CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Whats really important about shamanism is that there is another reality that you can personally discoverwe are not alone. Michael Harner

Shamanism, a belief and practice that involves healing, divination, and control over spirits, has existed in the ancient times.

Christianity paved the way to the collapse of Greek and Roman religions. European shamanism was illegalized the campaign against witches and wizards. Conquistadors are the cause of the destruction of these practices. They accused the practitioners as devil worshippers and had them executed. Christian missionaries were instrumental for the attacks on shamanic practitioners. Missionaries in the Amazon were also responsible for the destruction of petroglyphs.

Even though Shamanism was studied as academic subjects during the twentieth century, the spirit-world of the shamanism was seen as a superstition from the viewpoint of the new values of the world. Severe persecutions are being implemented in other countries but despite these campaigns, shamanism still exists today in the tundra, jungles,

deserts, and other rural areas, and also cities, towns, suburbs and shantytowns all over the world.

Through this research paper, societys negative ideas about Shamanism will be replaced by understanding.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
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In order to clearly illustrate the direction of the study, the following terms are operationally and theoretically defined: Altai. It is federal subject of Russia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Republic). Amergin. He is druid, bard and judge for the Milesians in the Irish Mythological Cycle (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amergin_Gl%C3%BAingel). Arawaks. They are some of the indigenous peoples of the West Indies (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arawak_peoples). Astarte. She is the Phoenician goddess of fertility and reproduction and the principal deity of the port city of Sidon (http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/astarte.html). Axis mundi. In religion or mythology, it is the world center and/or the connection between heaven and Earth. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_mundi). Ayahuasca. It is any of various psychoactive infusions prepared from the Banisteriopsis spp. vine, usually mixed with the leaves of dimethyltryptamine-containing species of shrubs from the Psychotria genus

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca). Ayahuasqueros. They are Peruvian Shamans who specialize with ayahuasca (http://www.biopark.org/peru/shamans_peru.html). Baal. He is the god of the rain, thunder, fertility and agriculture, and the lord of Heaven (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal).

Babongo. They are an agricultural people of Gabon in equatorial Africa (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bongo_people_%28Gabon%29). Bantu. These constitute a traditional sub-branch of the NigerCongo languages (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu_languages). Barga tribe. It is a subgroup of the Mongol people who predominantly live Hulunbuir since 17th century under the Qing Dynasty

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barga_Mongol). Black shamans. They are the most powerful of all the shamans and have their power from the Northern direction (http://www.tengerism.org/shamantypes.html). Bon religion. It is a branch of Tibetan Vajrayana

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6n). Buryats. They are the largest ethnic minority group in Siberia and are mainly concentrated in Buryat Republic (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buryats). Bwiti. It is the West Central African spiritual practice by the forest-dwelling Babongo and Mitsogo people of Gabon (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwiti). Caboclo. It is a person of a mixed Brazilian Indian and European ancestry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caboclo). Curandero. He is a practitioner of the Hispanic folk medicine curanderismo (http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Curandero).

Druid. He was a member of the priestly class in Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, and possibly other parts of Celtic Western Europe, during the Iron Age

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druid). Egalitarian. It is a belief in the equality of all people, especially in political, economic, or social life (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/egalitarian). Evenks. They are Tungusic people of Northern Asia

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evenks). Exu. It is both an orisha and one of the most well-known deities of the Yoruba mythology and its related New World traditions (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eshu). Fang people. They are migratory people of Africa that occupies a large swath of land across Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon

(http://www.lotusmasks.com/category/fang-tribe-masks.html). Finno-Ugric people. These are any of several peoples of Europe who speak languages of the proposed Finno-Ugric language family

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finno-Ugric_peoples). Fino-Baltic people. They are historical linguistic group of peoples of northern Europe whose modern descendants include the Finns proper, Karelians, Izhorians, Veps, Votes, Livonians and Estonians (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Finns). Fionn mac Cumhail. He is the legendary Irish hero and leader of the Fianna (http://www.pantheon.org/articles/f/finn_mac_cumhail.html)

Fuegians. They are the indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuegians). Goddess Ceridwen. She is a Celtic Welsh Goddess

(http://orderwhitemoon.org/goddess/Ceridwen/) Gran Met. She is one of the primary creator goddesses

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Ma%C3%AEtre). Haitian Taino. They are one of the indigenous people in Haiti. Hallucinogenic drugs. These are psychoactive drugs that produce altered perceptions or ways of thinking and feeling when taken

(http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/drug-types/types-of-hallucinogens.htm). High-Altai. It is a mountain range in Central Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob have their sources (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains) Homeopathic Medicine. It is a form of alternative medicine in which practitioners treat patients using highly dilute preparations that are believed to cause healthy people to exhibit symptoms that are similar to those exhibited by the patient (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy). Houngan. It refers to a male priest in the voodoo religion in Haiti (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houngan)

Huns. They were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns). Ifa. It refers to the system of divination and the verses of the literary corpus known as the Od If (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If%C3%A1). Intermediary. It refers to a mediator

(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intermediary). Juju. It is a word of either West African or French origin

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juju) Kadji. They are Australian shamans (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism). Kaftan. It is a man's coat usually reaching to the ankles with long sleeves, and which buttons down the front (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaftan). Kalahari san. They are indigenous people from Kalahari. Kawi. It refers to a manioc drink

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapirap%C3%A9_people). Khakassia. It is a federal subject of Russia located in south-central Siberia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khakassia). Khalkha tribe. This tribe is largest subgroup of Mongol people in Mongolia since 16th century (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalkha).

Laib Olmai. He is a good luck god in Sami mythology who was honored by the Sami (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leib-Olmai). Lamaism. It is often called Tibetan Buddhism. It is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including northern Nepal, Bhutan, and India

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism) Lwa. These are the spirits of the voodoo religion practiced in Louisiana, Haiti, Benin, and other parts of the world (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loa). Maban. It is a material that is held to be magical in Australian Aboriginal mythology (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maban). Machi. It is a traditional healer and religious leader in the Mapuche culture of Chile and Argentina (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machi_%28shaman%29). Macumba. It is a word of African origins (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macumba). Magi. It is the term to denote a follower of Zoroaster

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magi). Mambo. It refers to a priestess. Mari-El. It is a federal subject of Russia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari_El). Masalai. These are animal spirits of Melanesian belief who take the form of men, women and children

(http://www.mythicalcreatureslist.com/creature.php?beast=Masalai).

