Chapter 5

Ecology of Arabian deserts

An outline of the plant ecology of the Arabian deserts is necessary to understand the role played by plants in the entrapment of sand to build certain dunes and sand mounds, such as parabolic dunes and dikakah, and in stabilization of dunes and interdunes. In such arid environments it is remarkable that plants survive, and it is often surprising to see plants spring up and flourish briefly after prolonged intervals, even years, without rainfall in the desert. Since ecology is the scientific study of living organisms, their interrelationship and their relation to the environment, animal communities also have a significant role, such as camels and goats introduced by man, as well as the ecological effects of human occupation on fragile desert environments.

5.1 ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF ARABIA

Arabia can be divided into regions of distinctive ecology (Hearn et al., 2003; World Wildlife, 2001). These ecological regions are shown on the map (Fig. 5.1). These ecological regions are briefly described below with emphasis on their vegetation, which has a major effect on the deserts of Arabia. 5.1.1 Arabian desert and East Sahero-Arabian deserts and xeric shrublands This very large region includes most of Arabia, the Sinai Peninsula and all sand seas, stretching from the Persian Gulf coast to the Yemen border and from Jordan and Iraq to eastern Oman. It is a desert ecoregion with little biodiversity, although quite a few endemic plants grow in this region (Mandaville, 1986, 1990; Watts and Al-Nafie, 2003). In the Rub al Khali, diffuse shrub communities are dominated by Calligonum crinitum mainly on dunes, the saltbush Cornulacea arabica locally associated with Haloxylon persicum, tussocks of the sedge Cyperus conglomeratus, (Fig.5.2), Dipterygium glaucum, Limeum arabicum, Tribulus arabicus, and Zygophyllum mandavillei (Mandaville, 1986). Farther north, in the Emirates, Calligonum comosum is a woody perennial found on sand dune slopes, and some annuals grow after
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Fig. 5.1 Ecological regions of Arabia (Developed from the World Wildlife Fund for Nature divisions).

rain, such as the common Centropodia forskalii (Vahl). Trees are not found in the Rub al Khali, except on its northern edge, where Acacia ehrenbergiana and Prosopsis cineraria are found in wadis and interdune pans, as well as rarely along the southern edge of the Rub al Khali as at Mugshin. In the central An Nafud, Haloxylon persicum is found commonly, and also in the northern Nafud as Sirr, but Calligonum comosum is more common in the northern and central dunes (Watts and Al-Nafie, 2003). The Ramlat Al Wah bah is included in this ecoregion and has extensive stretches of Prosopsis cineraria woodland on its south-eastern margin and variable cover of Prosopsis on its northern-eastern border (Goudie et al., 1987). On the deserts of north and central Jordan, Artemisia sp., Zygophyllum dumosum, Chenolea arabica, Suaeda vermiculata, Traganum nudatum and Anabasis articulata are found sparsely on limestone, chert, and basalt terrain. In the sandstone desert country of southern Jordan, one finds Haloxylon persicum, Traganum nudatum, Zilla spinosa, Ferula sp. and some Acacia tortilis (Zohary, 1962). The Sinai Peninsula has a sparse vegetation cover consisting of semi-shrubs, mainly found along wadis, slopes of rocky hills and in sand fields. Acacia tortilis raddiana (Savi) is also found in large wadis in the Sinai (Danin, 1986a). Native fauna of this region include the Arabian white oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and the sand gazelle (Gazella subguterosa), as

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Fig. 5.2 Tussocks of the sedge Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. s.l., and the vascular flowering plant Tribulus arabicus Hosni on sand dunes near Ash Shaybah. (Identifications by J. P. Mandaville and H.S. Edgell, photo from M. Rasheeduddin.)

well as the mountain gazelle (G. gazelle) now reintroduced in the protected area of Uruq Bani Maarid. The ibex (Capra ibex nubiana) has survived, while the striped hyena, red fox, sand cat and caracal are other characteristic mammals. 5.1.2. Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert This ecoregion of flat and plateau desert covering 651,300 km2, is mainly najd and extends from the Gulf of Aqaba along the northern Red Sea and then along the western borders of the Hejaz and Asir. It also continues through the Hadramawt, interior Dhofar and the interior Jiddat al Harasis of eastern Oman. The vegetation is of the pseudo-savannah type with scattered trees, mostly species of Acacia along or near wadis and shrubs and herbs in between. Acacia tortilis, A. tortilis raddiana, A. gerrardii, plus Acacia ehrenbergiana, and Prosopsis cineraria in central Oman, are common trees. Other common plants are Balanites aegyptiaca, Capparis decidua, C. cartilaginea, Cordia gharaf, Calotropis procera, Ephedra foliata, Lavandula nubica, Moringa peregrina and Ziziyphus spina-christi. Interior Dhofar and the eastern Mahra are also the habitat of the low tree Boswellia sacra, which is the source of frankincense (Fig. 5.3).

