CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms. They may also contain other elements such as sulfur or nitrogen, but these are usually minor components. They consist of monosaccharide sugars, of varying chain lengths, that have the general chemical formula Cn(H2O)n or are derivatives of such.The smallest value for "n" is 3. A 3-carbon sugar is referred to as a triose, whereas a 6-carbon sugar is called a hexose . Certain carbohydrates are important for storing and transporting energy in most organisms, including plants and animals, and are major structural elements in many organisms (eg cellulose in plants). In addition they play major roles in cell to cell communication, the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Carbohydrates can be classified by the number of constituent sugar units: monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose), oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose).

Glucose as a straight-chain carbohydrate (Fischer projection)

Fructose

Pure carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, in a 1:2:1 molar ratio, giving the general formula Cn(H2O)n. (This applies only to monosaccharides, see below, although all carbohydrates have the more general formula Cn(H2O)m.) However, many important carbohydrates deviate from this, such as deoxyribose and glycerol. Sometimes compounds containing other elements are also counted as carbohydrates (e.g. glucosamine and chitin, which contain nitrogen). The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, which are small straight-chain aldehydes and ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon except the functional group. Other carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

and break down under hydrolysis. These may be classified as disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides, depending on whether they have two, several, or many monosaccharide units. Monosaccharides Monosaccharides may be divided into aldoses, which have an aldehyde group on the first carbon atom, and ketoses, which typically have a ketone group on the second. They may also be divided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and so forth, depending on how many carbon atoms they contain. For instance, glucose is an aldohexose, fructose a ketohexose, and ribose an aldopentose.

A heterocyclic form of ribose (Haworth projection) Disaccharides Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent glycosidic bond. The binding between the two sugars results in the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one molecule and a hydroxyl group (OH) from the other. The most common disaccharides are sucrose (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), lactose (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose), maltose (made of two glucoses linked alpha-1,4) and cellobiose (made of two glucoses linked beta-1,4). The formula of these disaccharides is C12H22O11. Other examples of disaccharides include trehalose, chitobiose, laminaribiose, kojibiose and xylobiose. Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between two and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary according to personal opinion. Examples of oligosaccharides include the disaccharides mentioned above, the trisaccharide raffinose and the tetrasaccharide stachyose.

 Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of protein posttranslational modification. Such posttranslational modifications include the Lewis oligosaccharides responsible for blood group incompatibilities, the alpha-Gal epitope responsible for hyperacute rejection in xenotransplanation, and O-GlcNAc modifications. Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological polymer. Examples include starch, cellulose, chitin, glycogen, callose, laminarin, xylan, and galactomannan. Carbohydrates require less water to digest than proteins or fats and are the most common source of energy. Proteins and fat are vital building components for body tissue and cells, and thus it could be considered advisable not to deplete such resources by necessitating their use in energy production. Carbohydrates, like proteins, contain 4 kilocalories per gram while fats contain 9 kilocalories and alcohol contains 7 kilocalories per gram. Foods high in carbohydrates Breads, pastas, beans, potatoes, bran and cereals are all high in carbohydrates. Catabolism There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism: 1. Glycolysis 2. Citric acid cycle Oligo/polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called Glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism.

Anabolism Complex carbohydrates are assembled from sugar nucleotides by the action of glycosyltransferases.

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Fat Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Fats may be either solid or liquid at normal room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats" and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats. Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure and physical properties. Fats are solid at room temperature as opposed to oils which are liquid. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans).

Chemical structure

Chemical structure of trimyristin, a triglyceride. Importance for living things Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. They are also known as lipids. They also serve as energy stores for the body. Fats are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy. The fatty acids are a good source of energy for many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle. The fat content of a food can be analyzed by extraction. The exact method varies on what type of fat you are analyzing, for example, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats are tested quite differently. Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic -- reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute -- or at least maintain equilibrium of -- the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be

metabolized and/or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth. Calcium Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet. A deficit can affect bone and tooth formation, while overretention can cause kidney stones. Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium. Dairy products, such as milk and cheese, are a well-known source of calcium. However, some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of nonEuropean descent, are lactose-intolerant, leaving them unable to consume dairy products. Fortunately, many other good sources of calcium exist. These include: seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame); beans; amaranth; collard greens; okra; rutabaga; broccoli; kale; and fortified products such as orange juice and soy milk. Calcium has also been found to assist in the production of lymphatic fluids. Calcium is essential for the normal growth and maintenance of bones and teeth, and calcium requirements must be met throughout life. Requirements are greatest during periods of growth, such as childhood, during pregnancy and when breast-feeding. Long-term calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis, in which the bone deteriorates and there is an increased risk of fractures. Adults need between 1,000 and 1,300 mg of calcium in their daily diet.