Mitsogo people. They are located at the mountains of Central Gabon (http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Mitsogo.html). Muti. These are medicines with spiritual significance Natufian Culture. It was a Mesolithic culture that existed from 12,500 to 9,500 BC in the Levant, a region in the Eastern Mediterranean

(http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Natufian_culture). Navajo tribe. They are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_people). Ndebele. They are offshoot of the Zulu tribe

(http://www.tribes.co.uk/countries/south_africa/indigenous/ndebele). Nemerge. It is a cape worn by shamans. Neo-druidism. It is the revival of the ancient religion of the Celts (http://pagan.wikia.com/wiki/Neo-Druidism). Neurotransmitter responses. These are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter). Nganga. It is a Bantu term for herbalist or spiritual healer in many African societies and also in many societies of the African diaspora such as those in Haiti, Brazil and Cuba (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nganga).

Noaydde. He was one of Shaman of the Sami people in the Nordic countries. (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php). Nordic countries. These countries make up a region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic which consists of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden and their associated territories, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and land (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries). Orisha. It is a spirit that reflects one of the manifestations of Olodumare in the Yoruba spiritual or religious system (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orisha). Orunmilla. He is the Yoruba Grand Priest and custodian of If.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orunmila). Pantheon. In this research paper, the term is used as all the gods of a people considered as a group (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/pantheon). Pomba Gira. It is the classification of an entity, and an entity herself, who is commonly employed and worked with by practitioners of Umbanda and Quimbanda in Brazil (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomba_Gira) Pondo shamans. They are shamans that belong to the Pondo tribe. Psychobiological foundations. In this research paper, this term is used as the psychiatric theory in which the human being is viewed as an integrated unit, incorporating psychological, social, and biological functions which became the foundation of shamanism (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/psychobiological).

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Psychodynamics. It is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation (http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Psychodynamics). Psychophysiological effects. These are the mental and physical effects (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/psychophysiology). Psychosomatic medicine. The term psychosomatic emphasizes essential unity of the psyche and the soma

(http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/psychosomatic+medicine). Quimbanda. It is an Afro-Brazilian religion practiced primarily in the urban city centers of Brazil (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimbanda). Radien or Vearlden. He is the superior deity is the ruler of the Cosmos (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radien-attje). Sami people. They are the arctic indigenous people inhabiting Spmi, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_people). San or Bushmen. These are the indigenous people of Southern Africa, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen). San Pedro Cactus. It is a fast-growing columnar cactus native to the Andes Mountains of Peru between 20003000 m in altitude

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi).

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Sanoma. This term refers to a practitioner of herbal medicine, divination and counseling in traditional Nguni societies of Southern Africa

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangoma). Santo Daime. It is a syncretic spiritual practice

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Daime). Shamanism. It is a range of beliefs and practices that involve the ability to diagnose, cure, and sometimes cause human suffering

(http://www.crystalinks.com/shamanism.html). Sotho tribes. These people are an ethnic group living in Lesotho and South Africa (http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Japan-to-Mali/Sotho.html). Spirit Realm. It refers to the unconscious world that belongs to an individual or a group of people (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/realm+of+Spirit) Spiritual intrusion. It is a situation all physical beings may deal with from time to time (http://www.shamanspath.org/page6.html). Spring Cleaning. In this study, this term is used as healing a persons physical, mental, and emotional flaws. Stytto. It marks the symbol of the world tree in Finnish mythology (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php). Swazi. It is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, bordered to the north, south and west by South Africa, and to the east by Mozambique

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaziland).
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Tabernanthe iboga Plant. It is a perennial rainforest shrub and hallucinogen, native to western Central Africa. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthe_iboga). Tagati. In South African English, a tagati is a wizard, witch, or a spiteful person who operates in secret to harm others (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagati). Talented chanter. It is a type of shaman in Korea that is possessed of particular activities (http://www.oxfordu.net/seoul/chapter1/index.html). Taliesin. He is an early British poet of the post-Roman period

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliesin). Talisman. It is an amulet or other object considered to possess supernatural or magical powers (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talisman). Tapirape people. They are indigenous people is a Brazilian Indian tribe that survived the European conquest and subsequent colonization of the country, keeping with little changes most of their culture and customs

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapirap%C3%A9_people). Techno-scientific lens. It encompasses the scientific and technological views in the field of medicine. Teutonic tribe. They are to succeed the Roman Empire, are found in Scandinavia around 1,000 BC (http://www.enotes.com/salem-history/teutonic-tribes). Thwasa. It is a period of training including learning humility to the ancestors, purification through steaming, washing in the blood of sacrificed animals, and the use

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of

Muti

(http://www.southafricalogue.com/travel-tips/sangomas-the-south-african-

shamen.html). Tiermes or Horagalles. He is a Sami god of thunder and rain, also called Aijeke or Ajeke (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiermes). Trance. It denotes a variety of processes, ecstasy, techniques, modalities and states of mind, awareness and conscious (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trance). Tungus. It is a collective term for a group of languages spoken by several ethnic minorities that live in the north of the Peoples Republic of China, in the Russian Federation and in Mongolia (http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/desc?id=66&type=r) Tuva. It is lies in the geographical center of Asia, in Southern Siberia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuva). Udmurtia. It is a federal subject of Russia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udmurtia). Umbanda. It is an Afro-Brazilian religion that blends African religions with Catholicism, Spiritism and considerable indigenous lore

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbanda) Umthakathi. They unleash terrible diseases and curses on those who anger them, the magic of the animals can also be used for blessings and healing on those who are polite to them and treat them with respect

(http://oakthorne.net/wiki/index.php?title=Umthakathi).

