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A Crash Course in Vector Calculus

SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS


This introductory chapter is a review of mathematical concepts required for the
course. It is assumed that the reader is already familiar with elementary vector
analysis.
Physical quantities that we deal with in electromagnetism can be scalars or vec-
tors.
A scalar is an entity which only has a magnitude. Examples of scalars are mass,
time, distance, electric charge, electric potential, energy, temperature etc.
A vector is characterized by both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors
in physics are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric eld, magnetic
eld etc.
A eld is a quantity which can be specied everywhere in space as a function of
position. The quantity that is specied may be a scalar or a vector. For instance,
we can specify the temperature at every point in a room. The room may, there-
fore, be said to be a region of temperature eld which is a scalar eld because
the temperature T(x, y, z) is a scalar function of the position. An example of a
scalar eld in electromagnetism is the electric potential.
In a similar manner, a vector quantity which can be specied at every point in a
region of space is a vector eld. For instance, every point on the earth may be
considered to be in the gravitational force eld of the earth. we may specify the
eld by the magnitude and the direction of acceleration due to gravity (i.e. force
per unit mass ) g(x, y, z) at every point in space. As another example consider
ow of water in a pipe. At each point in the pipe, the water molecule has a veloc-
ity v(x, y, z). The water in the pipe may be said to be in a velocity eld. There
are several examples of vector eld in electromagnetism, e.g., the electric eld

E,
the magnetic ux density

B etc.
1.1 Coordinate Systems :
We are familiar with cartesian coordinate system. For systems exhibiting cylin-
drical or spherical symmetry, it is convenient to use respectively the cylindrical
and spherical coordinate systems.
1.1.1 Polar Coordinates :
In two dimensions one denes the polar coordinate (, ) of a point by dening
1
as the radial distance from the origin O and as the angle made by the radial
vector with a reference line (usually chosen to coincide with the x-axis of the
cartesian system). The radial unit vector and the tangential (or angular) unit
vector

are taken respectively along the direction of increasing distance and
that of increasing angle respectively, as shown in the gure.

^
^

x
y
x
y

Relationship with the cartesian components are


x = cos
y = sin
so that the inverse relationships are
=
_
x
2
+ y
2
= tan
1
y
x
By denition, the distance > 0. we will take the range of angles to be 0 <
2 (It is possible to dene the range to be < +). One has to be careful
in using the inverse tangent as the arc-tan function is dened in 0 < . If y
is negative, one has to add to the principal value of calculated by the arc - tan
function so that the point is in proper quadrant.
2
Example 1 :
A vector

A has cartesian components A
x
and A
y
. Write the vector in terms of its
radial and tangential components.
Solution :
Let us write

A = A

+ A

Since and

are orthonormal basis vectors =

= 1 and

= 0. Thus
A
r
=

A , A

=

A

Note that (see gure) makes an angle with the x-axis () and /2 with the
y-axis ( ). Similarly, the unit vector

makes /2 + with the x-axis and with
the y-axis. Thus
A

=

A = A
x
+ A
y

= A
x
cos + A
y
cos(/2 )
= A
x
cos + A
y
sin
A

=

A

= A
x

+ A
y

= A
x
cos(/2 + ) + A
y
cos
= A
x
sin + A
y
cos
The Jacobian :
When we transform from one coordinate system to another, the differential ele-
ment also transform.
For instance, in 2 dimension the ele-
ment of an area is dxdy but in polar
coordinates the element is not dd
but (d)d. This extra factor is
important when we wish to integrate
a function using a different coordi-
nate system.

d
d
d

If f(x, y) is a function of x, y we may express the function in polar coordinates


and write it as g(, ). However, when we evaluate the integral
_
f(x, y)dxdy
in polar coordinates, the corresponding integral is
_
g(r, )dd. In general, if
x = f(u, v) and y = g(u, v), then, in going from (x, y) to (u, v), the differential
3
element dxdy | J | dudv where J is given by the determinant
J =

x
u
x
v
y
u
y
v

The differentiations are partial, i.e., while differentiating x/u = f(u, v)/u,
the variable v is treated as constant. An useful fact is that the Jacobian of the
inverse transformation is 1/J because the detrminant of the inverse of a matrix is
equal to the inverse of the determinant of the original matrix.
Example 2 : Show that the Jacobian of the transformation from cartesian to polar
coordinates is .
Solution :
We have
J =

Using x = cos and y = sin , we have


J =

cos sin
sin cos

=
Exercise :
Show that the Jacobian of the inverse transformation from polar to cartesian is
1/ = 1/

x
2
+ y
2
.
Example 3 :
nd the area of a circle of radius R.
Solution :
Take the origin to be at the centre of the circle and the plane of the circle to be the
plane. Since the area element in the polar coordinates is ddr, the area of
the circle is
_
2
0
d
_
R
0
d = 2
_

2
2
_
R
0
= R
2
- a very well known result !
Example 4 :
Find the integral
_
e
(x
2
+y
2
)
dxdy where the region of integration is a unit circle
about the origin.
Using polar coordinates the integrand becomes e

2
. The range of i integration
for is from 0 to 1 and for is from 0 to 2. The integral is given by
I =
_
2
0
d
_
1
0
e

2
d = 2
_
1
0
e

2
d
4
The radial integral is evaluated by substitution w =
2
so that d = dw/2. The
value of the integral is
I = 2
_
1
0
e
w
dw/2 = [e
w
]
1
0
= (1
1
e
)
Exercise :
Evaluate
_ _
xydxdy where the region of integration is the part of the area between
circles of radii 1 and 2 that lies in the rst quadrant. (Ans. 15/8)
Exercise :
Evaluate the Gaussian integral I =
_

0
e
x
2
dx
[ Hint : The integration cannot be done using cartesian coordinates but is relatively
easy using polar coordinates and properties of denite integrals. By changing the
dummy variable x to y, one can write I =
_

0
e
y
2
dy, so that we can write
I
2
=
_

0
_

0
e
(x
2
+y
2
)
dxdy
Transform this to polar. Range of integration for is from 0 to and that of is
from 0 to /2(why ?) Answer :

/2 ]
Differentiation of polar unit vectors with respect to time :
It may be noted that the basis vectors and