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Fig. 5.3 A typical Boswellia sacra in interior Oman, near Hanun. The Bedouin cut the bark for the sap to ooze out, congealing as frankincense. (Photo and identification by H. S. Edgell.)

In the high Jabal al Lawz, the almond Prunus dulcis is found wild. Fauna characteristic of this ecoregion include the Arabian white oryx, sand gazelle, sand cat and Ruppells fox, as well as the monitor and spiny-tailed lizard. 5.1.3 South-western Arabian foothills savannah This ecoregion of xeric shrublands occurs along the inner side of the Asir and Hejaz, and more widely in the Hadramawt and Mahra. It includes flat plateaux and plains, with many wadis incised in plateau areas. The typical low scrub vegetation is dominated by Acacia trees, with grasses and herbaceous plants growing in the cooler season. Juniper shrubs together with some lichens and ferns grow in

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higher, wetter areas. The fauna is diverse including the rock hyrax, hyenas, badgers, mountain gazelles, ibex, caracals, Arabian wolves, Indian crested porcupines, and cape hares. In this desert ecoregion temperatures may average 30C with rainfall from 120 to 27 mm/year. 5.1.4 Arabian Peninsula fog desert This ecoregion along the eastern coasts of Yemen and Oman is strongly influenced by the South-West Monsoon between June and September, which produces dense fog and drizzly rain in areas like coastal Dhofar and its adjacent ranges. Fog precipitation is quite high, while rainfall in Dhofar is about 100 mm on the coastal plain and 200500 mm on Jabal Qara. On the southeastern Jiddat al Harasis (Fig. 14.3), where average annual rainfall is lower at ~50 mm, vegetation includes Acacia tortilis, A. ehrenbergiana and Prosopsis cineraria. There is dense deciduous woodland on the southern slopes of Jabal Qara in Dhofar dominated by the endemic tree Anogeissus dhofarica, (Fig. 5.4) associated with Cadia purpurea, Euclea schimperi, and occasional Ficus vasta (Radcliffe-Smith, 1980). This is the densest woodland anywhere in Arabia and the flora of coastal Dhofar and the ranges is so diverse that it was described as a real paradise in the wilderness (Bent and Bent,

Fig. 5.4 The thickly wooded south-facing eastern Jabal Qara near Darbat dominated by the tree Anogeissus dhofarica Scott, part of the so-called fog desert. (Photo and identification by H. S. Edgell.)