Dietary sources of calcium Calcium is found in significant amounts in many foods, including broccoli, kale, dandelion greens, collard greens, almonds, sesame seeds, blackstrap molasses, beans, and fortified beverages such as soy milk and orange juice. The calcium content of most foods can be found in the USDA National Nutrient Database. Dairy products (such as milk, yogurt and cheese) do contain calcium, however they are not recommended as a dietary source because they contain a significant amount of saturated fat, which can contribute to cardiovascular disease. The calcium content of dairy products is also misleading because most of the calcium is used by the body in the digestion of milk protein (casein). This can lead to calcium deficiency and osteoporosis. http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

However, calcium in dairy products is usually much more absorbable to human body than other sources of calcium such as plant based or dietary supplements

Magnesium Green vegetables such as spinach provide magnesium because the center of the chlorophyll molecule contains magnesium. Nuts (especially almonds), seeds, and some whole grains are also good sources of magnesium. Although magnesium is present in many foods, it usually occurs in small amounts. As with most nutrients, daily needs for magnesium cannot be met from a single food. Eating a wide variety of foods, including five servings of fruits and vegetables daily and plenty of whole grains, helps to ensure an adequate intake of magnesium. The magnesium content of refined foods is usually low. Whole-wheat bread, for example, has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium. Water can provide magnesium, but the amount varies according to the water supply. "Hard" water contains more magnesium than "soft" water. Too much magnesium in the diet can make it difficult for your body to absorb calcium. On the other hand not enough magnesium can lead to irregular heartbeats, high blood pressure, insomnia and muscle spasms.

Following are some foods and the amount of magnesium in them:

spinach (1/2 cup) = 80 milligrams (mg) peanut butter (2 tablespoons) = 50 mg black-eyed peas (1/2 cup) = 45 mg milk: low fat (1 cup) = 40 mg

Iron

Nutrition and dietary sources Good sources of dietary iron include meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, leaf vegetables, tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed pea, strawberries and farina. Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as Iron (II) fumarate. Iron sulfate is as well absorbed, and less expensive. The most bioavailable form of iron supplement (ten to fifteen times more bioavailable than any other) is iron amino acid chelate. The RDA for iron varies considerably based on the age, gender, and source of dietary iron (heme-based iron has higher bioavailability) Biological role Zinc is an essential element, necessary for sustaining all life. It is estimated that 3000 of the hundreds of thousands of proteins in the human body contain zinc prosthetic groups. In addition, there are over a dozen types of cells in the human body that secrete zinc ions, and the http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

roles of these secreted zinc signals in medicine and health are now being actively studied. Intriguingly, brain cells in the mammalian forebrain are one type of cell that secretes zinc, along with its other neuronal messenger substances. Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine are other types that secrete zinc. Zinc is an activator of certain enzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is important in the transport of carbon dioxide in vertebrate blood. It is also required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and anaerobic respiration (alcoholic fermentation). Food sources Zinc is found in oysters, and to a far lesser degree in most animal proteins, beans, nuts, whole grains, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds. Phytates, which are found in whole grain breads, cereals, legumes and other products, have been known to decrease zinc absorption. Clinical studies have found that zinc, combined with antioxidants, may delay progression of agerelated macular degeneration, but the effect is extremely small and not likely to be clinically important. Significant dietry intake of zinc has also recently been shown to impede the onset of flu. Soil conservation analyzes the vegetative uptake of naturally occurring zinc in many soil types. The (US) recommended dietary allowance of zinc from puberty on is 11mg for males and 8mg for females, with higher amounts recommended during pregnancy and lactation.

Zinc deficiency Zinc deficiency results from inadequate intake of zinc, or inadequate absorption of zinc into the body. Signs of zinc deficiency includes hair loss, skin lesions, diarrhea, wasting of body tissues, and, eventually, death. Eyesight, taste, smell and memory are also connected with zinc. A deficiency in zinc can cause malfunctions of these organs and functions. Congenital abnormalities causing zinc deficiency may lead to a disease called Acrodermatitis enteropathica.

Obtaining a sufficient zinc intake during pregnancy and in young children is a very real problem, especially among those who cannot afford a good and varied diet. Brain development is stunted by zinc insufficiency in utero and in youth. Zinc toxicity Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, too much zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. On the other hand, the free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all daphnia in water. [4] Swallowing an American one cent piece (98% zinc) can also cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.
[5]

Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of US pennies minted after

1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia. [6] Immune system Zinc salts are effective against pathogens in direct application. Gastrointestinal infections are also strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the GI tract, or to absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc) or both. The direct effect of zinc (as in lozenges) on bacteria and viruses is also well-established, and has been used since at least 2000 BC, from when zinc salts in palliative salves are documented. However, exactly how to deliver zinc salts against pathogens without injuring one's own tissues is still being investigated.

