UNIT 1

Fuel Systems
Unit Introduction: This unit describes the characteristics, differences, maintenance and calibration procedures associated with diesel fuel systems.

Unit Objectives: At the completion of this unit each student will be able to understand fuel characteristic differences, select fuels properly based on industrial standards and understand proper fuel system maintenance procedures.

Unit 1: Fuel Systems

Lesson 1: Fuel Selection

FUEL SELECTION

Fig. 1.1.1 Fuel Selection

Lesson Introduction This lesson discusses the proper fuel selection techniques and practices necessary for maintaining diesel fuel systems.

Lesson 1: Fuel Selection

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Fuel Systems

Fuel Selection
Fig. 1.1.2 Fuel Selection

This Lesson will discuss the attributes of fuel and how it affects the performance of a diesel engine. Many people think that all fuel is the same, and that it does not change engine performance. The inverse is probably more correct. We will explore some of the differences that can be found in different fuels.

Cetane Number

Startability and Performance

Fig. 1.1.3 Stability and Performance

Owners need to get the maximum service life from their engines with a minimum of downtime. One method to assure good continuous engine performance is to select the best available fuel. Fuel quality is critical to engine life and good performance. Although called diesel fuel, the exact mixture could be slightly different every fill up. Therefore, with every fill up, the engine may perform differently.

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Fuel Systems

PREFERRED FUELS
Diesel Fuel Fuel Oil Furnace Oil Gas Oil

Fig. 1.1.4 Preferred Fuels

Most diesel engines have the ability to burn a wide range of fuels. Distillate fuels are the preferred fuels for use in diesel engines. Those fuels are commonly called diesel fuel (Number 1 or 2), fuel oil, furnace oil, gas oil or kerosene. Experience has proven that the use of distillate fuels will result in maximum engine service life, performance and durability. Distillate fuels usually contain smaller amounts of water, sulfur and sediment than the second type of fuels, permissible.

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Fuel Systems

PREFERRED FUELS
Requirement Cetane No. (PC) Cetane No. (DI) Water and Sediment API - min. API - max. Sulfur Number 2 35 min. 40 min. 0.05% max 30 45 0.5% Low Sulfur 35 min. 40 min. 0.05% max 30 45 0.05%

Pour Point: 10F below ambient temperature Cloud Point: Not higher than ambient temperature

Fig. 1.1.5 Preferred Fuel

Figure 1.1.5 shows the specifications for preferred fuels. It is separated into two groups: standard fuel, number 2, and low sulfur fuel. It should be noted that the only variation between the two columns is the amount of sulfur contained in the fuel. Each type (diesel fuel, fuel oil, furnace oil, kerosene) of preferred fuels can be put into either category depending on sulfur content. Standard fuel is available for off highway use in heavy equipment, industrial engines and commercial marine applications in the United States and Canada. For identity of this fuel, the governments require a dye to be added. Low sulfur fuel is required in on highway truck and pleasure craft marine applications in the United States and Canada. No dye is added to this fuel. It is almost clear with a slight yellow green tint.

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Fuel Systems

Permissible Fuels
Crude Oils Blended Fuels
Fig. 1.1.6 Permissible Fuels

The use of some crude oils and blended fuels, is permissible in some diesel engines. These engines require a special fuel system to tolerate the differences of these fuels. Crude oil is oil or fuel that is not yet refined, and is basically the same as it was originally pumped from the ground. Blended fuel, sometimes called heavy or residual fuel, is composed of the remaining elements from crude oil after the oil has been refined into diesel fuel or gasoline. These elements can be combined or diluted with a lighter fuel so they can flow. At times these fuels have to be heated or centrifuged to be used. If crude oil or blended fuels are used, additional service procedures may be required, and reduced service life may be experienced.

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Fuel Systems

PERMISSIBLE FUELS
Requirement Cetane No. (PC) Cetane No. (DI) Water and Sediment API - min. API - max. Sulfur Crude Oils 35 min. 40 min. 0.5% max 30 45 0.5% Blended Fuel 35 min. 40 min. 0.5% max 30 45 5.0%

Pour Point: 10F below ambient temperature Cloud Point: not higher than ambient temperature

Fig. 1.1.7 Permissible Fuels

Figure 1.1.7 shows the specifications for permissible fuels. Again, it is separated into two groups, crude oil, and blended fuel. It should be noted that these fuels are allowed higher concentrations of water and sediment than are the preferred fuels. Because they can contain higher levels of water, sediment and trace metals, the owner may need to monitor and evaluate oil change intervals and use extra filtration to remove solids and/or install fuel heaters and centrifuges to make the fuel pumpable. Also note the difference in sulfur content between crude oil and the blended fuel.

