125 APPENDIX 1: Standard procedure for sieve analysis of sand One of the fundamental problems encountered by a sedimentologist is in the

description of the size of particles which make up sediments and sedimentary rocks. A good description of particle size is important for a number of reasons: (1) description provides a basis for comparison with other deposits, (2) size and/or sorting (in part) will control the porosity and permeability of a rock, and (3) size, sorting, etc., reflect the processes that were active in the depositional environment. This appendix illustrates the standard procedure for determining the size distribution of particles in an unconsolidated sediment by passing them through stacks of nested sieves with square openings of known diameter. Procedures Note that samples that include a considerable amount of silt and clay size sediment (i.e., <4 ) should normally be wet-sieved, that is, washed through a 4 screen to remove all particles finer than 4 . The size distribution of the material that passes through that screen can be determined by the pipette method or by analyzing the mixture with a sedigraph. Step 1. Using a sample splitter obtain approximately 30 to 50 g of sample for sieving. Weigh a beaker on the scale and record that weight on the Sieve Data Sheet. Pour the portion of the sample to be sieved into the beaker and determine the combined weight of the sediment plus beaker. Record this weight on the Sieve Data Sheet. Determine the absolute weight of sediment to be sieved and record this weight on the Data Sheet. Save the remaining portion of the sample in a labeled sample bag. Step 2. Select sieves to be used (in this case -1.0 to 4 at 0.5 intervals) and nest them in their proper order, coarsest at the top, pan at the bottom. Hand sieve, for three minutes, a small stack consisting of the coarsest sieves, down to 0. The remaining sand should be poured onto the top sieve in the remaining stack for sieving on the sieve shaker. Step 3. Place the stack of sieves onto the sieve shaker and place the three-armed bracket on the lid of the stack. Lower the straight-arm bracket and make sure that the end pins are penetrating appropriate holes on the frame so that the stack is secure. Set the timer to 15 minutes and turn the power switch to the on position. Step 4. When the shaker has turned itself off empty the contents of each sieve, one at a time, onto a piece of glazed white paper. Invert the sieve and strike it sharply on the paper to dislodge any sand grains that are lodged in the mesh. With the soft brush, gently, wipe the bottom of the screen so that all of the relatively loose grains fall back through the mesh and onto the paper. Never wipe the top of the screen with the brush as this may force grains that are too large to pass through the screens, damaging the mesh. Carefully pour all of the sand from that size fraction into the appropriate plastic beaker and place the beaker into the beaker holder. If the finest screen in your stack is not 4 then pour the contents of the pan into the top screen on a second stack. If the finest screen is 4 then pour the contents of the pan into the appropriate plastic beaker. Step 5. Weigh the sediment in each size fraction (recording the weight on the Sieve Data Sheet) and return the sieved fraction to the original sample bag. (Note that you would normally store the sand from that sieve fraction in a labeled plastic bag; e.g., Sample 1, .5 to 1.0 .) Repeat the procedure for each of the sieve fractions and the contents of the pan. Step 6. Determine the weight of sediment in each size fraction and the proportion of sample that was lost during sieving (from the total summed on the sieve data sheet and the total initially poured into the sieves). Calculate the percentage (by weight) for each fraction and the cumulative weight (%) for the sample. Save this data for Laboratory two. Hand in your final sieve data sheet with Laboratory 2. Note: The sample supplied should be almost aggregate-free (i.e., it contains little or no cemented clumps of

126 sand). Normally a step 7 would involve using a hand lens to briefly examine each of the size fractions to determine if there are significant quantities of aggregates. The approximate proportion aggregates, as a percentage of the total number of grains in the fraction would be estimated and entered into an appropriate column on the data sheet. This information would be used to correct the percentages calculated for each sieve fraction.

127

APPENDIX 2. FORMULAE FOR TESTS AND EXAMS

Note that a summary of symbols is given at the end of Appendix 2.

1. Flow Reynolds Number (R):

2. Froude Number (F): 3. Boundary shear stress (o): o = gDsin

4. Shear velocity (U*):

5. Law of the wall for rough boundaries: Note that for closely packed spheres of uniform size yo=d/30. Mean velocity of a turbulent flow occurs at a height of 0.4D above the bed.

6. Boundary Reynolds Number (R*): R* is used to classify boundaries of turbulent flows based on the relationship between the roughness of the boundary (grain size of the sediment comprising the bed material) and the thickness of the viscous sublayer (), where:

When R*< 5 the boundary is smooth ( > d), when 5 < R*T < 70 the boundary is transitional, and when R* > 70 the boundary is rough ( < d).