, unlike and are not constant
vectors but depend on the position of the point. The time derivative of the unit
vectors are dened as follows
d
dt
= lim
t0

t
= lim
t0
(t + t) (t)
t
d

dt
= lim
t0

t
= lim
t0

(t + t)

(t)
t
One can evaluate the derivatives by laborious process of expressing the unit vec-
tors and

in terms of constant unit vectors of cartesian system, differentiating
the resulting expressions and nally transform back to the polar form. Alterna-
tively, we can look at the problem geometrically, as shown in the following gure.
5

d
^
(t)
(t+dt)
^
d
(t+dt)

^
(t)

In the gure, the positions of a particle are shown at time t and t + dt. The unit
vectors is shown in red while the unit vector

is shown in blue. It can be easily
seen by triangle law of addition of vectors that the magnitude of and

is
1.d = d. However, as the limit dt 0, the direction of is in the direction
of

while that of

is in the direction of . Thus


d
dt
= lim
t0

t
=
d
dt

dt
= lim
t0

t
=
d
dt

Now, d/dt is the angular velocity of the point, which is usually denoted by ,
Thus we have,
d
dt
=

dt
=
Exercise :
Obtain the above relationships directly by using the expression for the unit vectors
and

in terms of the cartesian unit vectors, viz.,
= cos + sin

= sin + cos
6
1.1.2 Cylindrical coordinates :
Cylnidrical coordinate system is obtained by extending the polar coordinates by
adding a z-axis along the height of a right circular cylinder. The z-axis of the
coordinate system is same as that in a cartesian system.
In the gure is the distance of the
foot of the perpendicular drawn from
the point to the x y(, ) plane.
Note that here is not the distance
of the point P from the origin, as is
the case in polar coordinate systems.
(Some texts use r to denote what we
are calling as here. However, we
use to denote the distance from the
origin to the foot of the perpendicu-
lar to avoid confusion.) In terms of
cartesian coordinates
x = cos
y = sin
z = z
so that the inverse relationships are
=
_
x
2
+ y
2
= tan
1
y
x
z = z
x
y
z
y
z

z
^
^
^

x
O
P

Exercise :
Find the cylindrical coordinate of the point 3 + 4 +

k. [Hint : Determine and
tan using above transformation] (Ans. 5 + tan
1
(4/3)

+

k)
The line element in the system is given by

dl = d + d

+ d z
and the volume element is
dV = dddz
The Jacobian of transformation from cartesian to cylindrical is as in the polar
coordinates since z coordinate remains the same.
7
1.2.3 Spherical Polar Coordinates :
Spherical coordinates are useful in dealing with problems which possess spheri-
cal symmetry. The independent variables of the system are (r, , ). Here r is the
distance of the point P from the origin. Angles and are similar to latitudes
and longitudes.
Two mutually perpendicular lines are chosen, taken to coincide with the x-axis
and z-axis of the cartesian system. We take angle to be the angle made by the
radius vector (i.e. the vector connecting the origin to P) with the z-axis (the angle
is actually complementary to the latitude). The angle is the angle between the
x-axis and the line joining the origin to P

, the foot of the perpendicular from P


to the x-y plane.
The unit vectors r,

and

are respectively along the directions of increasing r,
and .

^
P
P

z
y
y
x
z
r

r sin

r
^
O
r

c
o
s

The surface of constant r are spheres of radius r about the centre. the surface of
constant is a cone of semi-angle about the z-axis. The reference for measur-
ing is the x-z plane of the cartesian system. A surface of constant is a plane
containing the z-axis which makes an angle with the reference plane.
Example 5 :
8
Express unit vectors of spherical coordinate system in terms of unit vectors of
cartesian system.
Solution :
From the point P drop a perpendicular on to the x-y plane. Denote

OP

by . The
gure below shows the unit vectors in both the systems. By triangle law of vector
addition,
r =

OP =

OP

+

P

P = r sin + r cos

k
However, = cos + sin . Substituting this in the expression for r, we get on
dividing both sides by the magnitude of r
r = sin cos + sin sin + r cos

k
The unit vector

is perpendicular to
OP in the direction of increasing .
The angle that

makes with the pos-
itive z-axis is /2 + . Hence,

= cos(

2
+)

k+sin(

2
+) = sin

k+cos
Substituting for , we get

= cos cos +cos sin sin

k
O
r
^

^
x
y
z

r
z
k
j
^
^
^
i

P

P

The azimuthal unit vector



is in the direction of increasing angle . It is perpen-
dicular to and has no z- component. It can be easily seen that

= sin + cos
Transformation from spherical to cartesian :
Using the expression for r in terms of cartesian basis, it is seen that
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
and the inverse transformation
r =
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
9
= tan
1

x
2
+ y
2
z
= cos
1
z
r
= tan
1
y
x
Range of the variables are as follows :
0 r < 0 0 2
Exercise :
A particle moves along a spherical helix. its position coordinate at time t is given
by
x =
cos t

1 + t
2
, y =
sin t

1 + t
2
, z =
t

1 + t
2
Express the equation of the path in spherical coordinates. (Ans.
r = 1, cos = t/

1 + t
2
(t) = t)
The differential element of volume
is obtained by constructing a closed
volume by extending r, and re-
spectively by dr, d and d. The
length elements in the direction of
r is dr, that along

rd while that
along

is r sin d (see gure). The
volume element, therefore, is
dV = drrdr sin d = r
2
sin dddr
Thus the Jacobian of transformation
is r
2
sin .
x
z

r
sin r d
d
d

d
sin

y
rd
r
Example 6:
Find the volume of a solid region in the rst octant that is bounded from above by
the sphere x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 9 and from below by the cone x
2
+ y
2
= 3z
2
.
Solution :
Because of obvious spherical symmetry, the problem is best solved in spherical
polar coordinates. The equation to sphere is r = 3 so that the range of r vaiable
for our solid is from 0 to 3.
10
The equation to the cone x
2
+ y
2
=
3z
2
becomes r
2
sin
2
= 3r
2
cos
2
.
Solving, the semi-angle of cone is
tan =

3 i.e. = /3. Since the


solid is restricted to the rst octant,
i.e., (x, y, z 0), the range of the
azimuthal angle is from 0 to /2.
The volume of the solid is
_
dV =
_
r
2
sin dddr =
_
/2
0
d
_
/3
0
sin d
_
3
0
r
2
dr
=

