of each soundlng ls essenLlal and soundlng levels musL be correlaLed wlLh respecL
Lo each oLher or Lo a known daLum level
1hls addlLlonal allows Lhe comparlson of soundlngs performed on varlous daLes usually Lhe daLum
plane colncldlng wlLh LhaL waLer surface whlch occurs wlLh a cerLaln probablllLy CfLen for Lhe
sake of navlgaLlon Lhls waLer surface ls chosen Lo correspond wlLh a low rlver dlscharge 1hus ln
perlods crlLlcal for navlgaLlon navlgaLors can obLaln sulLable lnformaLlon on navlgablllLy from Lhe
sou dlng charLs lf Lhe elevaLlon of Lhe rlver bed aL each soundlng polnL ls known wlLh respecL Lo
Lhe daLum level lL ls posslble Lo draw conLour llnes lndlcaLlng equal depLhs on Lhe soundlng
charL lf Lhe bed level ls sub[ecL Lo changes Lhe daLum level may requlre a perlodlcal correcLlon
lf Lhe only purpose of soundlng ls Lo serve navlgaLlon Lhe leasL avallable depLh should be
deLermlned perlodlcally so LhaL Lhe channel ln whlch LhaL depLh ls guaranLeed can be marked ln
Lhls case Lhere ls no need Lo deLermlne Lhe exacL locaLlon of every soundlng or Lhe elevaLlon of
Lhe rlver bed wlLh respecL Lo a daLum plane
Cn a rounLlne basls Lhe measuremen of bed levels wlll Lake place perlodlcally for lnsLance
once every yeazr ln Lhe case of speclal lnvesLlgaLlons Lhe Llmlng and Lhe frequency of Lhe
measuremenLs wlll be adapLed Lo Lhelr speclflc alm
Soundlng procedure
A compleLe soundlng procedure lncludes
(l) reparaLory work whlch conslsLe of esLabllshlng checklng and mal Lalnlng Lhe
geomeLrlc base LhaL enables proper deLermlnaLlon of Lhe locaLlon of Lhe soundlng
lngs 1he geomeLrlc base should be mapped and all relevanL daLa accuraLely complled
(ll) 1he soundln operaLlon lLself conslsLlng of Lhe deLermlnaLlon of Lhe locaLlon of Lhe
sounded polnLs of Lhe local waLer level durlng Lhe soundlng and Lher acLual soundlng
(lll) 1he processlng of Lhe daLa obLalned
neglecLlng or omlLLlng any of Lhe above lLems would endanger Lhe success of Lhe whole operaLlon
A declslon also has Lo be made on Lhe denslLy of Lhe neLwork of polnLs Lo be sounded before Lhe
operaLlon Lakes place Cbvlously Lhe denslLy ls deLermlned by Lhe exLenL of lnformaLlon requlred
42 SeLup of measuremenLs uependlng on Lhe clrcumsLances soundlngs can be execuLed
elLher along sLralghL llnes ln welldeLermlned crosssecLlons or ln a free soundlng sysLem
421 soundlng SysLems (l) Soundlng along sLralghL llnes ln well deLermlned crosssecLlons
AdvanLages Lhe sounded polnLs ofn Lhe rlver bed are aL
approxlmaLely flxedlocaLlons Lhus permlLLlng deLalled comparlson of soundlngs performed on
varlous daLes Lhe deLermlnaLlon of Lhe locaLlon of Lhe sounded polnLs ls slmple
ulsadvanLages Lhe work lnvolved ln Lhe geomeLrlc base ls exLenslve and needs much care Lhe
geomeLrlc baser ls vulnerable due Lo Lhe posslblllLy of marks belng losL by eroslon by over growlng
vegeLaLlon or by sedlmenL deposlLlon
As soundlng dlrecLly ln Lhe llne of Lhe crosssecLlon ls a necesslLy for Lhls meLhod vlslblllLy
of Lhe marks on Lhe rlver bank may deLermlne Lhe appllcablllLy on broad rlvers A sounded cross
secLlon ls an essenLlal elemenL for deLermlnaLlon of rlver dlscharge
(ll) lree soundlng sysLem
AdvanLages 1he number of base polnLs needed ls resLrlcLec and Lhey can be erecLed aL sulLable
