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Domestication of small-scale renewable energy systems A case study of air heat pumps, residential micro wind stations and solar thermal collectors in Finland
Jouni K. Juntunen1 1 Aalto University, School of Economics, Helsinki, Finland

Abstract A thorough understanding of the user is crucial in technological design and development. The domestication framework has been used in sociology of consumption to open up technology adaptation processes where technology becomes part of the everyday life of people. This study applies domestication framework for air heat pumps, solar thermal collectors and micro-wind generator technologies. An experimental case study is based on semi-structured interviews and observation of residential household and summer cottages in Finland. Trialing of technology and incremental increase of usage and further investing demonstrate users to aim for smooth evolutionary approach in energy technology adaptation. Modularity, extendibility, interoperability with other energy systems are key design requirements to enhance adaptation. Keywords: renewable energy, sociology of consumption, domestication, air heat pump, solar energy, wind energy 1 INTRODUCTION Historically energy provision became based on networked infrastructure and centralized systems, which has led to a passive role for the most energy end-users [1,2]. From residential housing viewpoint energy systems work in the background and provide air and water heating and cooling with minimal requirement of daily monitoring, configuring or maintenance by inhabitants. However, the need for low carbon solutions and rising energy prices are changing local residential energy consumption and renewable energy is increasingly produced locally on site, which makes production distributed, requires technology adaptation, learning of use and changes or considerations in inhabitants daily life. Domestication is a concept within studies of the sociology of technology that has been developed to describe and analyze processes of technologys acceptance, rejection and use. The concept [35] emerged from a series of studies, which sought to understand the appropriation of artifacts in the specific social setting of the home [6]. However, the sociology of consumption is not especially well equipped to deal with domestic infrastructures supporting the evolution of normal standards of daily material life [7]. Thus the framework has been rarely used for infrastructure type of technologies, such as residential energy systems. Now that residential renewable energy systems are breaking away from the infrastructure role and becoming more visible and meaningful for consumers, a new avenue opens up for researchers. In this paper the domestication framework is applied for three different residential renewable energy technology, air heat pumps (AHP), micro wind stations (WS) and solar thermal collectors (STC). These technologies have significant differences regarding daily use and needed user involvement. Air heat pump technology is visible and designed for frequent user interaction. Wind station performance is subject to changes in wind conditions. In the optimal case solar thermal collectors work in the background without need of attention. The research question I ask is: what kind of domestication processes are involved with residential sustainable energy production and use? The advancement of innovation research has lead to the blurring of the distinction between design, implementation and use [8]. Research on the social shaping of renewable energy technology in the context of residential housing provides valuable insights for designers and policy makers for understanding inhabitants role when designing and regulating residential energy systems. In the following, I will first elaborate on domestication framework used for empirical analysis. This is followed by a section explaining data sets and methods of this study. Three different technologies are analyzed within the domestication framework. Finally, a discussion of these findings, study implications and limitations of current study. 2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 2.1 Domestication framework Domestication as a concept originated in large part from anthropology and consumption studies [9]. The concept represented a shift away from models, which assumed the adoption of new innovations to be rational, linear,

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monocausal and technologically determined. It presented a framework and research approach, which is taking into account diversity and complexity of everyday life and technologys place within its dynamics, ritual, rules and routines [5]. Through domestication artifacts become invisible taken for granted elements of everyday life [6]. Silverstone and his colleagues have presented theoretical scheme to study use of technology by proposing four dimension or states in a households dynamic uptake of a technology. After purchase an object goes through a process of appropriation (1), whereby it is taken possession of by its users. In this stage objects acquire a meaning and become authentic. During the objectification (2) an object is installed and finds its place in household. An object becomes incorporated (3) when it starts being integrated into routines and habits. In conversion (4) users display their ownership of a new product to the outside world both by displaying the object via discourse [10]. Domestication can be seen as period in the biography of artifact about its introduction into the domestic setting. The process of consumption and of embedding the object into the household is one of sense making, of transformation the alien object to ascribe it meaning in the symbolic reality of the household [5]. Biographies of things describe change and transformation of technology but at the same time they reveal the changing qualities of the shaping environments through which they pass [10,12]. In consumption consumed item is incorporated into the personal and social identity of the consumer [13,14]. At the same time people generate interpretations and application of technological systems that often diverge from the ones originally inscribed in them [15]. In this domestication represents a step away from the belief in the one-sided transformative power of technology: an area that the domestication approach clearly develops further was the study of innovation and diffusion [5]. The domestication of consumer goods has been relatively widely studied starting from 90s [9,16]. Previous studies have examined especially electronics and media technology in considering the contexts in which ICT were experienced [17,18,5,19,16]. But it has proved to be useful tool for analyzing for example e-learning technologies [20] and health technology [14]. Aunes study of energy use and metering are rare example of a domestication study concerning energy technology [21,22]. Before presenting domestication processes of residential renewable energy technology, I first briefly outline the Finnish market for the technology, provide basic descriptions of three case technologies and introduce data and methods.