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Uralic, Altaic people. These are one of the main branches of the Mongolic or Yellow division of mankind

(http://www.encyclopedia123.com/U/UralAltaicRace.html). Utopianism. It pertains to any ideology based on the belief that advances in science and technology will eventually bring about a utopia or at least help to fulfill one or another utopian ideal (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_utopianism). Vodou. 1This refers to spirits. 2It is a syncretic religion that originates in the Caribbean country of Haiti
1

(http://thelouvertureproject.org/index.php?title=Vodou)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Vodou) Vodoussaints. It is a community of Vodou practitioners. Well of Segais. It is one of a number of Otherworldly wells that are variously depicted as "The Well of Wisdom", and the source of some of the rivers of Ireland (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connla%27s_Well). White shamans. They are shamans of peace and have a special relationship with the spirits of nature (http://www.tengerism.org/shamantypes.html). Xhosa. They are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_people) Yoruba. It is an herbal-based form of the science and art of healing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_medicine). Zulu sangomas. They are shamans of the Zulu

(http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php)
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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Shamanism is a range of traditional beliefs and practices that involve the ability to diagnose, cure, and sometimes cause human suffering by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. It is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and animalisms, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism requires specialized knowledge or abilities (http://www.crystalinks.com/shamanism.html).

Shamanic Healing is probably all of those things put together and more besides. Shamanic healing is the oldest form of healing known to man, yet is very gentle, and works at a very deep level to clear emotional problems, mental problems, energetic and physical wounds along with conditioning and imprints. Shamanic healing focuses on energetic and emotional "spring cleaning" and then on bringing a person back to wholeness (Paul).

Shamanism is an effective tool in assisting women who have experienced trauma. The general sentiment amongst the women indicated that traditional therapy was important in creating a firm foundation for healing, but that shamanism provided a key to a more
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much comprehensive healing experience. This experience included an expanded definition of self; a broader understanding of self in relationship to the world, and of self in relationship to others. The aspect of shamanism which encourages self-reflection is one of the most distinctive benefits of the shamanism modality of healing (Hatch-McGuire, 2007).

Old valuable knowledge of healing, disease and health, which has been developed over centuries, got deeply lost and often condemned in Western societies as without effect or even being dangerous by the medicinal world, as a result of the scientific world view. One main contributing factor certainly was the witchcraft persecution in the past. The civilized countries have often lost their culture of rituals, traditions and religions, while nowadays it becomes more and more acknowledged that there is a definite human need for rituals, traditions, self-help-techniques as well as a meaning in life to stay healthy and to find happiness. It is a must to re-learn self-responsibility for humanity and need support systems that work interactively and see the human being as a whole of internal and external processes. All these factors show, there is a growing need for a different view of health and disease and their treatment. Therefore, the importance of the concept of old healing practices for our health today and its practical application is raising more and more as is the general interest in it (Buch, 2006).

It is time to look again, without prejudices, at old traditions like Shamanism, which occurred in similar forms all over the world and to analyze its methods and values for a
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holistic treatment and health maintenance of human beings. The society may be able to find promising resources. It also seems, there is a contemporary growing general interest in the subject of Shamanism, if one just considers recent book publications for the general public or the countless results one gets if entering the search word Shamanism into a search engine on the Internet. Even the World Health Organization internationally recognized in 1978 the positive role of traditional indigenous practitioners and recognized Shamanism with its medicinal value as an official legitimate healing system in traditional shamanic cultures (Buch, 2006).

To consider shamanism potentially viable as a methodology of healing and integration, a number of considerations must be taken into account. First, and perhaps foremost, is the techno-scientific lens through which the modern West views itself and the world, and the critique of this way of knowing that must occur in order to make both conceptual and ethical space in the discourse for the radically different way of knowing and acting that shamanism entails. That the elaboration of this idea does not fall into the ever-present trap of utopianism, the limitations of importing shamanic concepts to the modern West must be considered, and the oft-ignored dark side of shamanic activity must also be recognized and given place. Finally, however, despite and in some cases even because of the constraints and limitations inherent in shamanism, it may prove possible to consider shamanism as a viable spiritual methodology to engage with the crises of the modern West, as it may present a uniquely egalitarian, anti-centrist, holistic, and localas-global form of spirituality (Taylor).

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The society must show the necessary respect, honor and appreciation to these traditions, which were not only disregarded but also ridiculed in the past by our civilized world. This is especially important for the support and continuation of the few remaining present shamanic cultures and traditions (Buch, 2006).

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REVIEW OF OTHER STUDIES

Scholastic Description Shamanism is all about mental rapture from the contemplation of divine things. It encompasses the belief that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism).

Shamanism is not a belief system. It's based on personal experiments conducted to heal and to get information (Harner). It is a set of tools and techniques used to interact with the spirit world and the human world. It has no specific pantheon of gods and is attached to no particular culture. It is a way of looking at the world and at you (http://www.wicca.com/celtic/wyldkat/shmnindex.htm). It teaches humanity that everything that exists is alive and has a spirit, and that we are joined with the earth and all of life via our spiritual interconnectedness (http://www.shamansociety.org/what.html).

History Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic, predating all organized religions, and certainly as early as the Neolithic period.

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Archaeological evidence exists for Mesolithic shamanism. In November 2008, researchers announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that they regard as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. The grave was one of at least 28 at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other among the Natufians or in the Paleolithic period (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism).

Types of Shamans Black Shamans Black shamans are the most powerful of all the shamans and they get their power from the Northern direction. They are warrior shamans and overcome evil by battling might vs. might. They are the models of courage and discipline.

Historically, Black shamans had fulfilled roles in both times of peace and in times of war. In wartime, they boosted the soldiers morale and did ceremonies to help in battle. The power of the army was connected to the Black shamans, so these shamans were heavily recruited in times of war.

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During times of peace, Black shamans served as advisors and conducted foreign policy by making peace and alliances. During the time of the Mongolian Empire, all treaties were ratified by shaman ceremonies.

Both historically and today, Black shamans do many other types of shamanic work. They do hunting rituals, healing work, protection, divination, and curse enemies. Black shamans have to be careful to stay in balance, for a shaman that curses too much, will lose their ability to heal and would become an outcast. White Shamans White shamans get their power from the white Western direction. Because of this, they direct their prayers to the Western Heavens.

White shamans are shamans of peace and have a special relationship with the spirits of nature. Their main focus is on pacifying angry spirits and helping mankind to live in balance with nature. White shamans also do divination and blessings. One thing that they cannot do is a shamans curse.