128

7. Shields criterion for sediment movement:

Calculate: and find the corresponding value of on Shields diagram (Fig. 4-17, a copy will be supplied for tests), where:

and solve for

8. Middletons criterion for suspension: A particle will go into suspension when U* > . The settling velocity of quartz grains with mean size equal to or finer than 0.1 mm may be calculated using Stokes Law of settling:

For quartz grains coarser than 0.1 mm Fig. 4-20 may be used.

Summary of symbols D d F g R R* U U* u y yo s o flow depth; grain size; flow Froude Number; acceleration due to gravity; flow Reynolds Number boundary Reynolds Number slope of water surface and boundary for uniform, steady flow; flow velocity (usually mean flow velocity in the downstream direction); shear velocity; mean flow velocity at some height (y) above a boundary; some height above a boundary; the height of the roughness elements on a boundary; Shieldsparameter; thickness of the viscous sublayer; dynamic viscosity; kinematic viscosity (=/); fluid density; Note that in one instance, on page 23, p is a logarithmic transformation of roundness. density of a sediment particle; boundary shear stress; von Karmans constant (normally assume =0.4); settling velocity.

129 References Cited ALLEN, J.R.L., 1984a, Parallel lamination developed from upper-stage plane beds: a model based on the larger coherent structure of the turbulent boundary layer: Sedimentary Geology, 39, p. 227-242. ALLEN, J.R.L., 1984b, Sedimentary structures, their character and physical basis. Vol. 1. Elsevier, New York, 593 pp. ALLEN, J.R.L., 1970, Physical Processes of Sedimentation. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 248 pp. ALLEN J.R.L., 1968, Current Ripples. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Company, 433 pp. ALLEN, J.R.L., 1966, On bedforms and paleocurrents: Sedimentology, 6, p. 153-190. ALLEN, J.R.L., 1964, Primary current lineation in the Lower Old Red Sandstone (Devonian), Anglo-Welsh basin: Sedimentology, 3, p. 89-108. ALLEN, P.A., 1985, Hummocky cross-stratification in not produced purely under progressive gravity waves: Nature, 313, p. 562-564. ALLEN, P.A., & UNDERHILL, J.R., 1989, Swaley cross-stratification produced by unidirectional flows, Bencliff Grit (Upper Jurassic), Dorset, U.K.: Journal of the Geological Society of London, 146, p. 241-252. ALLEN, P.A., & POUND, C.J., 1985, Conference Report: Storm Sedimentation: Journal of the Geological Society of London, 142, p. 411-412. ANSTEY, R.L., & CHASE, T.L., 1974, Environments through time. Burgess Publishing Company, Burgess, Minneapolis, Minn. ARNOTT, R.W.C., & HAND, B.M., 1989, Bedforms, primary structures and grain fabric in the presence of suspended sediment rain: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 59, p. 1062-1069. ARNOTT, R.W.C., & SOUTHARD, J.B., 1990, Exploratory flow-duct experiments on combined flow bed configurations and some implications for interpreting storm-event stratification: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60, p. 211-219. ASHLEY, G.M. (Symposium Chairperson), 1990, Classification of large-scale subaqueous bedforms: a new look at an old problem: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60, p. 160-172. BARWIS, J.H., & HAYES, M.O., 1985, Antidunes on modern and ancient washover fans: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 55, p. 907-916. BEARD, D.C., & WEYL, P.K., 1973, The influence of texture on porosity and permeability of unconsolidated sand: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 57, p. 349-369. BEST, J.L., & BRIDGE, J.B., 1992, The morphology and dynamics of low amplitude bedwaves upon upper stage plane beds and the preservation of planar lamination: Sedimentology, 39, p. 737-752. BLATT, H., MIDDLETON, G.V., & MURRAY, R., 1982, Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. (Second edition) Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 782 pp. BOGGS JR., S., 1987, Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Merril Publishing Company, Toronto, 784 pp. BOURGEOIS, J., 1983, Hummocks - Do they grow? Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 67, p. 428. BOURGEOIS, J., 1980, A transgressive shelf sequence exhibiting hummocky cross-stratification: the Cape Sebastian Sandstone (Upper Cretaceous), southwestern Oregon: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 50, p. 681-702. BRENCHLEY, P.J., 1985, Storm influenced sandstone beds: Modern Geology, 9, p. 369-396.