2
. [cos ]
/3
0
.
_
r
3
3
_
3
0
=
9
4
Exercise :
Using direct integration nd the volume of the rst octant bounded by a sphere
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 9.
1.2 Line and Surface Integrals of a Vector Field :
Since a vector eld is dened at every position in a region of space, like a scalar
function it can be integrated and differentiated. However, as a vector eld has
both magnitude and direction it is necessary to dene operations of calculus to
take care of both these aspects.
1.2.1 Line Integral :
If a vector eld

F is known in a certain region of space, one can dene a line
integral of the vector function may be dened as
11
_
C

dl
where C is the curve along which the
integral is calculated. Like the inte-
gral of a scalar function the integral
above is also interpreted as a limit
of a sum. We rst divide the curve
C into a large number of innitisi-
mally small line segments such that
the vector function is constant (in
magnitude and direction) over each
such line segment. The integrand
is then equal to the product of the
length of the line segment and the
component of

F along the segment.
The integration is dened as the limit
of the sum of contributions from all
such segments in the same manner as
ordinary integration is dened.
F
dl
The concept of line integral is very useful in many branches of physics. In me-
chanics, we dene work done by a force

F in moving an object from an initial
position A to a nal position B as the line integral of the force along the curve
joining the end points. Except in the case of conservative forces, the line integral
depends on the actual path along which the particle moves under the force.
Example 7:
A force

F = zy + x + z
2
x

k acts on a particle that travels from the origin to


the point (1, 2, 3). Calculate the work done if the particle travels (i) along the
path (0, 0, 0) (1, 0, 0) (1, 2, 0) (1, 2, 3) along straightline segments join-
ing each pair of end points (ii) along the straightline joining the initial and nal
points.
Solution :
12
Along the path (0, 0, 0) (1, 0, 0),

dl = dx and y = 0, z = 0. Since
F
x
= 0 along this segment, the in-
tegral along C
1
is zero. Along the
path C
2
joining (1, 0, 0) and (1, 2, 0),

dl = dyand x = 1. Along this path


F
y
= x = 1. The integral
_
2
0
F
y
dy =
_
2
0
dy = 2
Along the third path connecting
(1, 2, 0) to (1, 2, 3), x = 1, y = 2.

dl =

kdz and F
z
= z
2
x = z
2
. The
line integral is
_
3
0
z
2
dz =
z
3
3
|
3
0
= 9
The work done is, therefore, 0 + 2 +
9 = 11.
(0,0,0) (1,0,0)
(1,2,0)
(1,2,3)
C
C
C
1
2
3
In order to calculate the work done when the particle moves along the straightline
connecting the initial and nal points, we need to write down the equation to the
line in a parametric form. If (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) are the end points, the
equation is
x x
1
x
2
x
1
=
y y
1
y
2
y
1
=
z z
1
z
2
z
1
= m
Substituting for the coordinates, we get the equation to the line as
x = m
y = 2m
z = 3m
Thus the differential elements are dx = dm, dy = 2dm and dz = 3dm. The line
integral is given by
_

F

dl =
_
(F
x
dx + F
y
dy + F
z
dz)
=
_
1
0
(6m
2
.dm + m.2dm + 9m
3
.3dm)
13
= 2m
3
+ m
2
+ 27
m
4
4
|
1
0
= 9.75
Example 8 :
Find the line integral of

F = y + over an anticlockwise circular loop of radius
1 with the origin as the centre of the circle.
Solution :
The length element dl has a magni-
tude 1.d = d. Since the unit vector
along

dl makes an angle of (/2)+
with the positive x axis,

dl = | dl | cos(

2
+ )+ | dl | sin(

2
+ )
= sin + cos

dl

x
y
R=1
In polar coordinates, x = cos and y = sin (since the radius is 1). Thus
_

F

dl =
_
F
x
dx + F
y
dy
=
_
2
0
sin
2
d +
_
2
0
cos d
= + 0 =
Exercise :
A force

F = xy +(x
2
z
2
) xz
2

k acts on a particle. Calculate the work done if


the particle is taken from the point (0, 0, 0) to the point (2, 1, 3) along straight line
segment connecting (0, 0, 0) (0, 1, 0) (2, 1, 0) (2, 1, 3). What would be
the work done if the particle directly moved to the nal point along the straightline
connecting to origin. (Ans. 16, 13.8.)
Exercise :
A vector eld is given by

F = (2x + 3y) + (3x + 2y)


14
Evaluate the line integral of the eld around a circle of unit radius traversed in
clockwise fashion. (Ans. 6)
Exercise :
Evaluate the line integral of a scalar function xy along a parabolic path y = x
2
connecting the origin to the point (1, 1).
[ ]Hint : Remember that the arc length along a curve is given by
_
(dx)
2
+ (dy)
2
.
The curve can be parametrized by x = t and y = t
2
. Ans. (25

5 + 1)/120 ]
1.2.3 Surface Integral :
We have seen that an area element can be regarded as a vector with its direction
being dened as the outward normal to the surface. The concept of a surface
integral is related to ow. Suppose the vector eld represents the rate at which
water ows at a point in the region of ow. The ow may be measured in cubic
meter of water owing per square meter of area per second. If an area is oriented
perpendicular to the direction of ow, as shown in the gure to the left, maximum
amount of water would ow through the surface. The amount of water passing
through the area is the ux (measured in cubic meter per second).
n
V V

^
n
^
If, on the other hand, the surface is tilted relative to the ow, as shown to the right,
the amount of ux through the area decreases. Clearly, only the part of the area
that is perpendicular to the direction of ow will contribute to the ux.
We dene ux through an area element

dS as the dot product of the vector eld

V with the area vector



dS. When

V is parallel to

dS, i.e. if the surface is oriented
perpendicular to the direction of ow, the ux is maximum. On the other hand, a
surface oriented parallel to the ow does not contribute to the ux.
15
Example 9 :
A hemispherical bowl of radius R is oriented such that the circular base is perpen-
dicular to direction of ow. Calculate the ux through the curved surface of the
bowl, assumuing the ow vector