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During the Mongol Empire, while Black shamans dealt with foreign affairs, White shamans dealt with local affairs and served as administrators and concerned themselves with the day to day lives of the people.

White shamanism in present time has Buddhist influence in its trappings and style. Some chants are of Buddhist origin and White shamans burn incense instead of the wild plants that Black shamans burn.

It is an incorrect stereotype that all shamans use drums. White shamans do not use drums, but instead have a wooden staff and ring bells during ceremonies. White shamans also do not wear the antlered headdress of the Black shamans, but instead wear a cape called a nemerge.

Lamaism was the main cause of the decline in the numbers of White shamans. During the 17th to 19th centuries, the White shaman tradition suffered most among the Khalkha and Barga tribes, and throughout Inner Mongolia. In present day, white shamanism is returning (http://www.tengerism.org/shamantypes.html).

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Use of Shamanism in Medicine Positive Effects The words healing, whole and holistic all stem from the same root. Shamanism is a form of holistic healing, because in shamanism all aspects of ones being, spiritual, mental, and emotional and physical are considered and addressed. Also, shamanism is holistic because it aims at restoring wholeness. It is logical that as long as parts of yourself are missing, you cannot be whole - or fully healed. Shamanism is a very effective way to reclaim these missing parts and the power lost, so you become whole and fully empowered again, and can eventually return to Oneness with All-That-Is (http://www.way-ofthe-wild-rose.com/shamanism_1.html). Therapeutic aspects of shamanism involve the psychophysiological effects of ASCs, ritual and community evocation of neurotransmitter responses, and the functions of spirit concepts in representing and manipulating individual and group psychodynamics. The shamanic paradigms psychobiological foundations explain the origins and cross-cultural distribution of shamanism, its modern manifestations, and the continued applicability of shamanic practices . Some key elements of shamanism, such as the use of imagery, have been shown to reduce stress and anxiety. One researcher at Stanford University reported that some aspects of shamanism might be helpful in changing destructive thought patterns in people with cancer. However, available scientific evidence does not support claims that shamanism is effective in treating cancer or any other disease

(http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAltern ativeMedicine/MindBodyandSpirit/shamanism?sitearea=ETO).

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In deep hypnotic states, where most practical Shamanic journeying occurs, it is possible to control one's own body temperature, heart rate, blood flow, and digestion. People react differently to the sensations of shamanic flight; individuals may experience vivid imagery, events from their past or utter relaxation. Physical, emotional, and spiritual crisis are parts of being terminally ill or having cancer that may be mitigated with shamanistic healing. There is evidence for the efficacy of therapies such as shamanism in improving the quality of life in the terminally ill and cancer patients. The active participation of the patient in the therapy promotes emotional healing and coping skills. Patients that suffer from hypertension or problems associated with stressful life styles can use shamanic methods to gain control over their physical and emotional wellness. Further, the mentally ill and sufferers of depression may find that shamanism is an ancient tradition that in modern times help them to live a normal lifestyle

(http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/shamanism.htm). Negative Effects There are few negative effects reported from Shamanic experiences, however it is described as a powerful adventure and for some the trance could be disorienting, traumatic or have other adverse effects. Practitioners warn that the ecstasy of the trance can become an escape from mundane problems that can become addictive. It is generally accepted that people regress to earlier levels of development with the stress of serious pain or illness. Regression may foster an increased dependence on any source of relief. The eventual efforts of shamanic followers to emerge from the "culture of embeddedness" with their shamans into more independent functioning can be problematic. Shamanism can be used wisely to determine the root of an addiction, yet taken to an
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extreme it can become an addiction itself. One should be cautious when seeking help from a shaman; shamanic healers can have a cult like draw, entering the spirit realm and making claims that are not supported. Shamanism sometimes ignores scientific

methods of healing and so must be used only as supplemental therapy for serious disorders. Much thought and consideration, as well as research for each situation should be done before plunging into any method of shamanic treatment

(http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/shamanism.htm).

Areas and Frontiers of Shamanism European Shamanism Shamanism had a strong tradition in the European continent before the rise of monotheism. Shamanism remains a traditional, organized religion with Uralic, Altaic people and Huns; and also in Mari-El and Udmurtia, two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia with large Finno-Ugric minority populations. The word 'Shaman,' is actually a Tungus (Siberian) word that means Keeper of the Fire for a spiritual practice that is as old as mankind, and is still practiced by indigenous people, as well as modern practitioners worldwide. Shamanism is not rooted in any organized religious tradition, but is instead a system of controlled visionary journeys into alternate realities in order to contact spirit guides and gain their assistance in divination and healing. When one thinks of traditional shamans and shamanism, it's easy to envision a Native (American or perhaps Aboriginal) medicine man performing rituals that are deeply rooted in cultural tribal traditions. In shamanic traditions, all people are guarded and watched over by a totem beast,
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which joins them at the time of their birth. In addition to this totem animal, which can remain with a person throughout their life, the shamanic practitioner acquires additional power animals at different times. These animal spirits serve as guides and spirit helpers. They may come of their own bidding, or may be called specifically because of their innate skills. In some cases the shaman draws upon the strength, the sharpness of the animals senses, the speed, or the intuition of a particular animal. In other situations the animal may tell the shaman things which the shaman cannot see for him or herself. Scandinavian Shamanism Shamanic rituals in Scandinavia are represented in shamanic rock art dating to the Neolithic era and were practiced throughout the Iron Age by the various Teutonic tribes and the Fino-Baltic peoples. Noaydde was a shaman of the Sami people in the Nordic countries who led many shamanic gatherings and shamanic retreats. Finnish Shamanism: Sami Shamanism Several Sami shamanistic beliefs and practices were similar to those of some Siberian cultures. They had a strong emphasis on ancestor worship and animal spirits, such as the bear cult. Some Sami people had a thunder god called Tiermes, sometimes called Horagalles. Another sky-ruling god was called Radien or Vearalden. The symbol of the world tree or pillar similar in Finnish mythology that reached up to the North Star was marked by a stytto.