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1900). At higher altitudes, there are semi-deciduous thickets of Olea europea, Dodonaea viscosa, Carissa edulis and Rhus somalensis. On the plateau areas, grassland dominates with scattered trees of Ficus vasta and F. sycomorus. The Jabal Areys volcanic massif, on the southern coast of Yemen, is also clouded by fog in summer and has shrubland dominated by Euphorbia balsamifera on its slope facing the sea (Llewellyn-Smith, 2001). The fauna is very varied with the Arabian gazelle, the Nubian ibex, both Ruppells fox and the red fox, caracal, honey badger and Arabian fox, as well as the Arabian leopard now in rare numbers. The Arabian white oryx has been reintroduced in the Jiddat al Harasis (Fig. 14.4). 5.1.5 Socotra Island xeric shrublands The South-West Monsoon also affects Socotra (Soqutra) Island and nearby islands of Abd al Kuri, Darsa and Samhah, but except for the 1,503 m high Jabal Haggier most plains and low plateaux receive only 150 mm of rain. These areas are mostly open deciduous shrubland with Croton socotranus dominant and scattered Euphorbia arbuscula, Dendrosicyos socotranus and Ziziphus spina-christi. Curiously Dendrosicyos is the only member of the cucumber family to grow in tree form (Evans, 2001). The vegetation is partly endemic containing many links to Africa. Small sand dunes occur in parts of the southern plain. 5.1.6 Red Sea coastal desert Extending along the Arabian Red Sea desert coastline from the Gulf of Suez, this ecoregion is characterized by its aridity, high temperatures and high salinity. Many widyan transect this coastal strip, and mangroves occur where some widyan flow into the Red Sea. There are scattered palm trees on the coastal plain, including many common date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) growing wild (Fig. 5.5). The Nubian dragon tree Dracaena ombet is found at higher altitudes and several species of Euphorbia are found at middle elevations. Amongst the fauna, there are groups of dorcas gazelle, rare Nubian ibex in the mountain hinterland, as well as many white-eyed gulls and other seabirds along the shoreline. 5.1.7 South-western Arabian montane woodlands The southern Asir and most of the western highlands of Yemen form an area of good rainfall with cloud forest of lichen-festooned junipers, a great variety of plants estimated at over 2,000 species, and a large number of animal species including troops of baboons, the caracal, Arabian wolf and rock hyrax. It is not a desert ecoregion and is, therefore, mentioned very briefly. 5.1.8 Al Hajar montane woodlands The arc of the Oman Mountains, or Al Hajar, is largely composed of dark ophiolites, which do not encourage vegetation, with areas of carbonate rocks to the

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Fig. 5.5 The date palm Phoenix dactylifera growing wild in the western Sinai Peninsula, part of the Red Sea Coastal Desert. The adjacent outcrops are Nubian Sandstone.

north, where soils are richer and the vegetation more varied. In wadis of lower parts of the mountains, there occur Ziziphus spina-christi, Acacia tortilis, Prosopsis cineraria and fig species, mostly Ficus salicifolia. Between 1,000 and 1,500 m, a woodland vegetation of Euphorbia larica, Acacia tortilis, A. gerrardii and Periploca aphylla is found. In the highest parts, above 2,000 m, junipers form open woodland (Ghazanfar, 1999). Protected gazelle and a wild goat, the Arabian tahr, are elements of the fauna. The paucity of vegetation over the extensive ophiolite terrain, combined with a rainfall below 200 mm a year in all except the high parts of Al Hajar, render most of this ecoregion mountain desert with woodland in restricted higher areas. 5.1.9 Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert Included in this ecoregion is the north-eastern border of the Arabian Peninsula of the Batain coast from Barr al Hikman to Ras al Hadd and Muscat. It also extends along the Batinah coast and the Musandam Peninsula to the north-eastern coastal plain of the UAE. This diverse ecoregion also includes the pediments and fans or bajada of interior Oman south of Al Hajar. It surrounds the quite different environments of Al Hajar montane woodlands and of the Ramlat Al Wahbah sand sea. Most of the region is desert outwash plain, except for the rugged, dissected, Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone terrain of the Ruus al Jibal and Musandam Peninsula. Amongst the vegetation, trees of Acacia tortilis and

