MICROEVOLUTION

1. How Natural Selection brings Evolution.

Natural Selection is the selective differential survival and reproduction of individuals (within a population), based on hereditary characteristics. This is due to environmental factors that exert a selection pressure on all the individuals in the population. Due to variation in the genotype, there is phenotypic variation among the population. The organisms that are selected for have a phenotype better suited to the environment, hence they survive and enjoy greater reproductive success. Due to differential reproductive success, the allele frequencies of these advantageous traits increase in the population over time. And when the allele frequency of a populations gene pool changes, evolution has occurred.

2. Why Variation is important.

With no variation, there is no differential reproductive success. Variation is what natural selection acts on, as among the different phenotypes the one best suited to the environment will be selected for leading to differential reproductive success. Sources of variation Meiosis (Independent assortment and crossing over) Random fusion of gametes Mutation

3. How Genetic Variation is Preserved.

Despite Natural Selections efforts some alleles remain in the gene pool, even the ones with negative effects (e.g. sickle cell anaemia gene). Here are the mechanisms~ 3.1 Diploidy
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Recessive alleles may not come under selective pressure, as they are not expresses in heterozygotes passed down and preserved in gene pool.

3.2 Heterozygote Superiority

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Heterozygotes at a particular locus may have greater survivability than homozygotes. E.g. Sicke-cell allele carriers resistance to Malaria

3.3 Frequency Dependent Selection

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The commonality of a phenotype is detrimental to its fitness the rare phenotypes enjoy greater differential reproductive success. E.g. Predators consume the most common type of prey; hence the rare phenotypes survive and pass on their rare alleles.

3.4 Neutral Variation

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Variations in non-coding DNA are neutral, and variations in coding DNA are neutral due to the degeneracy of DNA code. Neutral Variations do not come under selection pressure, thus are preserved.

4. Why Populations are the smallest units of Evolution.

Evolution is the change of allele frequency in a gene pool of a population over time. Natural selection acts on individuals, but individuals cannot evolve. The differential reproductive success of the selected individuals contributes a greater proportion of their advantageous genes into the gene pool over time, hence altering allele frequency, causing the evolution of the population.

5. The Neutral Theory Of Molecular Evolution

Refer to 3.4 Neutral Variation for an understanding of how certain mutations can be neutral. Change in allele frequencies does not only depend on natural selection, but neutral mutations as well. Over time, neutral mutations increase in frequency in a population and become fixed in all its members, or are lost entirely to genetic drift. The constant rate of these mutations can be used as a molecular clock

6. Other Mechanisms that change Allele frequencies

6.1 Genetic Drift Genetic Drifts are drastic changes in allele frequencies by Chance Events. They are especially significant in small populations, where alleles can be fixed or removed entirely from the population. 6.11 Founder Effect
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Occurs when a new colony forms from a few members from an original population. As members are few, the colony has a reduced genetic variation from the original population.

6.12 Bottleneck Effect

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Occurs when a population is drastically reduced in size by chance events. Subsequently, the reduced gene pool will have a reduced variety of alleles, with some being overrepresented, some underrepresented, and many absent.

6.121 Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
The bottleneck effect takes place when a catastrophic event greatly reduces population size without prejudice. It is possible, by chance, that the surviving members do not accurately represent their previous allele frequencies. The founder effect is similar, but takes place not through mass death, but when a small group becomes isolated from the rest and forms a new population. It is just as likely that these isolated individuals will not represent the previous allele

frequencies as it was with the survivors of the bottleneck effect.

6.122 How does genetic drift affect average heterozygosity?

The smaller the population size, the faster the decline in heterozygosity. This decline in heterozygosity is due to the increase in frequency of one of the alleles, which approaches fixation.

6.2 Non-Random Mating Occurrence of sexual selection affects which alleles are passed on.

6.3 Gene Flow Migration of individuals between populations reduces genetic differences between populations.

6.4 Artificial Selection The selection of particular phenotypes as a result of environmental pressures deliberately imposed by Man. It is deliberate and intentional!
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Examples: The domestication of plants (Corn, wheat and rice), livestock and pets

6.41 Differences between artificial and natural selection!

Features Selection Pressure by Selection of parents Intensity of selection Reproductive Fitness of selected individuals Variation

Natural Selection Environment Chance May not be intensive, unless change is sudden Increases Does not decrease, due to mechanisms in nature Unknown

Artificial Selection Man Deliberate Usually intensive Decreases, due to interbreeding Decreases, as undesirable traits are removed from gene pool Known

Identity of selected

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7. The 3 Modes of Natural Selection

7.1 Stabilizing Selection

Selection pressure is against individuals at both ends of the phenotypic distribution and favours the intermediates. Number of individuals showing the mean phenotype increases. Requirement: Environment needs to be stable over a period of time to allow a common phenotype to rise E.g. the mortality of rates of infants whose weight are higher or lower than 34kg are highest, hence the average weight of babies are 3-4 kg.

7.2 Directional Selection

Selection pressure is against individuals at one end of the distribution Occurs when environmental pressures progressively changes in one way

7.3 Disruptive Selection

Selection pressure is against individuals in the intermediate range of phenotypes, and favours the individuals at the extreme ends. Occurs during a drastic change of environmental factors. Two sub-species are created. E.g. When a new predator enters a lake, the smaller fish can escape and the larger ones can defend itself, leaving the medium sized ones as prey.

8. Examples of Natural Selection!

8.1 Industrial melanism in Peppered Moths! Before 1800, the typical phenotype was that with lightly patterned wings. Dark coloured or mosaic moths were rare. These moths camouflaged well with the colour of lichen-covered tree barks in the habitat they lived in. Hence its predators found it difficult to hunt them, hence these phenotype were selected for and had greater differential reproductive success and were more common in the population. After the Industrial revolution, the pollution caused the tree bark to darken and killed off the lichen. The lighter coloured moth became more conspicuous, hence becoming easier prey. The darker coloured moths camouflaged well, and thus could avoid predation and were selected for and experienced greater differential reproductive success hence became common in the population.

8.2 Heterozygote Superiority of sickle cell carriers. Sickle cell anaemia is the result of the mutant autosomal recessive haemoglobin gene. Homozygote recessive individuals always die from anaemia and are susceptible to malaria. However, in heterozygotes the recessive allele protects the individuals from malaria. Hence, in malaria infested areas the heterozygotes are selected for and have greater reproductive success than both homozygotes. Hence, the frequency of the recessive allele increases in the gene pool.

8.3 The Finches of the Galapagos Islands. Originally, one species of Finch migrated to the Galapagos from America. The ancestral finch was ground dwelling and seed eating. When the birds colonized the islands, the various ecological niches exerted different selection pressures on the populations, causing the populations to evolve in different ways. Over several generations, the beaks on the different finch populations became adapted for different diets; seeds, insects, flowers and leaves on various islands. Eventually, the populations evolved into 14 different species, each with its own song, food preferences and beak shapes. This is an example of Adaptive RadiationThe evolutionary diversification of a single ancestral form into a variety, each adapted to particular ecological niches.