130

BRENCHLEY, P.J., NEWALL, G. & STANISTREET, I.G., 1979, A storm surge origin for sandstone beds in an epicontinental platform sequence, Ordovician, Norway: Sedimentary Geology, 22, p. 185-217. BRIDGE, J.S., 1978, Origin of horizontal lamination under turbulent boundary conditions: Sedimentary Geology, 20, p. 1-16. BRIDGE, J.S. & BEST, J.L., 1988, Flow, sediment transport and bedform dynamics over the transition from dunes to upper-stage plane beds: implications to the formation of planar laminae: Sedimentology, 35, p. 753-763. BRIDGE, J.S. & BEST, J.L., 1990, Flow, sediment transport and bedform dynamics over the transition from dunes to upper-stage plane beds: implications to the formation of planar laminae: Reply: Sedimentology, 37, p. 551-553. CAMPBELL, C.V., 1966, Truncated wave-ripple laminae: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 36, p. 825-828. CHEEL, R.J., 1991, Grain fabric in hummocky cross-stratified storm beds: genetic implications: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 61, p. 102-110. CHEEL, R.J., 1990a, Horizontal lamination and the sequence of bed phases and stratification under upper flow regime conditions: Sedimentology, 37, p. 517-530. CHEEL, R.J., 1990b, Flow, sediment transport and bedform dynamics over the transition from dunes to upper-stage plane beds: implications for the formation of planar laminae: Discussion of paper by J.R. Bridge and J. Best. Sedimentology, 37, p. 549-551. CHEEL, R.J., 1984, Heavy mineral shadows, a new sedimentary structure formed under upper flow regime conditions: its directional and hydraulic significance: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 54, p. 1173-1180. CHEEL, R.J., and LECKIE, D.A., 1992, Coarse-grained storm beds of the Upper Cretaceous Chungo Member (Wapiabi Formation), southern Alberta, Canada: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62, p. 933-945. CHEEL, R.J. and MIDDLETON, G.V., 1986, Horizontal lamination formed under upper flow regime plane bed conditions: Journal of Geology, 94, p. 489-504. CLIFTON, H.E., 1976, Wave-formed sedimentary structures - a conceptual model. In: Beach and nearshore sedimentation (Ed. by Davis Jr., R.A., and Ethington, R.L.) Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Special Publication No. 24, p. 126-148. DOBKINS JR., J.E. & FOLK, R.L., 1970, Shape development on Tahiti-Nui: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 40, p. 1167-1203. DOTT JR., R.L., 1964, Wacke, graywacke and matrix - What approach to immature sandstone classification? Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 34, p. 625-632. DOTT JR., R.H. & BOURGEOIS, J., 1983, Hummocky stratification: significance of its variable bedding sequences: Reply: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 94, p. 1249-1251. DOTT JR., R.H. & BOURGEOIS, J., 1982, Hummocky stratification: significance of its variable bedding sequences: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 93, p. 663-680. DUKE, W.A., 1990, Geostrophic circulation or shallow marine turbidity currents? The dilemma of paleoflow patterns in storm-influenced systems: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60, p. 870-883. DUKE, W.A., 1987, Hummocky cross-stratification, tropical hurricanes, and intense winter storms: Reply: Sedimentology, 34, p. 344-359.

131

DUKE, W.A., ARNOTT, W., AND CHEEL, R.J., 1991, Shelf sandstones and hummocky cross-stratification: New insights on a stormy debate: Geology, 19, p. 625-628. FOLK, R.L. & WARD, W.C., 1957, Brazos River Bar: a study of the significance of grain size parameters: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 27, p. 3-26. FRIEDMAN, G.M., 1967, Dynamic processes and statistical parameters for size frequency distribution of beach and river sands: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 37, p. 327-354. GILBERT, G.K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running water: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 86, 263 pp. GOLDRING, R. & LANGESTRASSEN, F., 1979, Open shelf and nearshore clastic facies in the Devonian: Special Papers in Palaeontology, 23, p. 81-97. GUPTA, G.D., PARKASH, B., & GARDE, R.J., 1987, An experimental study of fabric development in plane-bed phases: Sedimentary Geology, 53, p. 101-122. GUSTAVSON, T.C., 1974, Sedimentation on gravel outwash fans, Malspina Glacier Foreland, Alaska: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 44, p. 374-389. HAMBLIN, A.P. & WALKER, R.G., 1979, Storm dominated shallow marine deposits: the Fernie-Kootenay (Jurassic) transition, southern Rocky Mountains: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 16, p. 1673-1690. HAND, B.M., WESSEL, J.M. & HAYES, M.O., 1969, Antidunes in the Mount Toby Conglomerate (Triassic), Massachusetts: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 39, p. 1310-1316. HANDFORD, C.R., 1986, Facies and bedding sequences in shelf-storm-deposited carbonates - Fayetteville Shale and Pitkin Limestone (Mississippian), Arkansas: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 56, p. 123-137. HARMS, J.C., 1969, Hydraulic significance of some sand ripples: Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 80, p. 363-396. HARMS, J.C., SOUTHARD, J.B. & WALKER, R.G., 1982, Structures and sequences in clastic rocks. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course, No. 9, 401 pp. HARMS, J.C., SOUTHARD, J.B., SPEARING, D.R. & WALKER, R.G., 1982, Depositional environments as interpreted from primary sedimentary structures and stratification sequences. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course, No. 2, 161 pp. HJLSTROM, F., 1939, Transportation of detritus by moving water. In Recent marine sediments (Ed. by P.D. Trask). American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, p. 5-41. HOWARD, J.D., 1971, Comparison of the beach-to-offshore sequence in modern and ancient sediments. In Recent advances in paleoecology and ichnology: Short course Lecture Notes (Ed. by J.D. Howard, J.W. Valantine and J.E. Warme). American Geological Institute, Washington, B.C., p. 148-183. HOWARD, J.D., 1972, Trace fossils as criteria for recognizing shorelines in the stratigraphic record. In Recognition of Ancient Sedimentary Environments (Ed. by J.K. Rigby and W.K. Hamblin). Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Special Publication No. 16, p. 215-255.