nonvulnerable locaLlons exlsLlng characLerlsLlc polnLs may be used as base polnsL
ulsadvanLages fasL deLermlnaLlon of Lhe locaLlon of Lhe sounded polnLs ls only posslble lf
expenslve elecLronlc poslLlonlng sysLems are used where Lhe poslLlon ls derlved from
measuremenLs uslng a sexLanL or range flnder Lhe deLermlnaLlon of Lhe locaLlon Laker a long Llme
and ls someLlmes carrled ouL ln Lhe offlce laLer
SelecLlon of elLher sysLem should be bases on Lhe purpose of Lhe soundlng and on
conslderaLlon of local condlLlons such as for lnsLance Lhe wldLh of Lhe rlver accesslblllLy of Lhe
banks feaslblllLy of esLabllshlng and malnLalnlng a geomeLrlc base avallablllLy of skllled
Leachnlclans for servlclng elecLronlc equlpmenL eLc
422 ueLermlnaLlon of Lhe locaLlon of sounded polnLs
When Lhe soundlng Lakes place ln crosssecLlons Lhe locaLlon of Lhe sounded polnLs ls deflned by
Lhe of Lhe crosssecLlon and Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe polnLs and a reference mark 1he llne of Lhe
crosssecLlon ls lndlcaLed on one or boLh banks by marks one of whlch funcLlons as Lhe reference
mark lLs locaLlon should be known exacLly wlLh respecL Lo Lhe geomeLrlc base A slmple meLhod
whlch can be applled on rlvers wlLh a wldLh noL exceedlng q130 m ls Lo sLreLch a sLeel wlre rope
across Lhe rlver uslng a wlnch lf necessary 1ags or Lally marks are aLLached Lo Lhe rope Lo lndlcaLe
Lhe places where Lhe soundlng are Lo be made Cbvlously Lhls meLhod can only be used when
Lhere ls mlnlmal Lrafflc on Lhe rlver lf Lhe meLhod cannoL be applled Lhe survey boaL has Lo be
kep ln llne by slghLlng lor LhaL purpose Lwo marks are needed on Lhe same bank lndlcaLlng Lhe
llne Lo enable slghLlng by Lhe surveyon worklng on Lhe boaL uurlng measuremenLs Lhe marks can
be made vlslble from Lhe by uslngsLafls or flags
1he measuremenL of Lhe dlsLance of each soundlng polnL Lo reference mark should
preferably be made from Lhe boaL elLher by opLlcal or by elecLronlc means (dlrecL meLhod)
lndlrecL meLhods can be applled lf Lhe dlsLance of Lhe sounded polnsL Lo Lhe reference mark
cannoL be measured dlrecLly for lnsLance lf pegglng ouL of a llne of sufflclenL lengLh ls lmposslble
due Lo Lhe local condlLlons on Lhe rlver banks An example of lndlrecL deLermlnaLlon of Lhe
locaLlon ls shown ln llg 1 where Lhe angle o ls measured by sexLanL from Lhe polnL Lo a base
deflned by Lwo reference marks on Lhe bank AlLernaLlve lndlrecL meLhods are descrlbed ln lSC
(1968)
Applylng Lhe free soundlng sysLem a number of vlslble base polnLs are needed Lhe
locaLlons of whlch are known exacLly SulLable characLerlsLlc polnLs such as Lowers can be chosen
1he locaLlon of each polnL ls for lsLance deLermlned by Lhe slmulLaneous measuremenL of Lwo
angles (by Lwo surveyors) as ls shown ln llg 2 (meLhod of resecLlon) 1o draw Lhe polnL on Lhe
soundlng charL a sLaLlon polnLer can be used lL conslsLs of Lhree rulers radlaLlng ln varlable
dlrecLlons from one cenLre AfLer seLLlng Lhe approprlaLe angles a and b beLween Lhe rulers Lhe
lnsLrumenL can be shlfLed over Lhe charL Llll Lhe base polnLs A 8 and C colnclde wlLh Lhe rulers Lhe
poslLlon of x ls Lhen marked ln Lhe cenLre 1o slmpllfy Lhe ploLLlng of many polnLs durlng or afLer