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The forest-god of the Sami, Laib olmai ruled over all forest animals, which were regarded as his herds, and luck in hunting, or the reverse, depended on his good will. His favor was so important that they made prayers and offerings to him every morning and evening. Irish Shamanism: Celtic Shamanism Ancient Celts were also believed to have practiced shamanism, and have left many clues to their rituals and spiritual journeys in the stories of Taliesin, Fionn mac Cumhail, and Amergin. Many Celtic shamans still practice ancient rituals today with shamanic retreats and shamanic trip of place of power.

The Celtic Shaman's cosmos, like that of other Shamanic universal views, consists of three 'worlds;' the Lower world, the Upper world, and the Middle world. What differentiates the Celtic Shaman's universal view from that of other Shamanic traditions, is that these worlds are all connected by the great tree of life. Rooted in the Lower realm, its trunk extends upwards, through the middle world and into the Upper world, where its branches hold the stars, the sun and the moon.

The Celtic Shaman traverses the realms by climbing the tree into the Upper world. This is the realm of stars, celestial beings, and the dwelling place of many gods and spirits of the air, and of the great Mother Goddess herself

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The lower world can be reached by descending the roots of the massive tree into the realm of the spirits of the earth and fire, where sits the stag-headed Lord of the Underworld, the horned one, protector of the animals. Here the Celtic Shaman can meet with helper power animals and spirit guides.

Thus all three worlds are linked by the great tree, and yet the tree itself and all of the universe are believed to be contained within the shell of a single hazelnut, lying next to the Well of Segais (the source of all wisdom.)

The ability to simultaneously be a part of many realities and existences is at the heart of the shamanic experience. The Celtic shaman deliberately seeks to take on the shape of another animal or being in order to call upon the power within the entity for healing or instruction. The ability of the shaman to send his or her own consciousness into the consciousness of another being and then return to one's own self is integral to the shaman's journey.

Taliesin was known to have transformed himself into many other forms and guises in his attempt to escape the Goddess Ceridwen after imbibing of the brew of inspiration and wisdom.

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Druids Shamans A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies of Western Europe, Britain and Ireland. They were suppressed by the Roman government and disappeared from the written record by the second century AD. Druids combined the duties of priest, judge, healer, scholar, and teacher. Little contemporary evidence for them exists, and thus little can be said of them with assurance, but they continued to feature prominently in later Irish myth, literature and law.

The Celtic communities that Druids served were polytheistic. They also show signs of animism, in their reverence for various aspects of the natural world, such as the land, sea and sky, and their veneration of other aspects of nature, such as sacred trees and groves (the oak and hazel were particularly revered), tops of hills, streams, lakes and plants such as the mistletoe. Fire was regarded as a symbol of several divinities and was associated with cleansing. Purported ritual killing and human sacrifice were aspects of druidic culture that shocked classical writers.

Modern attempts at reconstructing, reinventing or re-imagining the practices of the druids are called Neo-druidism (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_european.php).

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Asian Shamanism Shamanism in Cyprus The modern-day folk dances of the Mediterranean island of Cyprus have been argued to originate from ancient shamanist ceremonies and "early religious and incantational worship". The country was one of the last centers of ancient female-lead shamanistic Goddess rites in the Mediterranean, where the so-called Double Goddesses were worshiped. Ancient Cypriot healers used special rituals, charms and incantations in their practices, as well as herbs and spices including frankincense, myrrh, and olive oil. Medicine was also linked to the rattles gods Astarte and Baal. Healers and magi still exist in Cyprus today, and a study by Harvard University suggests that, during Biblical times, "the island of Cyprus was in fact reputed for magia", a variant which was relatively "more recent" than the Persian (Zoroastrian) and Jewish traditions which would have influenced the island (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism). Mongolian Shamanism The world of the shamans in Siberia and Central Asia, especially of the Mongol, Buryat and Tungus people is related with that of the Turk people in the High-Altai, the Altaic, Khakas and Tuva and with the Bon religion from Tibet. The tribes living in the northern part of Mongolia in the northeastern area of Mongolia and in western Mongolia as well as some tribes living in Central-Mongolia, the Khalk still maintain the ancient shamanic traditions. These phenomena are still present today (http://www.face-

music.ch/bi_bid/historyoftengerism.html).

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For Mongol shamans, metal hung about their persons was essential, and some of them wore up to forty pounds of it; they wore a kaftan which closed up the back ornamented with small pieces of metal and bells, each of which is trimmed with little strips in snake form - which may represent a bird's feathers. The name of this formal shaman's dress is quyay, "armor" or else eriyen debel, "spotted dress"

(http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/Magic.htm). Korean Shamanism The spirit-world of Korean Shamanism includes spirits of nature and spirits of ancestors, as well as spirits guiding regions and spirits guiding individuals. There is also a type that is possessed of particular enterprises or activities, such as the Talented Chanter who is talented as a singer, and such as General Choi who was an historical figure who defended the down-trodden and saddened. At times, spirits were created during events of national tragedy.

This description has been meant to introduce something of the intimate relationships and the life of the people of Korea, with their traditional rites and customs that would be seen or heard and learned from childhood. The great depth in time of these national traditions has been indicated. Now, it is the purpose of this paper to describe some customs in particular, and then to suggest how the Christian may correctly understand and may rightfully accept Shamanism (http://www.oxfordu.net/seoul/chapter1/index.html).

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Japanese Shamanism Shamanism is part of the native Japanese religion of Shinto. The distinction is that Shinto is Shamanism for agricultural society. Today Shinto has morphed with Buddhism and other Japanese folk culture (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism). Siberian Shamanism Belief in the hereditary transmission of shaman's gift is common to all Siberian shamanism. One can find corresponding motifs in Nganasan shamanism as well as in Tuvinian one. Often there is impossible to become a shaman without having shamans-ancestors in family. Sometimes they are namely the spirits of shamans-ancestors, who at first reveal themselves to the devotee and force him to shamanize. More frequently they are supernormal beings, who were in close relations with them - for instance former helping spirits of a shaman-ancestor. Belief in the hereditary transmission of shaman's gift was firm among several peoples in Siberia. For those very reason children in famous shaman families, who desired not to become shamans, fell ill and lived as mentally or physically diseased persons.