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Ziziphus spina-christi are common. In the Ruus al Jibal, the willow leaf fig Ficus salicifolia occurs along stony wadi floors, while slopes supporting the thistle Echinops spinosissimus and the cactus-like Caralluma sp., are common, while the succulent tree Moringa peregrina clings to rock faces. On the higher plateau of the Ruus al Jibal, Dodonaea viscosa lines wadis, and the shrub-like tree Prunus arabica is found together with common Ficus carica (Western, 1985). Along the Batinah coast, Acacia tortilis occurs commonly with Prosopsis cineraria in sandy areas. One type of mangrove, Avicennia marina, grows along parts of the north-eastern coast of the UAE, with land flora similar to the Batinah. Bird species are numerous, but native animals, like the Arabian leopard and Arabian tahr, are very rare. The four species of turtles found at Ras al Hadd, and the largest nesting population of loggerhead turtles on Masirah Island are exceptions. 5.1.10 Persian Gulf-Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert This ecoregion lies along the north-eastern coast of Saudi Arabia, including coastal Kuwait, Bahrain, the western coastline of Qatar, and parts of the western coast of the UAE. It consists of low desert plains, which are deserts and xeric shrublands. In intertidal areas, there is often an outer mangrove zone with Avicennia marina, a halophyte zone with Arthrocnemon macrostacbyum and Halocnemon strobliaceum, followed by a supratidal marsh grass zone dominated by the reed Phragmites communis (Basson et al., 1981). Hummocky sand areas known as dikakah, or nabkha (nabkhah), and retained by low shrubs or grass tussocks are common in this ecoregion (Fig. 5.6). Commonly occurring shrubs include Haloxylon salicornum, Rhanterium epapposum and Calligonum comosum, while the most widespread grasses are what Bedouin call thumam or Panicum turgidum and Stipa capensis. The sedge Cyperus conglomeratus is also common. In Al Hasa oases and along their Aftan River, or Hofuf River outflow, reeds occur like Phragmites (Fig. 5.7), as well as Tamarix spp. and the introduced Prosopsis juliflora (Bundy et al., 1989). On saline gravel plains in Qatar, Acacia ehrenbergiana, Prosopsis cineraria and P. juliflora occur, while on sabkhah edges Salsola baysoma, Halocnemum strobilaceum and Anabasis setifera are found (Ber and Al-Hajri, 2003). The sparse fauna include the red fox, Cape hare and Ethiopian hedgehog. 5.1.11 TigrisEuphratesKarun alluvial salt marsh This arid, delta area is mostly saline sediment, but includes areas of marsh and some salty lakes. Most of this ecoregion is now salt encrusted barren desert. In the Hawr al Hawizeh marshland, the common reed Phragmites grows 1.53.6 m tall, and the bulrush is also common, as well as Cyperus sedge. Date palms and tamarisk trees are indigenous, while forests of cedar and poplar occur on the banks of waterways and on some islands. The fauna includes wild boar, otter, jackal, red fox, striped hyena, Indian mongoose and the goitered gazelle.

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Fig. 5.6 Dikakah terrain near Abu Hadriyah, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia with sand anchored by grass clumps of Panicum turgidum Forsk. (Botanical identification by J. P. Mandaville.)

Fig. 5.7 Phragmites growing along the Aftan, or Hofuf River outflow from Al Hasa oases to the Gulf of Bahrain. (Photo from the Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia.)

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5.1.12 Mesopotamian shrub desert This ecoregion encompasses most of the Syrian Desert (Badiyat ash Sham). It lies at elevations of between 600 m in the west, and 100 m in the east where it also includes the upper valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is a transitional ecoregion between the steppes to the north and great deserts to the south. In the spring, it is decked with a carpet of flowers, including grasses, anemones, asphodels and umbellifers, which wither away in the burning heat of summer. Towards the eastern edge of this region, in the foothills of the Zagros Ranges, umbrella-thorn Acacia trees, woody, dwarf shrubs and a shrubby species of rock-rose grow in rocky, gravelly areas. Aspen and tamarisk trees are found along the river channels, while reeds and rushes occur in the rare wetlands. At Sabkhat Muh, just south of Palmyra, Tamarix bushes grow around the lake margins, and the surrounding desert is sparsely vegetated with tussock-grass, Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia sp. Fauna includes Asiatic jackals, striped hyenas, goitered gazelle, wolves, wild boar and the Euphrates jerboa. 5.1.13 Middle East steppe Vegetation, similar to that of the Iran-Turanian ecoregion consists of herbaceous and dwarf shrub sage brushland with Artemesia sieberi on non-saline soils, associated with grasses, such as Poa bulbosa. On stony soil, Hammada scoparia is found (Buff, 2001). Thickets of Populus euphratica, Tamarix and Typha are found along rivers, while Phragmites reed beds are found in rare wetland areas.

5.2

DESERT PLANT COMMUNITIES

This brief summary of major desert plant communities deals mainly with desert sand dune areas. Watts and Al-Nafie (2003) list the following: 5.2.1 Calligonum comosum community

This is the dominant plant community of sand dunes of northern and central Saudi Arabia, such as An Nafud, northern Ad Dahna, and Nafud ath Thuwayrat. It is found associated with Artemisia monosperma and Scrophularia hypericifolia on the upper surfaces of deep dune sands. Calligonum comosum has quite long roots, and grows to 1.65 m, rarely up to 3.90 m (Fig. 5.8), and is called abal by the Bedouin. 5.2.2 Haloxylon persicum community