V to be constant.
Solution :
Since the curved surface makes different angles at different positions, it is some-
what difcult to calculate the ux through it. However, one can circumvent it by
calculating the ux through the circular base.
n
n
n
1
2
2
V
1
n
^
^
^
^
Since the ow vector is constant all over the circular face which is oriented per-
pendicular to the direction of ow, the ux through the base is R
2
V . The
minus sign is a result of the fact that the direction of the surface is opposite to
the direction of ow. Thus we may call the ux through the base as inward ux.
Since there is no source or sink of ow eld (i.e. there is no accumulation of
water) inside the hemisphere, whatever uid enters through the base must leave
through the curved face. Thus the outward ux from the curved face is +R
2
V .
We may now generalize the above for a surface over which the eld is not uniform
by dening the ux through an area as the sum of contribution to the ux from
innitisimal area elements which comprises the total area by treating the eld to
be uniform over such area elements. Since the ux is a scalar, the surface integral,
dened as the limit of the sum, is also a scalar.
16
If S
i
is the ith surface element,
the normal n
i
to which makes an an-
gle
i
with the vector eld

V
i
at the
position of the element, the total ux
=

V
i
n
i
S
i
=

i
V
i
S
i
cos
i
In the limit of S
i
0, the sum
above becomes a surface integral
=
_
S

V dS
S
i

i
n
i
^
If the surface is closed, it encloses a volume and we dene
=
_
S

V dS
to be the net outward ux. In terms of cartesian components
=
_
S
(V
x
dydz + V
y
dxdz + V
z
dxdy)
Example 10 :
A vector eld is given by

B = xy + yz + zx

k. Evaluate the ux through each


face of a unit cube whose edges along the cartesian axes and one of the corners is
at the origin.
Solution :
Consider the base of the cube
(OGCD), which is the x-y plane on
which z = 0. On this face

B = xy.
The surface vector n is along

k di-
rection. Thus on this surface ux
_

B ndxdy =
_
xy

kdxdy = 0
since

k = 0. For the top surface


(ABFE), z = 1 and n =

k. The ux
from this surface is
_
V
z
dxdy =
_
1
0
xdx
_
1
0
dy =
1
2
x
y
z
B A
C D
E F
O G
In a similar way one can show that ux from left side (AEOD) is zero while the
contribution from the right side (BFGC) is 1/2. The back face (EFGO) contributes
17
zero while the front face (ABCD) contributes 1/2. The net ux, therefore, is 3/2.
Exercise :
Find the ux of the vector eld

V =
Ax + By
2
through a rectangular
surface in the x-y plane having di-
mensions ab. The origin of the co-
ordinate system is at one of the cor-
ners of the rectangle and the x-axis
along its length. (Ans. Bab
3
/3)
x
y
z
O
a
b
Example 11 :
Calculate directly the ux through the curved surface of the hemispherical bowl
of Example 10.
Solution :
Use a spherical polar coordinates with the
base of the hemisphere being the x-y plane
and the direction of the vector eld as the z-
axis. We have seen that an area element on
the surface is given by dS = R
2
sin dd.
Thus the ux =
_

V n is given by
= | V | R
2
_
2
0
d
_
/2
0
cos sin d
= | V | R
2
.2
_
sin
2

2
_
2
0
= | V | R
2
V
n
^
O

x
y
zaxis
Exercise :
Find the ux through a hemispherical bowl with its base on the x-y plane and the
origin at the centre of the base. The vector eld, in spherical polar coordinates is

V = r sin r +

+

. (Ans. (1 + /2))
18
Example 12 :
A cylindrical object occupies a volume dened by x
2
+ y
2
R
2
and 0 z h.
Find the ux through each of the surfaces when the object is in a vector eld

V = x + y +

kz.
Solution :
Because of cylindrical symmetry, it is convenient to work in a cylindrical (, , z)
coordinates. The vector eld is given by

V = + z

k
Bottom face has z = 0 and the nor-
mal to the face points in

k direc-
tion. Thus the ux from this face
_

V n =
_
V
z
dd = 0.
The top face has z = h and n =

k.
The ux is
_
V
z
ddr = h
_
R
0
d
_
2
0
d
= h
R
2
2
.2 = R
2
h
x
y
z
n
^
n
n
^
^
h

The normal to the curved face is along direction. An area element on the curved
face is Rddz Thus the ux from this face is
_
(R + z

k) Rddz = R
2
_
2
0
d
_
h
0
dz = 2R
2
h
The net ux from the faces of the object is 3R
2
h.
Exercise :
Find the ux of the vector eld

V = 2 3r

+ z

k through surfaces of a right


cylinder of radius 1 and height 2. The base of the cylinder is in the z = 0 plane
with the origin at the centre of the base. (Ans. 28/3)
19
1.3 Gradient of a Scalar Function :
Consider a scalar eld such as temperature T(x, y, z) in some region of space. The
distribution of temperature may be represented by drawing isothermal surfaces or
contours connecting points of identical temperatures,
T(x, y, z) = constant
One can draw such contours for different temperatures. If we are located at a point
r on one of these contours and move away along any direction other than along
the contour, the temperature would change.
The change T in temperature as we
move away froma point P(x, y, z) to
a point Q(x + x, y + y, z + z)
is given by
T =
T
x
x +
T
y
y +
T
z
z
where the derivatives in the above
expression are partial derivatives.
r + d r
r
T(
)

T
Q
P
T( )
If the displacement from the initial position is innitisimal, we get
dT =
T
x
dx +
T
y
dy +
T
z
dz
Note that the change dT involves a change in temperature with respect to each of
the three directions. We dene a vector called the gradient of T, denoted by T
or grad T as
T =
T
x
+
T
y
+

k
T
z
using which, we get
dT = T (dx + dy +

kdz) = T dr
20
Note that T, the gradient of a scalar T is itself a vector. If is the angle between
the direction of T and dr,
dT =| T || dr | cos = (T)
r
| dr |
where (T)
r
is the component of the gradient in the direction of dr. If dr lies
on an isothermal surface then dT = 0. Thus, T is perpendicular to the surfaces
of constant T. When dr and T are parallel, cos = 1 dT has maximum value.
Thus the magnitude of the gradient is equal to the maximum rate of change of T
and its direction is along the direction of greatest change.
The above discussion is true for any scalar eld V . If a vector eld can be written
as a gradient of some some scalar function, the latter is called the potential of the
vector eld. This fact is of importance in dening a conservative eld of force in
mechanics. Suppose we have a force eld

