COGNITIVE STRATERGIES

(Algorithms and Heuristics)

From organizing your DVD collection to deciding to buy a house, problem-solving makes up a large part of daily life. Problems can range from small (solving a single math equation on your homework assignment) to very large (planning your future career). In cognitive psychology, the term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze and solve problems. This involves all of the steps in the problem process, including the discovery of the problem, the decision to tackle the issue, understanding the problem, researching the available options and taking actions to achieve your goals. Before problemsolving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue if faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed. There are a number of different mental process at work during problem-solving. These include:

Perceptually recognizing a problem Representing the problem in memory Considering relevant information that applies to the current problem Identify different aspects of the problem Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

Algorithms: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm. While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem solving. This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so timeconsuming. For example, if you were trying to figure out all of the possible number combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time! In mathematics, an algorithm is a defined set of step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem. By following the instructions correctly, you are guaranteed to arrive at the right answer. An algorithm is often expressed in the form of a graph, where each step is represented by a square. Arrows then branch off from each step to point to possible directions that you may take to solve the problem. In psychology, algorithms are frequently contrasted with heuristics. A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to quickly make judgments and solve problems. However, heuristics are really more of a rule-ofthumb; they don't always guarantee a correct solution. When problem-solving, deciding which method to use depends on the need for either accuracy or speed. If complete accuracy is required, it is best to use an algorithm. On the other hand, if time is an issue, then it may be best to use a heuristic. Heuristics: A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a correct solution. However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

Trial-and-Error: A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of options available. If there are many different choices, you are better off narrowing down the possible options using another problemsolving technique before attempting trial-and-error. Insight: In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. According to researchers, insight can occur because you realize that the problem is actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past, but in most cases the underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.

Problems and Obstacles in Problem-Solving Of course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have described a number of these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant information and assumptions.

Functional Fixedness: This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution. Irrelevant or Misleading Information: When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it becomes to focus on misleading or irrelevant information. Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Mental Set: Another common problem-solving obstacle is known as a mental set, which is the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

Convergent versus Divergent Thinking

One way to look at thinking is to separate thinking into two broad categories: Convergent and Divergent Thinking.

What is Convergent Thinking?

Convergent thinking, occurs when a person gathers facts evidence or experiences from a variety of sources to solve a problem. The result is one answer that hopefully is correct. In school we all have learned a large amount of knowledge that could be classed as factual. We have often been tested for the correct answers-- so in many cases convergent thinking comes natural to us. An example of convergent thinking would be solving a math problem such as 2+2= ___. Well, we know that in math there is only one answer to that problem! If there were a variety of solutions to that simple problem, imagine how difficult things would be at the check out counter in any store! Convergent--> One answer

What is Divergent Thinking?

Divergent thinking occurs when we start with a stimulus and rather than look for one answer instead generate many ideas or possible solutions. If you think about the Thinking quiz at the beginning of this unit, you can probably see that some of the mistakes you may have made were because you were thinking convergently rather than divergently. Divergent----> Sometimes it is just not a good idea to fit everything into the same Many possible answer old box you've always put it in. New ideas often need completely new categories. What divergent thinking attempts to do is free you from the old ways of doing things, take things apart and look at them in new ways, mix things together that don't belong, stir up the brain!

Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes (cognitive process) resulting in
the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice.[1] The output can be an action or an opinion of choice.

Problem Analysis vs Decision Making

It is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision making. The concepts are completely separate from one another. Problem analysis must be done first, then the information gathered in that process may be used towards decision making.[4]

Problem Analysis

Analyze performance, what should the results be against what they actually are Problems are merely deviations from performance standards Problem must be precisely identified and described Problems are caused by some change from a distinctive feature Something can always be used to distinguish between what has and hasn't been effected by a cause Causes to problems can be deducted from relevant changes found in analyzing the problem Most likely cause to a problem is the one that exactly explains all the facts

Decision Making

Objectives must first be established Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance Alternative actions must be developed The alternative must be evaluated against all the objectives The alternative that is able to achieve all the objectives is the tentative decision The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences The decisive actions are taken, and additional actions are taken to prevent any adverse consequences from becoming problems and starting both systems (problem analysis and decision making) all over again There are steps that are generally followed that result in a decision model that can be used to determine an optimal production plan.[5]