Fiber Fiber or fibre is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. Fibers are of great importance in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together. Human uses for fibers are diverse. They http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

can be spun into filaments, thread, string or rope. They can be used as a component of composite materials. They can also be matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. Fibres used by man come from a wide variety of sources.

Natural fibers include those produced by plants, animals, and geological processes. They can be classified according to their origin:
o

Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: examples include cotton, linen,hemp jute, flax, ramie, and sisal. Plant fibers serve in the manufacture of paper and cloth.

wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include groundwood, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps. Kraft and sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping process used to remove the lignin bonding the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers.

Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are spider silk, sinew, catgut and hair (including wool). Polar bear fibers are noted for being hollow.

Mineral fibers comprise asbestos. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber. Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastinite, attapulgite and halloysite.

Man-made fibers may come from natural raw materials or from synthetic chemicals.
o

Many types of fiber are manufactured from natural cellulose, including rayon, modal, and the more recently developed Lyocell. Cellulose-based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium process and modified or derivitized cellulose such as the cellulose acetates. Fiberglass made from specific glass formulas and optical fiber, made from purified natural quartz, are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw

materials. Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones such as nickel, aluminum or iron. Synthetic fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from natural materials by a purely physical process. Such fibers are made from polyamide nylon, PET or PBT polyester, phenol-formaldehyde (PF),polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVOH), polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC), polyolefins (PP and PE), or acrylic polymers, although pure polyacrylonitrile PAN fibers are used to make carbon fiber by roasting them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional acrylic fiber is used more often as a synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resin-based fibers that are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted. More exotic fibers have strong bonding between polymer chains (e.g. aramids), or extremely long chains (e.g. Dyneema or Spectra). Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane fibers are starting to replace spandex technology

Water
Water (in its pure form) is a tasteless, odorless substance that is essential to all known forms of life and is known as the universal solvent. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities. Clean water is essential to human health and in many parts of the world it is in short supply. Significant quantities exist on the moons Europa and Enceladus. Thales of Miletus, an early Greek philosopher, known for his analysis of the scope and nature of the term "landscaping", believed that "all is water."

Chemical and physical properties

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Information and properties

Systematic name

water aqua dihydrogen monoxide hydroxic acid hydrogen hydroxide oxane H2O 18.0153 g/mol 1.000 g/cm3, liquid 0.917 g/cm3, solid 0 C (273.15 K) (32 F) 100 C (373.15 K) (212F)

Alternative names

Molecular formula Molar mass Density and phase Melting point Boiling point

Specific heat capacity (liquid) 4184 J/(kgK)

Water has the chemical formula H2O meaning that one molecule of water is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It can be described ionically as HOH, with a hydrogen ion (H+) that is bonded to a hydroxide ion (OH-). It is in dynamic equilibrium between the liquid and vapor states at standard temperature and pressure. Water alone is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless liquid, but upon standing it takes on the traces of carbon dioxide in the air and trends toward a sour solution of carbonic acid that is unpleasanttasting and more inhospitable to life.

Forms of water

Vitamin

Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required for essential metabolic reactions in the body Vitamins can act both as catalysts and substrates in chemical reactions. The role of a catalyst is to http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

facilitate a chemical reaction without being altered itself. In essence, catalysts function like knitting needles, which are capable of converting yarn into mittens, but do not undergo any change themselves. The body typically assembles a vitamin-dependent catalyst from a variety of building blocks including amino acids, sugars, phosphates, and other vitamins. Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions and therefore, most have multiple functions Many food sources contain different ratios of vitamins. Therefore, if the only source of vitamins is food, a seasonal, yearly or even daily change in diet also alters the ratio of ingested vitamins. Many vitamins can be stored by the body over a range of dosages and short term deficiencies (e.g. during a particular food growing season), does not always result in disease. Vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive pills for several decadesallowing for consistant supplimentation to dietary intake. Vitamins are classified as either water soluble, meaning that they dissolve easily in water, or fat soluble, and are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids.

However, there are a few vitamins that we obtain by other means: for example, microorganisms in the intestine - commonly known as "gut flora" - produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of natural ultraviolet sunlight. Some vitamins can also be obtained from precursors which can be obtained in the diet. Examples include vitamin A, which can be produced from beta carotene and niacin from the amino acid tryptophan.