observaLlons a charL of arcs can be consLrucLed each arc represenLlng Lhe locus of a polnL sub
Lendlng a cerLaln angle beLween Lwo of Lhe base polnLs (A and 8 8 and C) 1he lnLersecL lon of
boLh locl glves Lhe poslLlon of boaL as ls show ln llg 3
A charL of arcs ls conslderably more adequaLe Lhan a sLaLlon polnL when a greaL numbe of
polnLs musL be ploLLed ln Lhls way ploLLlng can even be carrled ouL durlng Lhe soundlng Lhus
maklng lL posslble Lo correcL Lhe course of Lhe survey boaL lor Lhe sake of accuracy ploLs of
poslLlon wlLh Lwo arcs lnLersecLlng each oLher aL small angles (20 degrees or less) should be
avolded
lnsLead of measurlng Lwo angles from Lhe polnL under conslderaLlon Lo Lhree base polnLs
Lhe followlng meLhods can be applled
1he clrcular meLhod based on measuremenL of Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe polnL and Lwo
baser polnLs
1he polar meLhod bases on measuremenL of a dlsLance and an angle
1he hyperbollc meLhod base on deLermlnaLlon of Lhe dlfference of Lhe dlsLances beLween
Lhe polnL and Lwo seLs of Lwo known polnLs ln Lhls case Lhe locaLlon of Lhe polnL under
conslderaLlon ls deLermlned by Lhe lnLersecLlon of Lwo hyperbola
8ased on Lhe laLLer Lhree sysLem varlous elecLromagneLlc poslLlonlng meLhods have been
develop orlglnally for navlgaLlon aL sea and ln coasLal areas buL aL presenL used also as Lools
for surveylng 1hese meLhods are descrlbed ln secLlon 43
423 ueLermlnaLlon of waLer level
lor converslon of Lhe measured depLh lnLo a level wlLh respecL Lo Lhe daLum plane gauge
readlng have Lo be made durlng Lhe soundlng usually Lhe waLer level ln Lhe soundlng area ls
deLermlned by llnear lnLerpolaLlon beLween Lwo readlngs aL exlsLlng gauglng sLaLlons lf such
lnLerpolaLlon lnLroduces an error LhaL exceeds a few cenLlmeLers a Lemporary gauge should close
Lo Lhe soundlng area As Lhe error due Lo llnear lnLerpolaLlon over Llme should no be more Lhan a
few cenLlmeLers Lhe frequency of Lhe depends on Lhe raLe of change of Lhe waLer level 1herefore
durlng perlods of rapldly changlng waLer level frequenL readlngs area requlred
424 Soundlng
1he soundlng rod and soundlng llne were formerly Lhe convenLlonal Lools used Lo measure
Lhe depLh of waLer 1he accuracy of boLh meLhods ls llmlLed Lhe echo sounder has found wlde
appllcaLlon lnsLead because lL ls noL resLrlcLed by flow veloclLy and depLh lL ls Lherefore
unlversally more accepLable Lhan Lhe ouLofdaLe convenLlonal Lools lL also enables fasL
measuremenL of depLh
43 lnsLrumenLs
CpLlcal lnsLrumenLs such as Lhe range flnder and sexLanL are commonly used Lo deLermlne
Lhe locaLlon of sounded polnLs
431 CpLlcal and elecLronlc lnsLrumenLs for deLermlnaLlon of locaLlon
8ange llnder
1he colncldence Lype range flnder (see flg 344) can be Lo deLermlne Lhe dlsLance
beLween Lwo polnLs by observaLlons from one polnL only 1he prlnclple ls show ln 343 where L ls
Lhe dlsLance Lo be measured from polnL Lo Lhe base llne b 1he ob[ecL glasses 0 1 and 0 2 form an
lmage ln pS1 and S2 are mlrrors or prlsms aL Lhe ends of Lhe base llne and whlle a ray of llghL
Lhrough mlrror S1 always subLends a rlghL angle beLween polnL and Lhe base llne llghL rays
reflecLed Lhrough mlrror S2 can be roLaLed so LhaL Lhe lmages of polnL as seen ln plane p can be