Known to the Arabs as ghadha and a major source of firewood in the desert, Haloxylon persicum is a large shrub or, semi-tree 2.74.0 m tall. It grows in the central An Nafud, north-eastern Nafud as Sirr, and in dunes west and south of Unayzah, as well as in the eastern sands south of 26 30 N and on the northwestern and western margins of the Rub al Khali (Mandaville, 1990). Preferring

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Fig. 5.8 A bush of Calligonum comosum in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. (Photo credit N. Al-Homaid.) (Identification by H. S. Edgell confirmed by J. P. Mandaville.)

alkaline soils, it grows in low hollows with Haloxylon salicornum, and Scrophularia hypericifolia, but in An Nafud it grows on less saline parts of dunes with Artemesia monosperma and Stipagrostis drarii (Watts and Al-Nafie, 2003). 5.2.3 Artemesia monosperma community

This community dominated by Artemesia monosperma is found in the northern Ad Dahna, parts of An Nafud, and commonly in Nafud ath Thuwayrat, Nafud as Sirr and Nafud Qunayfidah, but not in the Rub al Khali. It also occurs in Sinai and Palestine and is an important sand-binding species with a deep and extensive root system. In northern and central Saudi Arabia it grows to a height of about 1 m, being dominant, from 77.5 to 82.5%, in parts of Nafud ath Thuwayrat (Watts and Al-Nafie, 2003), and is usually associated with Echinops sp., Scrophularia hypericifolia, Calligonum comosum, Ephdera alata, Stipagrostis drarii, Haloxylon persicum and H. salicornicum. 5.2.4 Scrophularia hypericifolia community

Although, relatively a component of sand seas, this low shrub community can be dominant in places on deep sands in Ad Dahna north of 26 N. Other members of

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this community are Artemisia monosperma and Echinops spp., with Rhanterium epapposum and Ephedra alata found on the edges of this community in shallow sand. 5.2.5 Stipagrostis drarii community

Found on sand sea areas over the entire Arabian Peninsula, Stipagrostis drarii prefers the lee slopes of large dunes and has sand-binding roots, as well as flexible stems adjustable to sand movement and abrasion. This psammophytic species forms stands up to 1.6 m tall, especially on steep slopes of sand mountains of Nafud ath Thuwayrat, Ad Dahna and An Nafud. Common associated species include Calligonum comosum, Scrophularia hypericifolia, Artemisia monosperma, Stipagrostis plumosa and Cyperus conglomeratus. 5.2.6 Cornulacea arabica community

This prickly shrublet dominates plant communities in the northern and central Rub al Khali from Al Kidan to Al Ubaylah and as far south as 19 N. It grows closely spaced on the megabarchans of Al Kidan and can be seen in the Uruq al Mutaridah growing in lines 12 m above the sabkhah. Some other species in the community are Cyperus conglomeratus, Limeum arabicum and Dipterygium glaucum (Mandaville, 1986, 1990). 5.2.7 Calligonum crinitum and Dipterygium glaucum community

Calligonum crinitum occurs widely in the Rub al Khali and is a woody shrub up to 2.5 m tall, preferring higher, well-drained sands. The subspecies Calligonum crinitum arabicum is endemic to the Rub al Khali. It occurs widely throughout the southern and north-eastern parts of this desert, generally with Dipterygium glaucum and the ubiquitous Cyperus conglomeratus. Locally, Dipterygium glaucum may dominate, as in the Uruq al Awarik in the central south-western Rub al Khali (Mandaville, 1986). Plant communities found in non-dune or shallow sand environments are: 5.2.8 Haloxylon salicornicum community

This community is common in the plains of north-eastern Arabia from Iraq to the northern Rub Al Khali, prefers interdune locations and can also occur on hard gravel. It is sometimes associated with Haloxylon persicum. 5.2.9 Rhanterium epapposum community

Generally widespread over the plains of north-eastern Arabia, this community also occurs to the north-east of An Nafud in Al Labbah plateau and was observed

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in pure strands near Qaryat al Ulya south of the Wariah ridge (Mandaville, 1990). It is also dominant near Umm Qasr in southeastern Iraq (Guest, 1966). 5.2.10 Seidlitzia rosmarinus community

Dominant on coastal and inland sabkhah areas, this community also likes internal, undrained depressions and is called shin by the Bedouin. On sandy edges around sabkhah, it is frequently accompanied by Haloxylon salicornicum.