Small-scale renewable energy production in Finland The usage of renewable energy sources in Finland has steadily increased. Raising energy prices, progress in renewable energy technologies, energy regulation changes and changes in attitudes towards sustainable lifestyle are increasing demand of renewable energy systems such as air heat pumps, micro wind stations and solar thermal collectors. There are 1,1 million detached houses in Finland, which have over 100 000 Air Heat Pumps (AHP) and over 14 000 Exhaust Air Heat Pumps (EAHP) installed [23]. Solar thermal market is very small in Finland. In 2009 installation area was in total 26973 m2 which produces 18 881 KW(th) worth of energy [24]. Micro wind is very rarely used and statistics include only commercial projects and capacity. An air heat pump is used for both cooling and heating. External unit of the device diverts heat from outside air in to heat up air, which is blown via internal unit into a building. In the process a pump can provide up to 2-4 COP (co-efficiency of performance) compared to direct electric heating. Air heat pump can usually be used for cooling purposes, which is electricity-consuming activity. A solar thermal collector converts solar radiation into a more usable or storable form such as water. Water is stored to hot water cylinder. To prevent freezing of collector in Nordic climate, mixture of water and propylene glycol is used as heat exchange fluid that heats water in heat exchanger. Living area is heated by radiant heating where heated water is circulated in radiators or in underfloor heating. Micro wind micro-wind generators can provide electricity for private use in both rural and urban environments. In Finland micro wind is often used to power up off-grid summerhouses, but it can be used to replace residential energy consumption by self produced renewable energy. Batteries are used to store generated electricity.
2.2

3 DATA AND METHODS The study was organized around semi structured in-depth interviews. This article focuses on inhabitants who live in private homes and in summer cottages throughout Finland. Interviewed users were selected via Internet discussion forums and via personal networking. The data includes 3 air heat pump cases, 3 solar thermal collector cases and 2 micro wind cases. These seven 30-60 minutes interviews included 7 men and 2 women (one interview for couple). The requirements for wanted users were: (1) Nonprofessional user whos work is not involved in commercial development of residential energy technology and systems (2) Is using case products in detached family house or summer cottage and has freedom to make decision regarding own energy system purchases and use

Proceedings of EcoDesign 2011 International Symposium

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(3) Has been using the system over a year. A screening of Internet forums was used for finding and selecting suitable persons for long interviews. The forums used were ilmalampopumput.info (discussion on usage experiences section) and ilmaisenergia.info (discussion on solar thermal general and own projects section). Analysis is based on triangulation of data sets from forums, interviews and observations. One user visit, observation, was carried out in northern Finland. 4 DOMESTICATION PROCESSES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 4.1 Appropriation Why are the consumers bothering with their own energy production when there is a countrywide grid available and energy can simply be taken from a plug on a wall? There is motivation to save in energy cost, but surprisingly often a reason for renewable energy investments was convenience or easier use energy system. Combining renewable energy technologies with existing systems can make system use more convenient overall or help only in some parts of the year. User of wood pellet heating was satisfied to old system configuration on wintertime, but summer time solar thermal collector takes over and provides free energy without any maintenance and make energy provision very convenient. According previous studies people who manifest strong environmental concerns have strong motivations to set up small-scale production plants [25]. In this study sustainability was not among main reasons to install renewable energy technology. For rather special and niche type of technology that is not widely adopted, such as solar thermal collectors or Solar PV in Palm and Tengvard study, people stress more environmental concern as motivation. Different motivations and reasons associated with selecting renewable energy technology for domestic use can be recognized especially between permanent residence and temporary summer cottage. For adults primitive summer cottage conditions can be well thought choice. In Finland summer cottage conditions can be rather primitive, but this makes possible sensuously rich experience [26]. For teenagers living without electricity can be annoyance and balance is sought: When twins were teenagers, they wanted to have television in the summer cottage and solar panel was then installed. Later on I installed also wind generator to extend power availability for darker period on autumn (summer cottage 1) . Electricity availability is significant upgrade and brings possibility to add new appliances to summer cottage. However meaning of technology changes over time. For example a summer cottage wind generator user described how television for kids lost significance when they were not visiting the place, and new activities and needs took