Fig. 1.1.8 Fuel Cleanliness

Although the U.S. has standards for cleanliness of fuel, that does not mean that all fuels coming from the pump meet these standards. Water and sediment can be introduced to the fuel at many locations between the oil well and the engines fuel tank. This introduction can happen even after the fuel is in the tank. If a vehicle is parked overnight with a low fuel level, the water in the air trapped at the top of the fuel tank condenses into water droplets which then fall into the fuel.

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Fuel Systems

Fig. 1.1.9 Contaminants

Crude oil, blended fuel and even distilled fuels may contain excessive amounts of water and/or sediment which require pre-treatment before delivery to the fuel injection system. Some of these contaminants can be removed by using a settling tank. Fuel storage tanks should be constructed at an angle so water and sediment will settle in the low end. Contaminants can then be drained off periodically. Care must be taken when disposing of the material drained off, since it is considered hazardous waste in some areas. Water in the fuel storage tanks can also lead to the growth of bacteria. These bacteria can plug fuel filters, causing low power in engines. Storage tanks should be checked for bacterial growth. There are fuel and water soluble additives which can be added to storage tanks to control bacteria.

Fig. 1.1.10 Water Separator

Water which remains in the fuel can be taken out by a water separator in most cases. In severe applications, a large capacity water separator can be used. A water separator is only as good as its maintenance. The water must be drained off before the rated water capacity of the unit is reached. Once the water holding capacity of the separator is reached, all additional water will pass through the separator.

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Fuel Systems

Cetane Number

Startability and Performance

Fig. 1.1.11 Cetane Number

Cetane is a chemical found naturally in fuel. The Cetane number (the amount of the cetane present in the fuel) is a measurement of the ignition quality of a fuel. Engine startability and acceleration under load are especially sensitive to the fuel cetane rating. A higher cetane rating assures ease of starting in most conditions. Fuels must have a minimum cetane number of 35 for precombustion chamber engines and 40 for direct injection engines. Fuel with cetane levels lower than minimum can cause hard starting, white smoke at start-up and poor engine performance. Generally, an increase of ten in the cetane number will lower the temperature at which the engine can be started approximately (-11C to -9C).

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Fuel Systems

Fig. 1.1.12 Cloud Point

At low temperatures, any fuel may contain solid particles of wax which could plug the filters rapidly. The cloud point of fuel is the temperature at which some of the heavier paraffin components (wax) start to form crystals. This is a natural process as the temperature is causing the fuel to begin its change from liquid to solid. These wax crystals give the fuel a cloudy appearance. This wax is not a contaminant, but is an important element of diesel fuel and has a high energy content and a very high cetane value. The cloud point of the fuel is important because wax can plug the fuel filter. If the cloud point of the fuel is lower than the lowest ambient temperature at which the engine will be expected to start and operate, filter plugging will not be a problem.

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Fuel Systems

Fig. 1.1.13 Pour Point

The pour point of a fuel is an indication of the minimum temperature at which the fuel will flow. At the pour point temperature, the amount of wax crystals increases to a point where they congeal. This can restrict the flow of fuel from the tank to the engine transfer pump, but if the fuel stays around the fuel pick up tube, the transfer pump will move it. The pour point is approximately -12 C (10 F) below the cloud point. The pour point can be improved with flow improvers or the addition of kerosene or a lighter diesel. Fuel heaters cannot normally solve problems related to a high pour point temperature since they normally use engine coolant as their heat source.

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Fuel Systems

Fig. 1.1.14 Fuel Heater

A fuel heater will keep the wax dissolved and permit it to flow through the filters with the fuel. Several types of fuel heaters are available on Caterpillar engines as factory installed options. They can be installed between the fuel filter base and the spin-on filter or between the fuel tank and fuel filter. Most of the heaters use engine coolant to heat the fuel and prevent ice or wax crystal formation in the filter. Fuel heaters should only be used as required, because as fuel temperature rises, engine performance declines. There is approximately a 1% horsepower loss for every -12C (10F) increase in fuel temperature. Fuel heaters should not be used if the ambient temperature is above 15C (60F), and the fuel temperature at the outlet of the fuel heater should not be higher than 74C (165F). Some electronic engines will adjust fuel rate depending on fuel temperature. Fuel heaters used on electronic engines should be thermostatically controlled.