5.3

THE INFLUENCE OF HUMAN OCCUPATION ON ARABIAN DESERTS

The advent of man to the fragile desert environments of Arabia has had many adverse consequences. Among these are overgrazing, woodcutting, cultivation, construction, vehicular use, and recreation. 5.3.1 Effects of overgrazing The introduction of herds of goats and camels, and flocks of sheep, by man into desert areas of Arabia has caused considerable loss of natural vegetation and undoubtedly increased the aridity of the region. Herds of goats are particularly destructive of native vegetation. Because of their adaptability to dryland conditions goats are widely used by rural Arabs, and have been removing native vegetation for thousands of years. Camels graze happily on thornbush and on almost any other vegetation in desert areas, especially the higher stems and branches. A great reduction in natural vegetation has occurred, especially in northern Arabia, where there is a greater rural population. Ever since the oil industry in Saudi Arabia established the Tapline with numerous pumping stations and available water, Bedouin have changed from nomadic grazing to yearlong grazing by increased livestock as new water supplies opened up areas that were previously less accessible seasonally. The result has been destruction of vegetation in a 50 km wide strip some 250 km long south of Rafha and in Ad Dahna sands. Planned settlement of Bedouin in the Wadi as Sirhan area near bores has also caused extensive overgrazing there (Heady, 2003). It has been suggested that the rapid accretion of dunes in the north-eastern Emirates is the result of intensified human occupation coincident with expansion of the Abbasid Empire Goudie et al., (2000). The ever growing rural population of Arabia has certainly caused increased aridity. A biogenic crust develops even on desert sand dunes in moist northern areas, and Karnieli and Tsoar (1995) have shown how this cyanobacterial crust has been removed in the Sinai Desert of Egypt by the activities of man, primarily overgrazing, whereas in the Negev sands this dark biogenic crust is still present (Fig. 8.21).

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5.3.2 Woodcutting The continual search for firewood by pastoral groups has also led to reduction in vegetation and is especially noticeable in najd areas where there is usually a low density of native plants. The preferred plants for wood users in desert sand seas are the shrubs Calligonum comosum and Haloxylon persicum. In addition, an increasing number of villages have cut down surrounding shrubs and small trees for cooking. In Arabia, mangroves (Avicennia marina) have been removed in great quantities along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coasts. In the Hadramawt, where population density is quite high, little remains of the native vegetation after at least 7,000 years of human occupation although Prosopsis juliflora is still exploited around Sayun. 5.3.3 Cultivation In the last 30 years there has been a very rapid expansion in cultivation in arid areas of Saudi Arabia and to a lesser extent in Oman. This has been caused by centre-pivot irrigation based on wells drilled into fossil aquifers (Elhady, 2004), which will never be replenished. Wheat and other crops are now grown unnaturally in desert areas, often between the dunes, as seen in Nafud as Sirr and Nafud ath Thuwayrat. Groundwater depletion has been very rapid causing the death of palms and tamarisks. 5.3.4 Construction Population growth and industrialization have led to a rapid expansion of urban centres, so that cities like Ar Riyadh now occupy large areas of desert, and new industrial sites are occupying an increasing area of desert, as well as the many roads and airfields leading to them. While it can be said that the waste from desalinated water pumped to Ar Riyadh has made the desert bloom in areas like Al Kharj, it has also led to a rapid rise in the saline water table. Settlements, such as Ash Sharawrah, which is a military base, on the southern edge of the Rub al Khali Desert, now claim a population of 40,000. Oil exploitation has also led to construction of settlements, like Ash Shaybah (Fig. 5.9), which is situated in the heart of the Rub al Khali Desert. Asphalted roads and numerous buildings, pipelines, and gas/oil separation plants (GOSPS) have impacted on the fragile desert ecosystem. These facilities are still on a small scale, when compared with the huge size of the Rub al Khali, and its giant dunes as shown in Fig. 5.10. 5.3.5 Vehicular use and recreation The extensive use of vehicles, mostly four-wheel drive, in desert areas has seen the destruction of fragile desert surfaces. Thin soils built up over thousands of years never recover from the passage of vehicles. This also applies to areas of sabkhah and khabra or claypan. The construction of paved roads in many areas helps to alleviate