Shamanism in Oceania On the island of Papua New Guinea, indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or masalai, which cling to a person's body and "poison" them. Shamans, such as the one pictured to the right, are summoned in order to

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"purge" the unwholesome spirits from a person. Shamans also perform rain-making ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their "shamans" as "clever men" and "clever women" also as kadji. These Aboriginal shamans use maban or mabain, the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "hex" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism).

African Shamanism In Africa the cradle of humankind there are many forms of shamanic practices. In central Africa Dogon (Mali), sorcerers (both male and female) claim to have communication with a head diety named Ama, who advises them on healing and divinatory practices. Traditional healers in parts of Africa were often referred to in a derogatory manner as "witch doctors" practicing Juju. The San or Bushmen ancestors, who were primarily scattered in Southern Africa, practiced a practice similar to shamanism. In areas in Eastern Free State and Lesotho, where they co-existed with the early Sotho tribes, local folklore describes them to have lived in caves where they drew pictures on cave walls during a trance and were also reputed to be good rain makers. Zulu Sangoma, Pondo shamans and the Kalahari San. For Vodou healers, (Houngan male or Mambo, female)
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individual sickness or social disease is the result of lack of harmony arises from either: Spiritual intrusions - perceived as energies foreign to a person which have been introduced into his energy system, where their detrimental impact is experienced as illness or Soul loss - where certain traumatic events or willful actions result in a severe loss of power which, will ultimately create illness. They use their healing spirits, sacrifice to appease or empower the spirits or cornmeal, an egg, rum, or water. Iboga is the visionary root of African Shamanism (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php). Sangomas of Southern Africa Sangomas are the traditional healers in the Zulu, Swazi, Xhosa and Ndebele traditions in southern Africa. They perform a holistic and symbolic form of healing, embedded in the beliefs of their culture those ancestors in the afterlife guide and protect the living. Sangomas are called to heal, and through them ancestors from the spirit world can give instruction and advice to heal illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties. Sangomas have many different social and political roles in the community: divination, healing, directing rituals, finding lost cattle, protecting warriors, counteracting witches, and narrating the history, cosmology, and myths of their tradition. They are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by witchcraft, pollution or by the ancestors themselves, either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to be a Sangoma. For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice. A Sangoma is called to heal by an initiation illness, often psychosis, headache, intractable stomach pain, and shoulder or neck complaints. She will undergo Thwasa, a period of training including learning humility to
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the ancestors, purification through steaming, washing in the blood of sacrificed animals, and the use of Muti, medicines with spiritual significance. At the end of Thwasa, a goat is sacrificed to call to the ancestors and appease them. Sangomas are steeped in ritual. They work in a sacred healing hut or Ndumba, where their ancestors reside. They have specific colored cloths to wear to please each ancestor, and often wear the gallbladder of the goat sacrificed at their graduation ceremony in their hair. They summon the ancestors by burning a plant called Imphepho, dancing, chanting, and most importantly playing drums. Sangomas are able to access advice and guidance from the ancestors for their patients in three ways: possession by an ancestor, or channeling; throwing bones; and interpreting dreams. In possession states the Sangoma works herself into a trance, through drumming, dancing and chanting, and allows her ego to step aside so an ancestor possesses her body and communicates directly with the patient, providing specific information about his problems. It can be very dramatic, with the Sangoma speaking in tongues, or foreign languages according to the specific ancestor, or dancing fervently beyond her normal ability. Accessing the ancestors' advice through the bones is an alternative to the exhausting possession states. The Sangoma possesses a collection of small bones and other small objects like seeds, and shells, each with a specific significance to human life. The Sangoma or the patient throws the bones but the ancestors control how they lie, and the Sangoma then interprets this metaphor in relation to the patient's life. In the same way, Sangomas will interpret the metaphors present in dreams, either their own or their patients'. Sangomas will give their patients Muti, medications of plant and animal origin imbued with spiritual significance, often with powerful symbolism - lion fat is given to promote courage. There
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are medicines for everything from physical and mental illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties to potions for love and luck. Muti can be drunk, smoked, inhaled, used for washing, smeared on the body, given as enemas, or rubbed into an incision (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php). Bwiti of West Central Africa Bwiti is a West Central African religion practiced by the forest-dwelling Babongo and Mitsogo people of Gabon and the Fang people of Gabon and Cameroon. Modern Bwiti is syncretistic, incorporating animism, ancestor worship and Christianity into its belief system. Bwiti use the hallucinogenic rootbark of the Tabernanthe iboga plant, specially cultivated for the religion, to induce a spiritual enlightenment, stabilize community and family structure, meet religious requirements and to solve problems of a spiritual and/or medical nature. The root bark has been used for hundreds of years as part of a Bwiti coming of age ceremony and other initiation rites and acts of healing, producing complex visions and insights anticipated to be valuable to the initiate and the chapel. The root bark or its extract is taken in doses high enough to cause vomiting and ataxia as common side effects. Bwiti ceremonies are led by a (male or female) spiritual leader called N'ganga who is a very important member of the community and has extensive knowledge of traditional healing practices, hexes and spells. The crucial rite of Bwiti is the initiation ceremony, when young Gabonese men take iboga for the first time in the men's hut to become members of the religion. There are many ceremonies at different times of the year to give homage to the ancestors. Special ceremonies may be held to heal sick persons or drive out harmful spirits. While early forms of Bwiti excluded women, modern chapels include men and women.
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Vodou Shamanism Vodou is an animistic Caribbean spiritual tradition, most usually associated with Haiti, which traces its lineage to the shamans of ancient Africa. It blends together a number of traditional African beliefs with elements from other faiths, most notably Catholicism, but also those of the indigenous Haitian Taino and Arawak people and the European preChristian pagans who also came to settle there. Vodou believes in one creator-God called Gran Met ("Great Master") and a pantheon of lesser deities known as the Lwa. These entities, as well as the spirits of the ancestors are directly available to man through the mechanism of possession, a trance-like state where a person is taken over by one of these spirits so it may dispense healing, advice, or wisdom to the community faithful, who are known as Vodouissants. The shaman-priest of Vodou is known as the Houngan and the priestess as the Mambo. Often accomplished healers, magicians, and leaf doctors (herbalists), these spiritual leaders are also experts on the nature, desires, and ways of interacting with the spirits, as well as therapists, counsellors, and doctors for their community (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php). Quimbanda Shamanism Quimbanda is an Afro-American religion practiced in Brazil. It is often also called Macumba and found mostly in urban areas such as Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Maranho and Pernambuco. It is generally viewed as a subset of Umbanda, but may be more accurately described as representing the survival of African ethical traditions within the religion, which in other sectors has espoused a heavily Christian moralism not consistent with African views of spiritual agency. In recent years, despite gaining a