F which is expressible as a gradient

F = V
The line integral of

F can then be written as follows :
_
f
i

F

dl =
_
f
i
V d

l
=
_
f
i
dV = V
f
V
i
where the symbols i and f represent the initial and thec nal positions and in the
last step we have used an expression for dV similar to that derived for dT above.
Thus the line integral of the force eld is independent of the path connecting the
initial and nal points. If the initial and nal points are the same, i.e., if the particle
is taken through a closed loop under the force eld, we have
_

F

dl = 0
Since the scalar product of force with displacement is equal to the work done by
a force, the above is a statement of conservation of mechanical energy. Because
of this reason, forces for which one can dene a potential function are called con-
servative forces.
Example 13 :
Find the gradient of the scalar function V = x
2
y + y
2
z + z
2
x + 2xyz.
21
Solution :
V =
V
x
+
V
y
+

k
V
z
= 2(xy + zx + yz)( + +

k)
Exercise : Find the gradients of
(i) xz x
2
y + y
2
z
2
(ii)x
3
+ y
3
+ z
3
(iii) ln

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
(Ans. (x + y +

k)/(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
)
Gradient can be expressed in other coordinate systems by nding the length ele-
ments in the direction of basis vectors. For example, in cylindrical coordinates the
length elements are d, d and dz along ,

and

k respectively. The expression
for gradient is
V =
V

+

k
V
z
The following facts may be noted regarding the gradient
1. The gradient of a scalar function is a vector
2. (U + V ) = U +V
3. (UV ) = U(V ) + V (U)
4. (V
n
) = nV
n1
V
Example 14 :
Find the gradient of V = e
(x
2
+y
2
)
in cylindrical (polar) coordinates.
Solution :
In polar variables the function becomes V = e

2
. Thus
V =
e

= e

2
.(2) = 2 V
Exercise :
Find the gradient of the function V of Example 15 in cartesian coordinates and
then transform into polar form to verify the answer.
22
Exercise :
Find the gradient of the function ln

2
+ z
2
in cylindrical coordinates.(Ans.( +

kz)/(
2
+ z
2
))
In spherical coordinates the length elements are dr, rd and r sin d. Hence the
gradient of a scalar function U is given by
V = r
V
r
+

1
r
V

+

k
1
r sin
V

Exercise :
Find the gradient of V = r
2
cos cos (Ans. 2r cos cos r r sin cos


r cos sin

.)
Exercise :
A potential function is given in cylidrical coordinates as k/

2
+ z
2
Find the
force eld it represents and express the eld in spherical polar coordinates. (Ans.
kr/r
3
)
1.4 Divergence of a Vector Field :
Divergence of a vector eld

F is a measure of net outward ux from a closed
surface S enclosing a volume V , as the volume shrinks to zero.
div


F = lim
V 0
_
S

F

dS
V
where V is the volume (enclosed by the closed surface S) in which the point P
at which the divergence is being calculated is located. Since the volume shrinks
to zero, the divergence is a point relationship and is a scalar.
Consider a closed volume V bounded by S. The volume may be mentally broken
into a large number of elemental volumes closely packed together. It is easy to
see that the ux out of the boundary S is equal to the sum of uxes out of the
surfaces of the constituent volumes. This is because surfaces of boundaries of two
adjacent volumes have their outward normals pointing opposite to each other. The
following gure illustrates it.
23
=
+
We can generalize the above to closely packed volumes and conclude that the ux
out of the bounding surface S of a volume V is equal to the sum of uxes out of
the elemental cubes. If V is the volume of an elemental cube with S as the
surface, then,
_
S

F

dS =

_
S

F dS = lim
V 0
_
1
V
_

F

dS
_
V
The quantity in the bracket of the above expression was dened as the divergence
of

F, giving
_
S

F

dS =
_
V
div

FdV
This is known as the Divergence Theorem.
We now calculate the divergence of

F from an innitisimal volume over which
variation of

F is small so that one can retain only the rst order term in a Taylor
expansion. Let the dimensions of the volume element be x y z and let
the element be oriented parallel to the axes.
Consider the contribution to the ux from the two shaded faces. On these faces,
the normal is along the + and directions so that the contribution to the ux is
from the y-component of

F only and is given by
24
[F
y
(y + dy) F
y
(y)] dxdz
Expanding F
y
(y+dy) in a Taylor se-
ries and retaining only the irst order
term
F
(
y + dy) = F
y
+
F
y
y
dy
so that the ux from these two faces
is
F
y
y
dxdydz =
F
y
y
dV
where dV = dxdydz is the volume
of the cuboid.
x
y
z
(x+dx,y,z)
(x,y,z)
dx
dy
dz
n
^
n
^
Combining the above with contributions from the two remaining pairs of faces,
the total ux is
_
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+
F
z
z
_
dV
Thus
_
S

F

dS =
_
_
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+
F
z
z
_
dV
Comparing with the statement of the divergence theorem, we have
div

F =
_
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+
F
z
z
_
Recalling that the operator is given by
=
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+

k
F
z
z
and using

F = F
x
+ F
y
+

kF
z
, we can write div

F =

F.
The following facts may be noted :
1. The divergence of a vector eld is a scalar
2. (

F +

G) =

F +

G
25
3. (

F) =

F +

F
4. In cylindrical coordinates


F =
1

(F

) +
1

+

z
F
z
5. In spherical polar coordinates


F =
1
r
2

r
(r
2
F
r
) +
1
r sin

(F

sin ) +
1
r sin

6. The divergence theorem is


_
S

F

dS =
_
V


FdV
Example 15 : Divergence of r = x + y +

kz
Divergence of position vector r is very useful to remember.
r =
x
x
+
y
y
+
z
z
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
One can also calculate easily in spherical coordinate since r only has radial com-
ponent
r =
1
r
2

r
(r
2
.r) =
1
r
2
.3r
2
= 3
Exercise :
Calculate the divergence of the vector eld r/r
3
using all the three coordinate sys-
tems. (Ans. 0)
Example 16 :
A vector eld is given by

F = 4xz y
2
+ yz

k. Find the surface integral of the


eld from the surfaces of a unit cube bounded by planes x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y =
1, z = 0 and z = 1. Verify that the result agrees with the divergence theorem.
Solution :
Divergence of