Vegetables are a great source of vitamins

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Throughout the early 1900s, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Initially, lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A" The irony here is that the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called vitamine A, this bioactivity is now called vitamin D, which is itself subject to the semantic debate that it is not truly a vitamin because it is a steroid derivative. What we now call "vitamin A" was identified in fish oil because it was inactivated by ultraviolet light. Most of what we now recognize as the water-soluble organic micronutrients were initially referred to as just one entity, "vitamin B". The reason the alphabet soup of vitamins seems to skip from E to the rarely-mentioned K is that most of the "letters" were reclassified, as with fatty acids, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to "vitamin B", which became a "complex" of vitamins. Vitamin G, Riboflavin, for example, is now known as B2 Human vitamins In humans there are thirteen vitamins, divided into two groups; four fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K), and nine water-soluble vitamins (eight B vitamins and vitamin C). http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

Estimated Average Vitamin name Chemical name Solubility Deficiency disease Minimum Daily Overdose Requirement (male, aged 19 30)[5] Retinoids (include: retinol, Vitamin retinal, A retinoic acid, and 3its dehydroretinol derivatives)
Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2

Fat

Night-blindness, Keratomalacia Beriberi Ariboflavinosis Pellagra

7.5 mg

800-1100 g

Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin

Water Water Water

n/a n/a

1000 g 1100 g

(G)
Vitamin B3

(PP)

2500 mg 12000 g 10000 g

Vitamin B5

Pantothenic acid

Water

Paresthesia

n/a 1100 g 30 g 320 g 2 g 75000 g

Vitamin B6 Vitamin B7

Pyridoxine Biotin Folic acid Cyanocobalamin Ascorbic acid lumisterol, Ergocalciferol, 7-

Water Water Water Water Water

n/a n/a
[6]

400 mg n/a 1 mg n/a n/a

(H)
Vitamin B9

(M)
Vitamin B12

Megaloblastic anaemia Scurvy

Vitamin C
[7]

Cholecalciferol,
Vitamin D2D4

Dihydrotachysterol,

Fat

Rickets

1.25 mg

2 g (for all Vitamin D)

Dehydrocholesterol Vitamin Tocopherol, Tocotrienol

Fat

n/a

33000 mg 12000 g

E Vitamin Naphthoquinone (not to be K confused with Ketamine) Fat Bleeding diathesis n/a 75 g

Why we need vitamins Although vitamins contain no calories, they are essential for normal growth and development. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a child's body begins to build itself from the "food" it absorbs beginning at the moment of conception. Once out of the womb, the child continues on with this incredibly complex set of tasks using the building blocks it gets by eating and drinking. There is no other source for the raw materials, tools, and energy needed to build an adult human. We are literally made out of what we have eaten throughout our lives. As the body builds itself according to its genetic plan, it needs certain vitamins and minerals in place at the right times. These nutrients faciliate the chemical reactions that make, among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If those nutrients are missing, the body must manage as best it can to follow its blueprint. If there is serious deficiency, a child develops a deficiency disease and the genetic plan is completed so poorly that the results are obvious - malformed limbs in the case of rickets, or the mental retardation of iodine deficiency. Minor deficiencies are also believed to cause permanent damage and have been associated with reduced life expectancy. Children are at elevated risk of deficiency when sick. When a cold or other virus invades, a child's body often reacts with an inflammatory response which can damage the child's body in addition to eliminating the virus. Once growth and development are completed, adults remain dependent upon vitamins to maintain good health. Vitamins are necessary to maintain proper functioning of the nervous system. Vitamins enable the body to use the calories provided by the food that we eat and to help process proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Vitamins are also involved in building cells, tissues, and organs - vitamin C, for example, helps produce healthy http://tangkapgambar.blogspot.com/

skin.

Vitamins are classified as fat-soluble or water-soluble based on how they are absorbed by the body. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble, while the water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins (thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), vitamin B6, vitamin B12, biotin and folate. Research has shown that foods rich in antioxidants are particularly beneficial for health. Antioxidants neutralize free radicals. A buildup of free radicals can damage body cells and tissues, resulting in disease. Studies have shown that diets rich in vegetables and fruits result in a lower incidence of some diseases, including certain cancers

Food guide pyramid

The initial USDA - Pyramid divided the three groups: carbohydrates, vegetables and proteins into six new groups:

I carbohydrates: Bread, Cereal, Rice & Pasta Vegetables into: II Vegetables III Fruits Proteins into subgroups: IV Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs, and Nuts V Milk, Yogurt and Cheese VI Fats, Oils, and Sweets In general terms the food guide pyramid recommends the following intake of different food groups each day, although exact amounts of calorie intake depends on ###, age, and lifestyle: 6-11 servings a day of grain foods including rice, bread, cereals, and pasta; 3-5 servings a day of vegetables, especially green, leafy vegetables; 2-4 servings of fruits a day; 2-3 servings of meat, fish, eggs, nuts, or beans a day; 2-3 servings of dairy products including cheese and yogurt every other day; occasional use of fats, oils, and sweets. (7 tsp Oil per day)

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