132

HS, K.J., 1977, Ventura Basin: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 61, p. 137-191. HUMBERT, F.L., 1968, Selection and wear on pebbles on gravel beaches. Unpublished dissertation. University of Groningen, The Netherlands. HUNTER, R.E. & CLIFTON, H.E., 1982, Cyclic deposits and hummocky cross-stratification of probable storm origin in Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Cape Sebastian area, southwestern Oregon: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 52, p. 127-143. JOHANSSON, C.E., 1965, Structural studies of sedimentary deposits: Geol. Freningens Stockholm Frhandlingar, 87, p. 3-61. JOHANSSON, C.E., 1975, Structural studies of frictional sediments: Geografiska Annaler, 58A, p. 201-300. JOPLING, A.V. & WALKER, R.G., 1968, Morphology and origin of ripple-drift cross-lamination, with examples from the Pleistocene of Massachusetts: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 38, p. 971-984. KENNEDY, J.F., 1963, The mechanics of dunes and antidunes in erodible-bed channels: Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 16, p. 521-544. KOMAR, P.D., 1987, Selective grain entrainment by a current from a bed of mixed sizes: a reanalysis: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 57, p. 203-211. KOMAR, P.D., 1976, Beach processes and sedimentation. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 429 pp. KOMAR, P.D. & MILLER, M.C., 1973, The threshold of sediment movement under oscillatory water waves: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 43, p. 1101-1110. KRUMBEIN, W.C., 1934, Size frequency distribution of sediments: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 4, p. 65-77. KUENEN, P.H., 1964, Experimental abrasion of pebbles 4: Eolian Action: Journal of Geology, 68, p. 427-449. LANGFORD, R. & BRACKEN, B., 1987, Medano Creek, Colorado, a model for upper-flow-regime fluvial deposition: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 57, p. 863-870. LECKIE, D.A. & KRYSTINIK, L.F., 1989, Is there evidence for geostrophic currents preserved in the sedimentary record of inner to middle-shelf deposits? Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 59, p. 862-870. LECKIE, D.A. & WALKER, R.G., 1982, Storm- and tide-dominated shorelines in Cretaceous Moosebar-Lower Gates interval - outcrop equivalents of Deep Basin gas trap in Western Canada: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 66, p. 138-157. LEEDER, M.R., 1982, Sedimentology: process and products. George Allen and Unwin, London, 344 pp. MCBRIDE E.F., SHEPHERD, R.G. & CRAWLEY, R.A., 1975, Origin of parallel near-horizontal laminae by migration of bed forms in a small flume: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 45, p. 132-139. MIDDLETON, G.V., 1976, Hydraulic interpretation of sand size distributions: Journal of Geology, 84, p. 406-476. MIDDLETON, G.V., 1965, Antidune cross-bedding in a large flume: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 35, p. 922-927. MIDDLETON, G.V. & SOUTHARD, J.B., 1984, Mechanics of sediment movement. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course Notes No. 3, 401 pp.