F is


F =
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+
F
z
z
=
4xz
x
+
(y
2
)
y
+
yz
z
= 4z 2y + y = 4z y
26
The volume integral of above is
_


FdV =
_
1
0
dx
_
1
0
dy
_
1
0
(4z y)dxdydz =
3
2
Consider the surface integral from
the six faces individually. For the
face AEOD, the normal is along .
On this face y = 0 so that

F = 4xz.
Since = 0, the integrand is zero.
For the surface BFGC, the normal
is along and on this face y = 1.
On this face the vector eld is

F =
4xz + z

k. The surface integral


is
_

F

dS =
_

F dxdz
=
_
1
0
dx
_
1
0
dz = 1
n
^
x
O
A
C
B
D
E F
z
y
(1,0,0)
= j
^
= j n
^
^
(0,0,1)
G
(0,1,0)
Consider the top face (ABFE) for which the normal is

k so that the surface integral
is
_
F
z
dydx. On this face z = 1 and F
z
= y. The contribution to the surface
integral from this face is
_
1
0
dx
_
1
0
ydy =
1
2
For the bottomface (DOGC) the normal is along

k and z = 0. This gives F


z
= 0
so that the integral vanishes.
For the face EFGOthe normal is along so that the surface integral is
_
F
x
dydz.
On this face x = 0 giving F
x
= 0. The surface integral is zero. For the front face
ABCD, the normal is along and on this face x = 1 giving F
x
= 4z. The surface
integral is
_
1
0
dy
_
1
0
4zdz = 2
Adding the six contributions above, the surface integral is 3/2 consistent with the
divergence theorem.
Exercise :
Verify the divergence theorem by calculating the surface integral of the vector
eld

F = x
3
+ y
3
+

kz
3
for the cubical volume of Example 17. (Ans. Surface
27
integral has value 3)
Example 17 :
In Example 13 we found that the surface integral of a vector eld x + y + z

k
over a cylinder of radius R and height h is 3R
2
h. Verify this result using the
divergence theorem.
Solution :
In Example 16 we have seen that the divergence of the eld vector is 3. Since the
integrand is constant, the volume integral is 3V = 3R
2
h.
Example 18 :
A vector eld is given by

F = x
3
+y
3
. Verify Divergence theorem for a cylinder
of radius 2 and height 5. The origin of the coordinate system is at the centre of the
base of the cylinderand z-axis along the axis.
Solution :
The problem is obviously simple in cylindrical coordinates. The divergence can
be easily seen to be 3(x
2
+ y
2
) = 3
2
. Recalling that the volume element is
dddz, the integral is
_
div

FdV =
_
3
2
dV = 3
_
2
0

3
d
_
2
0
d
_
5
0
dz = 120
In order to calculate the surface integral, we rst observe that the end faces have
their normals along

k. Since the eld does not have any z- component, the


contribution to surface integral from the end faces is zero.
We will calculate the contribution to the surface integral from the curved surface.
Using the coordinate transformation to cylindrical
x = cos y = sin
and
= cos

sin
= sin +

cos

k =

k
Using these

F =
3
(cos
4
+ sin
4
) +
3
(sin
3
cos cos
3
sin )

The area element on the curved surface is Rddz , where R is the radius. Thus
the surface integral is
_
F

dS = R
4
_
2
0
(cos
4
+ sin
4
)d
_
5
0
dz
28
= 16.
3
2
.5 = 120
where we have used
_
2
0
sin
4
d =
_
2
0
cos
4
d = 3/4.
Exercise :
In the Exercise following Example 13, we had seen that surface integral of the
vector eld

V = 2 3

+z

k through the surface of a cylinder of radius 1 and


height 2 is 28/3. Re-conrm the same result using divergence theorem.
Example 19 :
A hemispherical bowl of radius 1 lies with its base on the x-y plane and the origin
at the centre of the circular base. Calculate the surface integral of the vector eld

F = x
3
+ y
3
+ z
3

k in the hemisphere and verify the divergence theorem.


Solution :
The divergence of

F is easily calculated


F =
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+
F
z
z
=
x
3
x
+
y
3
y
+
z
3
z
= 3(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
) = 3r
2
where r is the distance from origin. The volume integral over the hemisphere is
conveniently calculated in spherical polar using the volume element r
2
sin dd.
Since it is a hemisphere with z = 0 as the base, the range of is 0 to /2.


FdV = 3
_
r
2
dV = 3
_
1
0
r
4
dr
_
/2
0
sin d
_
2
0
d
= 3
1
5
1 2 =
6
5
The surface integrals are calculated conveniently in spherical polar. There is no
contribution to the ux from the base because the outward normal points in the
z direction but the z-component of the eld is zero because the base of the hemi-
sphere is z = 0.
In order to calculate the ux from the curved face we need to express the force
eld and the unit vectors in spherical polar coordinates. Using the tranformation
properties given earlier and observing that we only require the radial component
of the vector eld since the area element is radially directed. Using R
2
sin dd
as the area element, a bit of laborious algebra gives
29

F

dS = R
5
_
/2
0
sin
5
d
_
2
0
cos
4
d + R
5
_
/2
0
sin
5
d
_
2
0
sin
4
d
+ R
5
_
/2
0
cos
4
sin d
_
2
0
d
Using
_
/2
0
sin
5
d = 8/15 and
_
2
0
cos
4
d = 3/4, the above integral can be
seen to give the correct result.
1.5 Curl of a Vector - Stokes Theorem
We have seen that the line integral of a vector eld
_

F

dl is essentially a sum
of the component of

F along the curve. If the line integral is taken over a closed
path, we represent it as
_

F

dl. If the vector eld is consevative, i.e., if there
exists a scalar function V such that one can write

F as V , the contour integral
is zero. In other cases, it is, in general, non-zero.
Consider a contour C enclosing a surface S. We may split the contour into a large
number of elementary surface areas dened by a mesh of closed contours.
Since adjacent contours are traversed
in opposite directions, the only non-
vanishing contribution to the integral
comes from the boundary of the con-
tour C. If the surface area enclosed
by the i th cell is S
i
, then
_
C
=

i
_
C
i

dl
=

i
_
C
i

dl
S
i
S
i
We dene the quantity
lim
S
i
0
_
C
i

F

dl
S
i
n
i
as the curl of the vector

F at a point P which lies on the surface S
i
. Since the
area S
i
is innitisimal it is a point relationship. The direction of n
i
is, as usual,
30
along the outward normal to the area element S
i
. For instance, the x-component
of the curl is given by
(curl)
x
= lim
y,z0
_
C
i