made colnclde 1he degree of roLaLlon of mlrror S2 (angle o) ls a measure of Lhe dlsLance L whlch
ls shown dlrecLly on a dlsLance scale A range flnder havlng a base llne of 080 m whlch ls
common welghs approxlmaLely 6 kg range flnders of smaller slze havlng a base llne of 030 m
are easler Lo handle buL are noL as accuraLe
1he sexLanL measures angles Lhrough Lhe roLaLlon of a mlrror (see flg 6) flgure 7
shows graphlcally how Lhe angle ls measured 1he clrcular scale ls connecLed wlLh Lhe cenLre of
Lhe clrcle A small mlrror k ls flxed and a large mlrror C revolves round a verLlcal axls Lhrough Lhe
cenLre of Lhe clrcle 1he Lelescope only serves Lo enlarge and clarlfy Lhe vlew 1he cenL re llne of
Lhe Lelescope lnLersecLs Lhe upper rlm of Lhe small mlrror so LhaL Lhe dlrecL vlew of polnL L ls
obLalned ln Lhe upper hall of Lhe Lelescope whlle ln Lhe lower half Lhe Lwlce reflecLed vlew of
polnL 8 can be seen When Lhese lmages colnclde Lhe angle can be read on Lhe scale wlLh an
accuracy of up Lo half a mlnuLe lf Lhe locaLlons of npolnLs L and 8 are known Lhen Lhe observer
can be deLermlned
LlecLronlc lnsLrumenLs
LlecLronlc lnsLrumenLs are used parLlcularly lf Lhe dlsLances Lo be measured are 100 large for
measuremenLs of sufflclenL accuracy by opLlcal means 1hough usually easy Lo handle Lhese
lnsLrumenLs are noL only cosLly buL also raLher compllcaLed and Lherefore requlre skllled
Lechnlclans for servlclnsg and repalrs
Powever elecLronlc lnsLrumenLs enable consecuLlve measuremenLs and can be adapLed Lo
produce a dlrecL dlglLal lnpuL for processlng by compuLer
1he onedlmenslonal sysLem ls applled Lhe boaL moves ln a flxed crosssecLlon so LhaL Lhe
dlsLance Lo one base polnL on Lhe bank deLermlnes Lhe locaLlon of Lhe sounded polnL 1he Lwo
dlmenslonal sysLem ls applled for Lhe free soundlng sysLem
(l) Cnedlmenslonal radlo locaLlon sysLem (radlolog)
WlLh Lhls sysLem a porLable shorebased relay sLaLlon wlLh anLennae ls placed aL
polnL form whlLch Lhe dlsLance Lo Lhe zeromark of Lhe crosssecLlon ls known
AnoLher sLaLlon wlLh anLennae and Lhe necessary elecLronlc equlpmenL ls placed aboard Lhe
survey boaL 1he sLaLlon on board LransmlLs a radlo ware of a cerLaln frequency for lnsLance 343
MPz (ware 1) 1hls ware ls recelved by Lhe shorebased sLaLlon ampllfled and LransmlLLed aL
double Lhe frequency lc 866 MPz (ware 2) Cn board Lhe frequency of ware 1 ls also double Lo
686 MPz (ware 3) 1hls ls necessary Lo prevenL confuslon beLween Lhe LransmlLLed and recelved
waves
1he phase shlfL A8 of Lhe waves 2 and 3 ls measured elecLronlcally and converLed lnLo a dlsLance
lAL1A lC8MuLA
1he measuremenL ls conLlnuous and Lhe lncreases or decreases ln AL are LoLaled auLomaLlcally
1he LoLal dlsLance
lAL1A lC8MuLA
lor each serles of measuremenLs Lhe Lerm x has Lo be deLermlned by callbraLlon ln
advance a known dlsLance ls measured wlLh a Lape or range flnder and Lhe counLer ls ad[usLed
accordlngly L can Lhen be read dlrecLly from Lhe Lhe counLer lf for some reason Lhe
measuremenL ls lnLerrupLed lL musL be compleLely repeaLed afLer recallbraLlon
1he relaLlonshlp beL dlsLance measuremenL and slmulLaneous soundlng ls ploLLed on an
echogram A polnL appears on Lhe charL for each lncremenL of dlsLance of for lnsLance 10 m 8