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greater following among some middle class whites, it has begun to assert itself as a separate tradition from Umbanda. Instead of the wider focus of Umbanda which recognizes entities such as Caboclos, Baianas, Sereias among others, Quimbanda focuses more on entities such as Exu and Pomba Gira. But traditionally Quimbanda also relies heavily upon the Pretos Velhos and the Malandros who do not always fit easy in any one of the preceding groups. Rituals are concerned with necromancy, divination or preparation of amulets, potions or other devices intended to bring supernatural aid, to obtaining resources or to deal with other areas of life. Additionally, the spirit-entities of this cult provide advice to their followers to aid in resolving life's problems. In most respects a gira of Quimbanda will appear pretty much the same as one of Umbanda, with only a likely shift in the color preferences, which as with most Bantu religious practiced in Brazil and Africa emphasizes red, black, and white, rather than predominantly white. Quimbanda, like Umbanda and Candombl, has become recognized as a legitimate religion. However, in recent years, many Pentecostal and Evangelical Christian churches and congregations have shown increasing intolerance toward African derived religious traditions in Brazil, engaging in harassment and violence. Followers of these traditions are beginning to seek recourse from the law which protects freedom of religion in Brazil. The name "Quimbanda" derives from the Kimbundu language of Angola and means healer or diviner.

The Brazilian black metal group Ocultan identify themselves as practitioners of Quimbanda (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php).

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Yoruba Shamanism The Yoruba are one of the largest tribes in Africa, with 30 million individuals throughout West Africa. Yoruba medicine is Orisha-based medicine practiced by many other groups in Africa, the Caribbean and elsewhere, mostly due to the African diaspora. African herbal medicine is commonly called Yorubic or Orisha medicine on the African continent. It started from a religious text, called Ifa Corpus. According to tradition, the Ifa Corpus was revealed by the mystic prophet, Orunmilla, around 4,000 years ago in the ancient city of Ile-Ife, now known as Yorubaland. The last 400 years saw individuals in the Caribbean and South America practice the Yorubic healing system as a token of their past when the first wave of African slaves arrived in the Americas. Orunmilla taught the people about the customs of divination, prayer, dance, symbolic gestures, personal, and communal elevation. He also advised them on spiritual baths, meditation, and herbal medicine in particular. The Ifa Corpus is considered to be the foundation of divine herbology.

According to A D Buckley, Yoruba medicine is similar to European medicine in that its main thrust is to kill or expel from the body tiny, invisible "germs" or insects and also worms which inhabit small bags within the body. For the Yoruba, however, these germs and worms perform useful functions in the healthy body, aiding digestion, fertility etc. However, if they become too powerful in the body, they must be controlled, killed or driven out with bitter-tasting plants contained in medicines. Yoruba medicine is quite different from homeopathic medicine, which uses medicinal ingredients that imitates

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pathological symptoms. Rather, in a similar manner to mainstream European medicine, it strives to destroy the agencies that cause disease. With Egypt at its roots, it is therefore inevitable that African herbal medicine became associated with magic. Amulets and charms were more common than pills as preventions or curatives of diseases. Priests, who were from the earliest days the forefathers of science and medicine, considered diseases as possession by evil demons and could be treated using incantations along with extracts from the roots of certain plants. The psychosomatic method of healing disorders used primarily by psychiatrists today is based loosely on this ancient custom. As well as using bitter plants to kill germs and worms, Yoruba herbalists also use incantation in medicines to bring good luck. Medicinal incantations are in some ways like the praise songs addressed to human beings or gods: their purpose is to awaken the power of the ingredients hidden in the medicine. Most medicinal incantations use a form of word-play, similar to punning, to evoke the properties of the plants implied by the name of the plant (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php). Other Important African Shamans Nganga is a Bantu term for herbalist or spiritual healer in many African societies and also in many societies of the African diaspora such as those in Haiti, Brazil and Cuba. In South African English, a tagati is a wizard, witch, or a spiteful person who operates in secret to harm others or who uses use poisons and familiar spirits to carry out harmful deeds. The term is first recorded in 1836; it derives from the Zulu word umthakathi, being someone who mixes medicine. The word umthakathi (plural abathakathi) itself comes from two Zulu words thaka (mix) and muthi (medicine). The term has gradually

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come to be used to refer only to negative, harmful uses of medicines derived from plants, animals and minerals (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_african.php).

American Shamanism North American Shamanism Native Americans believed that it was their responsibility to maintain harmony in the natural world on which they depended by performing a variety of rituals. Hunters blessed the animals they sought in the hope of their acquiescence, farmers blessed their fields and seedlings to ensure a bountiful harvest. Shamans were credited with exceptional powers to act on behalf of the community. They claimed to be capable of separating their spirits from their bodies and interceding with those spirits that controlled the many forces of nature (Hunt, 2003) Native American and First Nations cultures have diverse religious beliefs. There was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Though many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, mystics, lore-keepers and "Medicine People", none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders. Medicine man mediates with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Navajo medicine men, known as "Hata?ii", use several methods to diagnose the patient's ailments. These may include using special tools such as crystal rocks, and abilities such as hand-trembling and trances, sometimes accompanied by chanting. The
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Hata?ii will select a specific healing chant for that type of ailment. Navajo healers must be able to correctly perform a healing ceremony from beginning to end. If they don't, the ceremony will not work. Training a Hata?ii to perform ceremonies is extensive, arduous, and takes many years, and is not unlike priesthood. The shamanic apprentice learns everything by watching his elder teacher, and memorizes the words to all the chants. Many times, a medicine man cannot learn all sixty of the traditional ceremonies, so he will opt to specialize in a select few

(http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_american.php).