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Fuel Systems

Fig. 1.1.15 Safety Practices

To lower cloud point and pour point temperatures of their fuels, some users blend diesel fuel with gasoline or naphtha. Because of the safety hazard involved, it is not recommended that users mix diesel fuel with gasoline or naphtha. Safety practices which may have worked well with pure diesel fuel will not be adequate when dealing with these blends. In a fuel tank, the vapor in the air space above pure diesel fuel is too lean to be a hazard at normal ambient temperatures. Pure gasoline vapors are too rich. However, when diesel fuel is mixed with gasoline or naphtha, the vapor-to-air ratios can be explosive. Industry recommends the other methods already discussed to lower pour point or cloud point temperatures.

Fig. 1.1.16 Pour and Cloud Point Adjustment

Some users also like to use alcohol to adjust pour and/or cloud point. Alcohol, either methanol or ethanol, has a low cetane number and poor lubricating characteristics. The cetane numbers of ethanol and methanol are similarin a range of 0 to 10. This means that pure alcohol does not have good ignition characteristics when used in a diesel engine and must be mixed with large quantities of cetane improvement additives which are quite expensive. Also, in current fuel injection systems, the diesel fuel lubricates some of the fuel injection system components. Alcohol does not have good lubrication characteristics.

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Fuel Systems

Fig. 1.1.17 Sulfur Content

Diesel engines have a silent enemy within diesel fuel - sulfur. It is called the silent enemy because sulfur content does not directly affect engine performance. It has no effect on engine startability or power. Sulfur content doesnt become a harmful factor until after the fuel has been burned. During the combustion process, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are formed. These oxides of sulfur combine with the water vapor formed during combustion to create sulfuric acid. This acid causes corrosive wear in engines and increases the chance of early engine failure.

FUEL SULFUR
Test Specification ASTM D129 ASTM D2622 Fuel Standard Fuel Low Sulfur Fuel Sulfur Content 0.5% 0.05%

Fig. 1.1.18 Fuel Sulfur

In the United States, fuels which meet ASTM 1-D and 2-D specifications must contain no more than 0.5% sulfur by weight. Fuels that meet ASTM 1-D and 2-D for low sulfur must contain no more than 0.05% sulfur by weight. This does not mean that every fuel will meet this specification. In fact, fuels with sulfur content in excess of 0.5% have regularly been found in field surveys. Diesel engines can burn these higher sulfur fuels. However, to use fuels with sulfur content greater than 0.5%, it is necessary to take extra precautions to protect the engine from corrosive wear.

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Fuel Systems

WHEN YOU BUY FUEL

Meet fuel specifications Keep it clean
Fig. 1.1.19 Fuel Selection

Clean fuel meeting the manufacturer's fuel recommendations promotes maximum engine service life and performance. Anything less is a compromise and the risk is the users responsibility. Dirty fuels and fuels not meeting the minimum fuel specifications will adversely affect engine performance and will shorten engine life. It is good economics to carefully consider fuel selection.

Fuel Contamination Control

Fig. 1.1.20 Fuel System Components

Dirty fuel is the Engine's Worst Enemy. This unseen villain can rob the engine of power, accelerate wear of sensitive fuel system components and reduce fuel efficiency. Keeping fuel and the fuel system clean should be top priority, especially in construction, mining, and other dusty applications where higher horsepower engines are in use. With the higher injection pressures and closer tolerances of today's diesel engines, clean fuel delivers maximum performance, productivity and service life. One critical element in any fuel contamination control program is high efficiency fuel filters. They're specially designed for today's diesels, using a super-fine filtration media for maximum filtration.

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Fuel Systems

Why clean fuel is so important Fuel contamination is, and always has been, a concern with all types of diesel engines. It has become even more important in recent years as engineers have worked to make diesel engines more economical and environmentally friendly. As emissions and fuel consumption have decreased, injection pressures and tolerances between components have increased. Higher RPMs submit precision components to even more potential wear and abrasion. Today's engines deliver more horsepower, better response and better fuel economy than ever. They are also more susceptible to wear and damage from fuel system contaminants. Damage can be caused by anything in the fuel system that should not be there, including particles, heat, water and air bubbles. Together or alone these contaminants can drain power from the engine, accelerate component wear and eventually lead to a breakdown.

Fig. 1.1.21 Contamination

As little as one spoonful of dirt in a tank of fuel can ruin a fuel injector in less than eight hours.

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Fuel Systems

How Big is a Micron?