F

dl
yz
n
i
Thus
_
C

F

dl =
_
S
curl

F dS
This is Stokes Theorem which relates the surface integral of a curl of a vector
to the line integral of the vector itself. The direction of

dl and

dS are xed by the
right hand rule, i.e. when the ngers of the right hand are curled to point in the
diurection of

dl, the thumb points in the direction of

dS.
1.5.1 Curl in Cartesian Coordinates :
We will obtain an expression for the curl in the cartesian coordinates. Let us
consider a rectangular contour ABCD in the y-z plane having dimensions y
z. The rectangle is oriented with its edges parallel to the axes and one of the
corners is located at (y, z). We will calculate the line integral of a vector eld

F along this contour. We assume the eld to vary slowly over the length (or
the bredth) so that we may retain only the rst term in a Taylor expansion in
computing the eld variation.
A(y,z) B(y+ y,z)
D(y,z+ z) C(y+ y,z+ z)
y
z
x
n
^
31
Contribution to the line integral from the two sides AB and CD are computed as
follows.
On AB :
_

F

dl =
_

F dy =
_
F
y
dy
ON CD :
_

F

dl =
_

F ( )dy =
_
F
y
dy
Using Taylor expansion (retaining only the rst order term), we can write
F
y
|
CD
= F
y
|
AB
+
F
y
z
z
Thus the line integral from the pair of sides AB and CD is

_
F
y
z
zdy
F
y
z
zy
In a similar way one can calculate the contributions from the sides BC and DA
and show it to be
_
F
z
y
ydz
F
z
y
yz
Adding up we get
(curl F)
x
= lim
y,z0
_
Fz
y

Fy
z
_
yz
yz
=
F
z
y

F
y
z
In a very similar way, one can obtain expressions for the y and z components
(curl F)
y
=
F
x
z

F
z
x
(curl F)
z
=
F
y
x

F
x
y
One can write the expression for the curl of

F by using the del operator as
curl

F =

F =

z
F
x
F
y
F
z

Expression for curl in Cylidrical and Spherical Coordinates :


In the cylindrical coordinates the curl is given by


F =
_
1

F
z

z
_

+
_
F

z

F
z

_

+
_
1

(F

)
1

k
32
In the spherical coordinates the corresponding expression for the curl is


F =
1
r sin
_

(F

sin )
F

_
r
+
1
r
_
1
sin
F
r



r
(rF

)
_

+
1
r
_

r
(rF

)
F
r

Example 20 :
Verify Stokes theorem for

F =
x
2
+ 2x + z
2

k for the rectangle shown


below, dened by sides x = 0, y = 0, x = 1
and y = 1.
O
x
y
(1,0) A
B(1,1)
C
The line integrals along the four sides are
_

F

dl =
_
1
0
F
x
|
y=0
dx +
_
1
0
F
y
|
x=0
dy +
_
0
1
F
x
|
y=1
dx +
_
1
0
F
y
|
x=1
dy
=
_
1
0
x
2
dx + 0 + +
_
0
1
x
2
dx +
_
1
0
2dy
=
1
3
+ 0
1
3
+ 2 = 2
Since the normal to the plane is along

k, we only need z component of

F
to calculate the surface integral. It can be checked that
(

F)
z
=
F
y
x

F
x
y
= 2 0 = 2
Thus
_
S
(

F)

kdS =
_
1
0
_
1
0
2dxdy = 2
which agrees with the line integral calculated.
Exercise :
33
A vector eld is given by

F = y + x + x
2

k. Calcu-
late the line integral of the eld
along the triangular path shown
above. Verify your result by Stokes
theorem. (Ans. 1)
O
A
B
(Hint : To calculate the line integral along a straightline, you need the equation
to the line. For instance, the equation to the line BO is y = 2x. Check that
_
AB

F

dl =
_
ydx +
_
xdy = 1. )
Example 21 :
A vector eld is given by

F = y + z + x
2

k. Calculate the line integral of


the eld along a circular path of radius R in the x-y plane with its centre at the
origin. Verify Stokes theorem by considering the circle to dene (i) the plane of
the circle and (ii) a cylinder of height z = h.
Solution :
The curl of

F may be calculated as


F = + 2x +

k
Because of symmetry, we use cylindrical (polar) coordinates. The transformations
are x = cos , y = sin , z = z. The unit vectors are
= cos

sin
= sin

cos

k =

k
Substituting the above, the eld

F and its curl are given by

F = ( sin cos + z sin )


+

( sin
2
+ z cos ) +

k
2
cos
2


F = (cos + 2 cos sin )
+

(sin + 2 cos
2
) +

k
34
The line integral of

F around the circular
loop :
Since the line element is

dl = Rd

,
_

F

dl =
_
2
0
(Rsin
2
+ z cos )Rd
On the circle z = 0. The integral over sin
2

gives 1/2. Hence


_

F

dl = R
2
x
y
z
k
k
^
^

^
^
Let us calculate the surface integral of the curl of the eld over two surfaces bound
by the circular curve.
(i) On the circular surface bound by the curve in the x-y plane, the outward normal
is along

k (right hand rule). Thus
_
S
(

F) (

kdS) =
_
S
dS = R
2
(ii) For the cylindrical cup, we have two surfaces : the curved face of the cylinder
on which n = and the top circular face on which n =

k. The contribution from
the top circular cap is R
2
, as before because the two caps only differ in their
z values (the z-component of the curl is independent of z). The surface integral
from the curved surface is (the area element is Rddz )
_
2
0
Rd
_
h
0
dz(Rsin cos + z cos )
For both the terms of the above integral, the angle integration gives zero. Thus the
net surface integral is R
2
, as expected.
Exercise :
A vector eld is given by