South American Shamanism Shamanism in Panama Shamanic healing is found among indigenous the Kuna people of Panama, who rely on sacred talismans. As such, they enjoy a popular position among local peoples. Shamanism in Peruvian Amazonia In the Peruvian Amazon Basin and north coastal regions of the country, the healer shamans are known as curanderos. Ayahuasqueros are Peruvian shamans who specialize in the plant medicine ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic tea used for physical and psychological healing and divine revelation. Ayahuasqueros have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the shamans and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer

(http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_american.php).

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Bearing in mind the country's poverty and the fact that almost half the population is still pure Amerindian, it isn't altogether surprising to discover that the ancient shamanic healing arts are still flourishing in Peru. Evidence for this type of magical health therapy stretches back over three thousand years on the Peruvian coast. Today, curanderos (Spanish for "curers") can be found in every large community, practicing healing based on knowledge which has been passed down from master to apprentice over millennia. With the resurgence of herbalism, aromatherapy, exotic healing massages and other aspects of New Age "holistic" health, it should be easier for us in the West to understand curanderismo than it might have been a decade or so ago. Combine "holistic" health with psychotherapy, and add an underlying cultural vision of spiritual and magical influences, and you are some way toward getting a clearer picture of how healing wizards operate.

There are two other important characteristics of modern-day Peruvian curanderismo. Firstly, the last four hundred years of Spanish domination have added a veneer of Catholic imagery and nomenclature. Demons have become saints, ancient mountain spirits and their associated annual festivals continue disguised as Christian ceremonies. Equally important for any real understanding of Peruvian shamanism is the fact that most, if not all, curanderos use hallucinogens. The tribal peoples in the Peruvian Amazon, who have managed, to a large extent, to hang on to their culture in the face of the oncoming industrial civilization, have also maintained their spiritual traditions. In almost every Peruvian tribe these traditions include the regular use of hallucinogenic brews to

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give a visionary ecstatic experience. Sometimes just the shaman partakes, but more often the shaman and his patients, or entire communities, will indulge together, singing traditional spirit-songs which help control the visions. The hallucinogenic experience, like the world of dreams, is the Peruvian forest Indian's way of getting in touch with the ancestral world or the world of spirit matter

(http://www.biopark.org/peru/shamans_peru.html). Still commonly used by curanderos on the coast and in the mountains of Peru, the San Pedro cactus (Trichocereus panchanoi) is a potent hallucinogen based on active mescaline. The curandero administers the hallucinogenic brew to his or her clients to bring about a period of revelation when questions are asked of the intoxicated person, who might also be asked to choose some object from among a range of magical curios which all have different meanings to the healer. Sometimes a curandero might imbibe San Pedro to see into the future, retrieve lost souls, divine causes of illness, or discover the whereabouts of lost objects (http://www.peru-explorer.com/shamanism_today.htm). Shamanism in the Amazon In the Amazon Rainforest, at several Indian groups the shaman acts also as a manager of scare ecological resources. \"

(http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_american.php). Shaman acts also as a manager of scare ecological resources (http://www.paralumun.com/shamanism.htm). Brazilian Shamanism Among the Brazilian Tapirape shamans are called to serve in their dreams (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism).
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There were all sorts of spirits, some good and some unfriendly, that the shamans could communicate with. Spirits came to live in the Takana on a cyclic basis; each belonged to a particular Bird Society. When one of the spirits was present, two members of the corresponding Bird Society impersonated and attached him to the spirit by wearing a special mask and other pieces of clothing until their whole body was covered; they then went dancing around the village and received good kawi from every log house.

Shamans were called in to cure disease. The Shaman would gulp great quantities of Tobacco thus producing a sort of trance state; he would then blow smoke on the sick person while performing a massage to make a bad spirit or an object leave the body. If several related people died from disease, a shaman would typically be accused of performing sorcery and was sometimes assassinated by the kin of the deceased relatives. Shamans were also called in to give the Spirit to a child about to be born; the shaman actually dreamed-in the spirit while in trance state. They also purified agricultural and hunting products. Shamans went to Shaman Village after death

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapirap%C3%A9_people). Shamanism in Ecuador Santo Daime and Unio do Vegetal are syncretic religions with elements of shamanism. They use an entheogen called Ayahuasca to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism).

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A large part of the attraction of the shamanic tourism is the partaking of a drink called ayahuasca which is made from rainforest vines and induces strong visions. It is used by shamans to see the patients illness and to see into the future (Jones). Chile Shamanism: Mapuche Shamanism Among the Mapuche people of South America, the community "shaman", usually a woman, is known as the Machi, and serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism

(http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_american.php). Argentinean Shamanism: Fuegians Shamanism Although Fuegians (the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego) were all huntergatherers, they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented. Both Selk'nam and Ymana had persons filling in shaman-like roles. The Selk'nams believed their /xon/s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather. The figure of /xon/ appeared in myths, too. The Ymana /jekamu?/corresponds to the Selknam /xon/ (http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_american.php). Shamanism among the Mesoamericans The Maya people of Guatemala, Belize, and Southern Mexico practice a highly sophisticated form of shamanism based upon astrology and a form of divination known as "the

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blood speaking", in which the shaman is guided in divination and healing by pulses in the veins of his arms and legs

(http://www.shamanportal.org/shamanism_american.php). Shamanism among Eskimo People Shamanism was once widespread among Eskimo people but today is rarely practiced, and it was already in the decline among many groups even in the times when the first major ethnological research was done.

Shamanism among the Eskimo peoples exhibits some characteristic features not universal in shamanism, such as soul dualism in certain groups, and specific links between the livings, the souls of hunted animals and dead people. The death of either a person or a game animal requires that certain activities, such as cutting and sewing, be avoided to prevent harming their souls. In Greenland, the transgression of this death taboo could turn the soul of the dead into a tupilaq, a restless ghost which scared game away. Animals were thought to flee hunters who violated taboos

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism_among_Eskimo_peoples). Societys View According to a research conducted by Hatch-McGuire (2007), all of the women she interviewed are in favor of shamanism in healing not only physical illnesses but even mental, and emotional. They all agreed that the y felt better after undergoing Shamanic healing.

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CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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