(2,000 Times Size)

Human Hair
.0035 inch .0889 mm

.0001 inch .00254 mm

.0001 inch .00254 mm .000039 inch .001 mm

Fig. 1.1.22 Micron

Out of Sight is not out of Mind The most controllable contaminants are abrasive particulates, which can vary greatly in size, hardness and abrasion. The comparison illustrated here demonstrates the very tight clearances in the fuel system and the size of the visible particles. As can be seen, even particles that aren't visible can wear away at your fuel system and reduce performance.

Sources of Contamination
Fig. 1.1.23 Sources

Sources of Fuel Contamination

In the Fuel A reliable fuel supplier is the best defense against source contamination. Demand periodic sampling and testing to assure the consistent quality needed for top performance.

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Fuel Systems

During Operation In dusty applications such as construction and mining, airborne contaminants can be drawn into the fuel tank through the vent tube. Likewise, a vent in the fuel tank cap can ingest dust if it is not properly sealed. Contaminants can also develop during storage or enter the system through improper fuel transfer. During Service Any time the fuel system is open, whether it is to change filters, make repairs or for refueling, contaminants can enter the system. Where contaminants do their damage Abrasive contaminants accelerate wear as they move through the fuel system at very high velocities. In some cases, the contaminants in the fuel may be as abrasive as the materials used to machine parts in manufacturing. Contamination can cause problems throughout the fuel system, but there are two areas that are especially susceptible to wear and damage. Injector Plunger and Barrel Minimum clearances of 2.5 microns make it critical to maintain a fluid film between these rapidly moving parts. Microscopic abrasive particles cause scratching, which can eventually lead to scuffing, metal-to-metal contact and injector seizure. Control Valves Located throughout the fuel system, these valves control fuel pressure. Contaminants can erode the mating parts of the valves, causing them to leak and perform below specifications. A loss of engine power is the result.

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Fuel Systems

Minimizing Fuel Contamination

Fig. 1.1.24 Fuel Contamination

How to minimize fuel system contamination

During Storage and Transfer Without proper storage and handling procedures, even the cleanest fuel can deteriorate or become contaminated. Here are steps that can be taken to keep sediment, dirt and environmental contaminants out of the fuel system - Periodically drain and flush all fuel storage containers, including tanker trucks and stationary tanks. This will remove sediments that can easily enter the fuel stream. - Keep all fuel nozzles, hoses and other equipment clean. - If a nozzle is dirty, clean it thoroughly before fueling. - Maintain all hoses, gaskets and seals in the fuel storage and transfer equipment. - Use line filters on all fuel transfer equipment. - Never transfer fuel with buckets, funnels or other open containers. - Only purchase fuel from a reliable, reputable source. Demand periodic testing to assure getting a consistently high-quality product.

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Fuel Systems

During Operation Fighting fuel contamination is a full-time concern for everyone from the machine operator to maintenance technicians. This checklist should be a part of any daily inspection program. - Repair any fuel line leaks immediately. If fuel is leaking out, contaminants can also get in. - Never operate a machine without the properly installed fuel cap. - If a fuel cap does not seal properly due to deteriorated gaskets or other damage, replace it immediately. - Make sure fuel tank vent tubes are open and functioning properly. - Do not run machines to the point when the fuel tank is completely empty. Doing so can draw sediment from the bottom of the tank into the fuel system. - Alert maintenance and service technicians immediately of any unexplained power loss, excessive smoke or hard starting, especially when the engine is warm.

When changing filters - Maximize filtration protection with high efficiency fuel filters. The moderate cost difference is made up in greater protection - Follow the recommended filter change schedule. If premature filter plugging occurs, consider the fuel quality and other contamination sources. - Remove filters carefully, making sure not to knock dirt and debris from the engine compartment into openings. - Keep filters packed in their original box until they are installed. - Never pre-fill a new filterdoing so allows some contaminated fuel to bypass the filter altogether. .

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Fuel Systems

When performing Engine Service - Clean dirt, dust and other debris from the engine compartment before removing filters and other fuel system components. - Use a high pressure wash to blast mud, dust and dirt and other built-up grime off the engine before "opening" the engine for repairs. - Tightly cap or plug all openings during repairs, even if they are needed only for a few minutes. - Clean reusable parts with solvent using proper cleaning and drying methods. - Never place components directly on the ground. - Keep new parts in their original package until needed. - Don't reuse seals, replace them. - Perform routine inspection of fuel line connections from the tanks to the fuel pump. - Maintain a regular schedule for draining machine fuel tanks: weekly for severely dusty conditions, every three months for normal conditions.