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Fig. 5.9 Oil development facilities of Ash Shaybah, mainly gas-oil separator plants (GOSPS) between the megabarchanoid dunes of the Uruq ash Shaybah in the eastern Rub al Khali. (Photo credit AramcoExpats www.aramcoexpats.com/101_716.jpg)

the problem, but the natural balance in desert dune areas is never regained. In many Arab countries, it is customary to camp in the desert during cooler parts of the year as a form of recreation, but the desert is scarred by their sports utility vehicles. A ditch 2.5 m wide and 2 m deep was dug along the entire border between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to prevent smuggling, but kept rapidly filling with wind-blown sand, was ineffective and recommended to be filled in (Edgell, 1988a). In Iraq, after two military campaigns using massive military vehicles, there is great destruction to the desert environment, quite apart from the deadly contamination by depleted uranium in ammunition. Lakes of oil deliberately released in Kuwait by the Iraqi Army in the 1991 Gulf War were up to 2.5 m deep and contaminated the environment, as well as the north-eastern shores of Saudi Arabia. The movement of armies and their vehicles during the first Gulf War in 1991 and the Iraq war in 20032005 has caused the fragile desert pavements laid down over thousands of years to be broken and destroyed over large areas of north-eastern Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and many areas of Iraq. This caused a dramatic increase in the number of violent sandstorms and dust storms, new dunes blocked roads in northern Kuwait (El-Baz, 1992), and pilots reported a doubling of dust storms following the IraqIran war in the 1980s.

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Fig. 5.10 A satellite view of oil development facilities at Ash Shaybah, in the eastern Rub al Khali, among giant megabarchans showing their relatively small scale in relation to the huge dunefield in which they are situated. Facilities include gas/oil separation plants (left), airfield, numerous roads and housing and administration (right). It is a measure of the stability of these old megadunes that roads have been constructed across them, in front of slip faces, and even along their crests (middle right). Estimated elevation of the airfield is 75 m and the dune to the SW has an estimated elevation of 148 m. Part of a dune NW of the airfield has been cut back to make extra space. Image width is 11.7 km. (NASA Landsat 7 image 2000 series, courtesy of nasa.gov/mrsid/mrsid.pl)

Another example is the bulldozing by Israeli forces of a 40-ft wall of sand called the Bar Lev line on the eastern side of the Suez Canal in 1974, which altered the configuration of dunes in part of the Sinai Peninsula (El-Baz, 1991). 5.3.6 Desertification Desertification is the process by which susceptible areas lose their productive capacity, and land degradation occurs in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, mainly as a result of human activities and climatic variations. With increasing global warming, now understood to be anthropogenic, the climatic changes in the last 50 years has been entirely negative, especially for Arabia, where the arid environments, thin soils, and encroaching dunes were always a problem. Dryland degradation affects a billion people and up to 70% of arid and semi-arid land world-wide (FAO, 2002). In Arabia, the most widespread land degradation is vegetation degradation in rangelands caused by overgrazing and woodcutting.

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There has also been land degradation by salinization of irrigated land in southern Iraq, and by unwise use of limited fossil groundwater resources in the pivot irrigation areas of Saudi Arabia (Elhady, 2004). Use of groundwater in the najd of interior Dhofar, southern Oman, has led to the establishment of many new settlements at Thumrayt, Shisur, Fasad, Dawkah and Mugshin, but their long term existence is in doubt due to rapidly falling groundwater levels. The artificial settlement of man in the fragile environments of Arabian deserts is unsustainable over a prolonged period. In addition, wind erosion and soil destruction has been greatly speeded up by increased vehicular use on fragile soils and desert pavements (Fig. 16.26). A study of desertification of arid lands (Drenge, 1986, 2002) has shown that almost all of Jordan, western Syria, and most of Iraq suffer from severe desertification, as also the Tihamah and adjacent highlands. The Arabian Shield, Hadramawt, Dhofar, Al Hajar, and most of northern Saudi Arabia are classed as areas of moderate desertification (see Fig. 5.11).

Fig. 5.11 Areas of desertification in Arabia. Much of Arabia is hyper-arid, but severe desertification occurs in Jordan, Syria and much of Iraq. Moderate desertification occurs in the Arabian Shield and Oman Mountains, but is only slight in the inner Hadramawt and Jddat al Harasis of Oman. (Extract from a map of desertification in Asia by Drenge 1986.)