133

MYROW, P.M. & SOUTHARD, J.B., 1991, Combined flow model for vertical stratification sequences in shallow marine storm-deposited beds: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 61, p. 202-210. NAGTEGAAL, P.J.C., 1978, Sandstone-framework instability as a function of burial diagenesis: Journal of the Geological Society of London, 135, p. 101-106. NTTVEDT, A. & KREISA, R.D., 1987, Model for combined-flow origin of hummocky cross-stratification: Geology, 15, p. 357-361. PAOLA, C., WIELE, S.M. & REINHART, M.A., 1989, Upper-regime parallel lamination as the result of turbulent sediment transport and low amplitude bedforms: Sedimentology, 36, p. 47-60. PETTIJOHN, F.J., POTTER, P.W., & SIEVER, 1973, Sand and sandstone. Springer-Verlag, New York, 618 pp. POTTER, P.E., MAYNARD, J.B. & PRYOR, W.A., 1980, Sedimentology of shale. Springer-Verlag, New York, 549 pp. POWER, W.R., 1961, Backset beds in the Coso Formation, Inyo County, California: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 31, p. 603-607. POWERS, M.C., 1953, A new roundness scale for sedimentary particles: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 23, p. 117-119. PRAVE, A.R. & DUKE, W.L., 1990, Small-scale hummocky cross-stratification in turbidites: a form of antidune stratification: Sedimentology, 37, p. 531-539. ROSENTHAL, L.R.P. & WALKER, R.G., 1987, Lateral and vertical facies sequences in the Upper Cretaceous Chungo Member, Wapiabi Formation, southern Alberta: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 24, p. 771-783. RUST, B.R. & GIBLING, M.A., 1989, Three-dimensional antidunes as HCS mimics in a fluvial sandstone: the Pennsylvanian South Bar Formation near Sydney, Nova Scotia: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60, p. 540549. SELLEY, R.C., 1982, An introduction to sedimentology. Academic Press, New York, 417 pp. SHERMAN, D.J. & GREENWOOD, B., 1989, Hummocky cross-stratification and post-vortex ripples: length scales and hydraulic analysis: Sedimentology, 36, p. 981-986. SHIELDS, A., 1936, Anwendung derhnlichkeitsmechanik und der Turbulenzforschung auf die Geschiebebewegung Preuss. Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau und Schiffbau. Berlin, Mitt. 26, 26 pp. (English translations are also available.) SIMONS, D.B. & RICHARDSON, E.V., 1961, Forms of bed roughness in alluvial channels: American Society fo Civil Engineers, Proceedings, 87, No. HY3, p. 87-105. SNEED, E.D., & FOLK, R.L., 1958, Pebbles in the Lower Colorado River, Texas, a study in particle morphogenesis: Journal of Geology, 66, p. 114-150. SOUTHARD, J.B. & BOGUCHWAL, L.A., 1990, Bed configurations in steady unidirectional water flows, Part 2. Synthesis of flume data: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60, p. 658-679. (Note: This paper is accompanied by two companion papers by Southard and his students, in the same issue of the journal.) SOUTHARD, J.B., LAMBIE, J.M., FEDERICO, D.C., PILE, H.T. AND WEIDMAN, C.R., 1990, Experiments on bed configura-

134

tions in fine sands under bidirectional purely oscillatory flow, and the origin of hummocky cross-stratification: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60, p. 1-17. SUNDBORG, A., 1956, The river Klaralven, a study in fluvial processes: Geografiska Annaler, 38, p. 125-316. SWIFT, D.J.P., FIGUEIREDO, A.G., FREELAND, G.L. AND OERTEL, G.F., 1983, Hummocky cross-stratification and megaripples: a geological double standard?: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 53, p. 1295-1317. SWIFT, D.J.P., HUDELSON, P.M., BRENNER, R.L., AND THOMPSON, P., 1987, Shelf construction in a foreland basin: storm beds, shelf sandstones, and shelf-slope depositional sequences in the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group, Book Cliffs, Utah: Sedimentology, 34, p. 423-457. THURMAN, H.V., 1988, Introduction to Oceanography. Merril Publishing Company, Toronto, 515 pp. UDRI, A., 1991, An experimental study of antidunes on a bed of 0.18 mm sand: bedform behavior, internal stratification and fabric. Brock University, Unpublished B.Sc. Thesis, 113 pp. WADEL, H., 1932, Volume, shape, roundness of rock particles: Journal of Geology, 40, p. 443-451. Walker, R.G., Duke, W.L. & Leckie, D.A., 1983, Hummocky stratification: significance of its variable bedding sequences: Discussion: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 94, p. 1245-1249. Weedman, S.D. & Slingerland, R., 1985, Experimental study of sand streaks formed in turbulent boundary layers: Sedimentology, 32, p. 133-145. Zingg, T., 1935, Beitrge zur Schotteranalyse: Schweiz. min. pet. Mitt., 15, p. 39-140.