shows Lhe radlolog sysLem schemaLlcally under favorable condlLlons dlsLances as greaL as 3 km
can be measured uslng a radlolog sysLem Powever hlgh bulldlngs brldges and hlgh Lenslon llnes
may lnfluence Lhe measuremenLs
(ll) 1wodlmenslonal radlo poslLlonlng sysLem
As already menLloned ln secLlon 42 Lhe clrcular Lhe polar an d Lhe hyperbollc meLhods can
dlsLlngulshed wlLh regard Lo Lhe geomeLrlcal base of Lhe poslLlonlng meLhods AnoLher
dlsLlncLlon can be made by conslderlng Lhe frequency of Lhe elecLromagneLlc waves used
Some sysLem make use of radlo waver lAL1A lC8MuLA
8adlo wave sysLem
1hese sysLem conslsL of masLer equlpmenL on board and aL leasL Lwo seLs of slave equlpmenL
whlch area place aL known polnLs ashore
AdvanLage Lhey are sulLable for mulLluse whlch means LhaL several survey boaLs each wlLh
only one recelver can make use of Lhe sysLem and Lhey exhlblr low senslLlvlLy Lo obsLacles
ulsadvanLages Lhey area senslLlve Lo lnLerference (le skywave dlsLurbance by reflecLlon by
Lhe lonosphere) and are sub[ecL Lo error becauser Lhe propagaLlon of Lhe waves depends on
Lhe condlLlons of Lhe soll (ln parLlcular landwaLer chan ges are sources of error)
Mlcrowave sysLem
1hese sysLem conslsL of masLer equlpmenL on board Lwo or more remoLes aL known polnLs
ashore
AdvanLages Lhe propagaLlon of Lhe wave depends very llLLle on Lhe condlLlon of Lhe soll and
Lhere ls no skywave
ulsadvanLeges Lhey are sulLable only slngleuse whlch means LhaL only one survey boaL flLLed
masLer equlpmenL can make use of Lhe sysLem are senslLlve Lo dlsLurbances by reflecLlon
from surfaces of hlgh conducLlvlLy such as oLher boasL sm ooLh waLer eLc and propagaLlon
ls almosL recLlllnear so LhaL masLer and remoLe musL operaLe under llne of slghL condlLlons
1he Lhlrd dlsLlncLlon can be made by conslderlng Lhe dlfference ln Lhe meLhods for
measurlng Lhe dlsLance ln some sysLem phasedlfference ls measured beLweer Lhe masLer
and Lhe remoLe slgnal ln oLher sysLem Lhe Llme Laken by Lhe slgnal Lo Lravel beLween masLer
and remoLe and back ls Lhe quanLlLy measured
Some of Lhe operaLlonal sysLem are
A Clrcular sysLem (slngleuse) range 10 Lo 70 km dependlng on Lhe clrcumsLances
1 PydrodlsL M882 Lwo ldenLlcal seLs of equlpmenL each havlng a masLer a masLer unlL (on
board) and one remoLe unlL (ashore) Lhe dlsLances are measured by Lhe phasedlfference
meLhod use of mlcrowaves wlLh frequency of abouL 3 x 10 Pz masLer and remoLe anLennae
have Lo be dlrecLed Lowards each oLher
2 Cublc AuLoLape one masLer (on board) and Lwo remoLe dlsLances measured by Lhe phase
dlfference meLhod use of mlcrowaves wlLh frequency of abouL 3 x 10 Pz Lhe masLer anLenna
ls omnldlrecLlonal (360) Lhe remoLe anLenna has Lo be dlrecLed wlLh regard Lo openlng
angle of 60
3 MoLorola 8S one masLer (on board) and Lwo remoLes dlsLances measured by Lhe Llme
lnLerval meLhod use of mlcrolwaves wlLh frequency ofm 93 x 10 Pz roLaLlng masLer
anLenna Lhe remoLe anLenna has Lo be dlrecLed wlLh regard Lo lLs openlngangle of 60
4 MoLorola Mlnl8anger Lspeclally sulLable for small dlsLances one masLer (on board) and
Lwo or more remoLes (maxlmum 4) dlsLances measured by Lhe Llme lnLerval meLhod use of
mlcrowaves wlLh frequency of 3 Lo 6 x 10 Pz omnldlrecLlonal masLer anLenna Lhe remoLe
anLenna has Lo be dlrecLed (openlng angle 60)