Table 1: Energy systems at case houses Interviewee Householder 1 Householder 2 Householder 3 Householder 4 Householder 5 Householder 6 Summer cottage 1 Summer cottage 2 Energy systems installed AHP, electrical heating AHP, electrical heating AHP, oil Wood pellets, STC, oil STC, oil STC, wood stove, AHP WS, PV solar WS, AHP, electrical heating

over. Charging a mobile phone became the most important utility electricity can do. Cost saving motivation was present in this case only via alternative cost of providing electricity. Grid can be extended to new locations, but connection fee is high and with own renewable energy production the cost can be avoided. 4.2 Objectification and incorporation All air heat pumps and two solar thermal collectors and one wind generator case was installed by services companies. One solar thermal collector and Micro-wind station was an self-installation. Installation of the system In air heat pump cases placing of both internal and external unit required careful consideration. Noise and wintertime ice forming put requirements for external unit location. In countryside even insignificant metallic industrial noise can be considered annoying. Although units are relatively large, when asked, users said not to be bothered of aesthetics but at the same time they describe how they covered external unit with a hut. In a similar way, solar thermal system has both internal and external parts. Solar collectors are installed on the roof on south or west side and unit is not visible internally in the house. With larger roof renovation embedding of collector is easy and flat collector becomes almost invisible. But even in most typical installation, where collectors are clearly visible on the roof, solar collectors on roof were not considered disturbing. Good wind conditions are basic requirement in selection of wind station location. Area should be open, preferable from all directions. In principle higher the installation tower, better the wind condition is, but in real environment there are many factors that should be taken into considerations. Initially it was one block higher, but I removed 1 meter. I noticed that trees have fewer branches down here. I have also removed some branches (Summer cottage 1) . Local adaptations The interviews reveal how people do small modifications to the systems. Following three cases are examples of

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micro innovations, adaptations and configuration done by users to increase usability the system, ease of use and comfort. (1) In solar thermal collectors performance is not optimal early spring or late autumn. Additional valves are installed to improve performance (Householder 4). (2) In a room with high ceiling reconfigurations for air heat pump is done by installing extension cord for for sensor to improve temperature metering accuracy (Householder 2). (3) In Nordic climate winter is causing maintenance for air heat pump users. A pump creates frost and ice that cumulates and can cause damage for the unit. Plastic sledge is used to collect ice below the unit and make the removal of ice easier (Householder 3). Technology metamorphosis of domestic energy technology is rather inflexible and has clear distinction to consumer goods. It is never considered as a toy and actual usage purpose cant change with most of renewable energy technologies. Unexpected usage purposes do not rise up. In this study air heat pumps is the only multipurpose product and it is used for both heating and cooling. It can be seen as device for consumption and production. Users may be starting from one end and move towards the other. In two cases air heat pump was purchased for summer purposes and cooling but later one usage was extended to heating. In one case usage extended usage to the other direction from heating to cooling. Establishing maintenance routines All case technologies require some maintenance, air heat pump most frequently when wind generator is almost self sufficient. Internal unit of heat pump has filters that require regular cleaning, however, frequency varies a lot. In minimal use cleaning period is up to two months. This seems to be difficult period to remember and take part of normal housing routines. House cleaning is done more often and cleaning of air heat pump cant be integrated to weekly cleaning and in less frequent cycles cleaning is often forgotten. Solar collector and wind generator are minimally present in daily life routines. When enough collectors are installed or supporting sources are used for water heating, such as electricity, there is no need to take account reduction in solar generation. In some cases system is build on various local energy sources and other sources take over and keep water temperature on desired level when solar power is limited. Solar collectors are monitored more on times when temperature is not high enough for full production i.e. during spring and autumn. Also changing settings may be done then concerning water circulation. In summer use only consumption water is needed and room heating is disabled. Taking hot water sufficiency into account is rare when hot water availability can be guaranteed with electrical

heating. Order of household activities is not changed because of cheaper operation, although inhabitants are aware of saving possibilities. 4.3 Conversion All the users in this study considered new system with renewable energy sources improvement when compared to previous system. Data reveal how differently consumers create requirements for consumer goods and goods with production capabilities. In consumption (pleasure) consumer good ties always capital, it doesnt provide dividends, its monetary value rarely increases and thus people are not necessarily interested of the payback time. In case of production goods, the payback time and profitability arguments are required to rationalize purchases. One of the interviewees discusses this on her blog [27]: When do you get your money back? When are these solar collectors paying themselves back? Is this profitable system? I doubt that in normal renovations people need to answer similar questions: when is your satellite antenna paying back, or swimming pool, or roof window ? The question is certain technology profitable in comparison to other commercial energy alternatives is not considered significant, especially if investment is considered reasonable. An investment to energy production can be seen as capability building. It increases independence from the grid but also opportunities of the grid are started to be seen. As one interviewee write on the blog (Tuulahdus, 2011): Before I was dreaming about organizing a celebration where big tongs are used to cut lines to the national power grid. Now I dream about solar panels that are connected via inverters to the grid (Householder 6) . The sign of the successful integration of technology in the household sector is that the product has a symbolical aspect in addition to the utility-aspect. Aune claims this symbolic aspect lacks in energy technologies [22]. Findings of this paper mostly support Aunes findings. However, some signs of expression of identity can be noticed in case of solar thermal collector that are still relatively special in Finland and easily visible for neighborhood externally outside of house. This is inline with studies of PVs and wind power [25]. Air heat pump owners did not have special environmental beliefs or concern for the environment and thus having air heat pump visual outside of house cant be considered as communicating of meaning or lifestyle to externals via energy efficient product purchases (see motivations in [28] and Palm & Tengvard 2011). 5 DISCUSSION 5.1 From trials to trust Its noteworthy that there is strong trial or experiment attitude towards renewable energy production. Expectation level is not necessary high before the