F = k
2
z

. Check the validity of the Stokes theorm


35
by calculating the line integral about
the closed contour in the form of a
circle at z = 4 and also calculat-
ing the surface integral of the open
surface of the cylinder below it, as
shown. (Hint : Express the curl in
cylindrical coordinates and take care
of the signs of the surface elements
from the curved surface and the bot-
tom cap. Ans. 64k )
x
y
z
C
R=2
h
=
4
Exercise :
Let C be a closed curve in the x-y plane in the shape of a quadrant of a circle of
radius R.
If

F = y+ z+

kx. calculate the line


integral of the eld along the contour
shown in a direction which is anti-
clockwise when looked from above
the plane (z > 0). Take the sur-
face of the quadrant enclosed by the
curve as the open surface bounded
by the curve and verify Stokes theo-
rem. (Ans. R
2
/4)
x
y
z
O
(1,0,0)
(0,1,0)
Example 22 :
A vector eld is given by

F(r, , ) = f(r)

where is the azimuthal angle


variable of a spherical coordinate system. Calculate the line integral over a circle
of radius R in the x-y plane centered at the origin. Consider an open surface in the
form of a hemispherical bowl in the northern hemisphere bounded by the circle.
36
Solution :
On the equatorial circle

dl = Rd

. Hence,
_

F

dl =
_
2
0
f(R)Rd = 2Rf(R)
The expression for curl in spherical coordinates may
be used to calculate the curl of

F. Since the eld
only has azimuthal component, the curl has radial and
polar () components.


F =
1
r sin

(f(r) sin) r
1
r

r
(rf(r))

=
f(r) cos
r sin
r
_
f(r)
r
+
f(r)
r
_

The area element on the surface of the northern hemi-


sphere is R
2
sin dd r.
r
^
y
z
x
Hence the surface integral is
_
2
0
d
_
/2
0
f(r) cos
Rsin
R
2
sin d = 2Rf(R)
_
/2
0
cos d
= 2Rf(R)
Exercise :
Verify Stokes theorem for a vector eld 2z + 3x + 5y

k where the contour is an


equatorial circle of radius R and is anticlockwise when viewed from above and
the surface is the hemisphere shown in the preceding example.. (Ans. 3R
2
)
1.6 Laplacian :
Since gradient of a scalar eld gives a vector eld, we may compute the diver-
gence of the resulting vector eld to obtain yet another scalar eld. The operator
div(grad) = is called the Laplacian and is written as
2
.
If V is a scalar, then,

2
V = (V )
=
_


x
+

y
+

k

z
__

V
x
+
V
y
+

k
V
z
_
=

2
V
x
2
+

V
y
2
+

2
V
z
2
37
Example 23 :
Calculate the Laplacian of 1/r = 1/

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
.
Solution :

2
x
2
1

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
=

x
x
(x
2
+ y62 + z
2
)
3/2
=
2x
2
y
2
z
2
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
)
5/2
=
3x
2
r
2
r
5
Adding similar contributions from
2
/y
2
and
2
/z
2
, we get

2
1
r
=
3(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
) 3r
2
r
5
=
3r
2
3r
2
r
5
= 0
Laplacian in cylindrical and spherical coordinates:
In cylindrical :

2
=
1

_
+
1

2
+

2
z
2
In spherical :

2
=
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

_
sin

_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

2
Frequently the Laplacian of a vector eld is used. It is simply a short hand notation
for the componentwise Laplacian

F =
2
F
x
+
2
F
y
+

k
2
F
z
Exercise :
Show that
(

F) = (

F)
2

F
1.7 Dirac- Delta Function :
In electromagnetism, we often come across use of a function known as Dirac-
function. The peculiarity of the function is that though the value of the function
38
is zero everywhere, other than at one point, the integral of the function over any
region which includes this singular point is nite. We dene
(x a) = 0 if x = a
with _
f(x)(x a)dx = f(a)
where f(x) is any function that is continuous at x = a, provided that the range of
integration includes the point x = a. Strictly speaking, (x a) is not a function
in the usual sense as Riemann integral of any function which is zero everywhere,
excepting at discrete set of points should be zero. However, one can look at the
function as a limit of a sequence of functions. For instance, if we dene a function

(x) such that

(x) =
1

for

2
< x < +

2
= 0 for | x |>

2
Then (x) can be thought of as the
limit of

(x) as 0.
x
/2 + /2
0
1/

(x)
One can easily extend the denition to three dimensions
(r) = (x)(y)(z)
which has the property
_
f(r)(r a) = f(a)
provided, of course, the range of integration includes the point r = a.
Example :
Evaluate
_
5
0
cos x(x )dx.
Solution :
The range of integration includes the point x = at which the argument of the
delta function vanishes. Thus, the value of the integral is cos = 1.
Exercise :
Evaluate
_
r(ar)(r

b)d
r
, where a = (1, 2, 3),

b = (3, 2, 1) and the integration


is over a sphere of radius 1.5 centered at (2,2,2) (Ans. -4)
39
A physical example is the volume density of charge in a region which contains a
point charge q. The charge density is zero everywhere except at the point where
the charge is located. However, the volume integral of the density in any region
which includes this point is equal to q itself. Thus if q is located at the point r = a,
we can write
(r) = q(r a)
Example :
Show that
2
(1/r) is a delta function.
Solution :
As r =

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
, we have
r
x
=
x
r
,
r
y
=
y
r
,
r
z
=
z
r
using this it is easy to show that

2
x
2
(
1
r
) =
3x
2
r
2
r
5
Thus

2
_
1
r
_
=
_

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
_
(
1
r
) =
3(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
) 3r
2
r
5
= 0
However, the above is not true at the origin as 1/r diverges at r = 0 and is not
differentiable at that point. Interestingly, however, the integral of
2
(1/r) over
any volume which includes the point r = 0 is not zero. As the value of the
integrand is zero everywhere excepting at the origin, the point r = 0 has to be
treated with care.
Consider an innitisimally small sphere of radius r
0
with the centre at the origin.
Using divergence theorem, we have,
_
V

2
_
1
r
_
d
3
r =
_
V

_
1
r
_
d
3
r =
_
S

_
1
r
i
_
dS
where the last integral is over the surface S of the sphere dened above. As the
gradient is taken at points on the surface for which r = 0, we may replace (1/r)
with 1/r
2
0
at all points on the surface. Thus the value of the integral is

1
r
2
0
_
S
dS =
1
r
2
0
4r
2
0
= 4
Hence

2
_
1
r
_
= 4(r)
40

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