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purchase and beginning of the use. Users are not seeking for radical one solution that fixes whole system and all previous problems. They rather want to see what new technology is capable of and make further changes and energy system investments later on. T-K. Lehtonen writes about technology trials [29] in adaption, which indeed describe well process of decision making in renewable energy projects. Users describe technology purchase as test. It is not fully replacing old systems, its acquired to support existing system, work with it and make it more cost efficient or convenient in use or both. Initial learning and adoption is a trial where technologys real performance is tested and new purposes can be found. 5.2 Intertwined energy production and consumption in domestic space An household is more than a site for a consumption. Rather, especially in case of residential energy systems, it is a place that is turning back towards highly intertwined, inseparable site of both production and consumption. Understanding of residential energy systems and social change towards renewable energy use requires partial departure from consumption studies approach. Changing role of energy consumer calls for introduction of micro entrepreneurship type of components into the research. There is a thin line from energy production for own use to over production and energy provision to the other users and market. Understanding energy production in local site creates important knowledge for future purposes when two directional energy grids, smart grids, become available. Users now have the possibility to produce their own power, but they still face difficulties when trying to resell extra power generated back to the grid. There is antipathy against large energy utility companies and dependency on centralized power grid and energy supply (See also Palm and Tengvard 2011 study and way to protest against energy companies motivation). Value of national distribution network seen from new direction. Its network for selling, as much as for buying. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this study I have focused on appropriation, configuring, daily using and conversing technology from consumer viewpoint. I have left out design process of goods and as a consequence, not included notion of script [30], which is widely used analytical tool inside science and technology studies and useful for comparing designers conceptions of technology and actual user behavior. In renewable technologies, with relatively straightforward way of using the product, notion of script may provide meaningful analytical tool to provide interesting insights. Also, in wider scope, regarding understanding technology policy, I also recognize importance of social learning [6,] processes involving people, communities, companies outside of domestic site to the domestication processes described earlier. This are important future research opportunities but a wider framing and set of analysis together with

format of conference paper would have negatively impacted to detail of description in this stage. Environmental impacts arise through the interplay of technology, consumption and everyday life [31]. A better understanding of the role of end-users in processes of technology diffusion could help the development of environmentally friendly final products and enhance the adoption rate of these technologies and lifestyles. Renewable energy production in residential house context is mostly motivated by financial reasons, convenience and utility. There is strong variation between these requirements case by case and complacency is achieved already when key factor is well fulfilled. Although energy production investments are larger and less frequent than purchases of typical household consumer goods, switching from old system to new is not revolutionary. Trialing of technology and additional increase of use and investing to renewable technology demonstrate users to have smooth evolutionary approach in energy technology adaptation. Modularity of design to expand capacity of certain technology or combine different technologies conveniently should be high on manufacturers agenda. The most advanced users see opportunities in cogeneration of energy and are willing to additional investments when smart grid enables more open energy market for small producers. Detached houses and dispersed community structure provide favorable conditions for smart grid that should be tested in small scale trials before mass market operations. REFERENCES [1] van Vliet, B., Chappells, H., Shove, E. (2005): Infrastructures of consumption: environmental innovation in the utility industries, Earthscan, London. [2] Heiskanen, E., Johnson, M., Vadovics, E. (2010): Learning about Users and Developing Co-Design Capabilities for Energy Saving on the Local Level, Delft. [3] Hirsch, E., Silverstone, R., Morley, D. (1992): Consuming technologies: media and information in domestic spaces, In Consuming technologies: media and information in domestic spaces, Sivertone, R., Hirsch, E. eds., Routledge, London, pp. 9-17. [4] Pantzar, M. (1997): Domestication of Everyday Life Technology: Dynamic Views on the Social Histories of Artifacts, Design Issues 13, pp. 52-65. [5] Berker, T., Hartmann, M., Punie, Y. (2006): Domestication of media and technology, McGrawHill International, Berkshire. [6] Williams, R. (2005): Social learning in technological innovation: Experimenting with information and communication technologies, Edward Elgar Pub., Cheltenham.

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