Everyday techniques
Some of the decision making techniques people use in everyday life include:

Pros and Cons: Listing the advantages and disadvantages of each option, popularized by Plato and Benjamin Franklin. Contrast the costs and benefits of all alternatives. Also called Rational decision making. Simple Prioritization: Choosing the alternative with weighted utility for each alternative (see Decision Analysis) the highest probability-

Satisficing: Examine alternatives only until an acceptable one is found. Acquiesce to a person in authority or an "expert", just following orders Flipism: Flipping a coin, cutting a deck of playing cards, and other random or coincidence methods Prayer, tarot cards, astrology, augurs, revelation, or other forms of divination Taking the most opposite action compared to the advice of mistrusted authorities (parents, police officers, partners ...) Opportunity cost: calculating the opportunity cost of each options and decide the decision. Bureaucratic: Set up criteria for automated decisions. Political: Negotiate choices among interest groups. "Garbage Can": Take actions without a formal decision making process. Take actions as they appear promising without the need for any specific problem.

Decision-Making Stages
Developed by B. Aubrey Fisher, there are four stages that should be involved in all group decision making. These stages, or sometimes called phases, are important for the decision-making process to begin Orientation stage- This phase is where members meet for the first time and start to get to know each other. Conflict stage- Once group members become familiar with each other, disputes, little fights and arguments occur. Group members eventually work it out. Emergence stage- The group begins to clear up vague opinions by talking about them. Reinforcement stage- Members finally make a decision, while justifying themselves that it was the right decision.

Decision-Making Steps
Each step in the decision making process includes social, cognitive and cultural obstacles to successfully negotiating dilemmas. Becoming more aware of these obstacles allows one to better anticipate and overcome them. Pijanowski (2009, p.7) developed eight stages of decision making based on the work of James Rest:

1. Establishing community: creating and nurturing the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how problems are understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a moral dilemma 2. Perception: recognizing that a problem exists 3. Interpretation: identifying competing explanations for the problem, and evaluating the drivers behind those interpretations 4. Judgment: sifting through various possible actions or responses and determining which is more justifiable 5. Motivation: examining the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral course of action and then prioritizing and committing to moral values over other personal, institutional or social values 6. Action: following through with action that supports the more justified decision. Integrity is supported by the ability to overcome distractions and obstacles, developing implementing skills, and ego strength 7. Reflection in action 8. Reflection on action When in an organization and faced with a difficult decision, there are several steps one can take to ensure the best possible solutions will be decided. These steps are put into seven effective ways to go about this decision making process (McMahon 2007). The first step - Outline your goal and outcome. This will enable decision makers to see exactly what they are trying to accomplish and keep them on a specific path. The second step - Gather data. This will help decision makers have actual evidence to help them come up with a solution. The third step - Brainstorm to develop alternatives. Coming up with more than one solution enables you to see which one can actually work. The fourth step - List pros and cons of each alternative. With the list of pros and cons, you can eliminate the solutions that have more cons than pros, making your decision easier. The fifth step - Make the decision. Once you analyze each solution, you should pick the one that has many pros (or the pros that are most significant), and is a solution that everyone can agree with. The sixth step - Immediately take action. Once the decision is picked, you should implement it right away. The seventh step - Learn from, and reflect on the decision making. This step allows you to see what you did right and wrong when coming up, and putting the decision to use.

Cognitive and personal biases

Biases can creep into our decision making processes. Many different people have made a decision about the same question (e.g. "Should I have a doctor look at this troubling breast cancer symptom I've discovered?" "Why did I ignore the evidence that the project was going over budget?") and then craft potential cognitive interventions aimed at improving decision making outcomes. Below is a list of some of the more commonly debated cognitive biases.

Selective search for evidence (a.k.a. Confirmation bias in psychology) (Scott Plous, 1993) We tend to be willing to gather facts that support certain conclusions but disregard other facts that support different conclusions. Individuals who are highly defensive in this manner show significantly greater left prefrontal cortex activity as measured by EEG than do less defensive individuals.[6] Premature termination of search for evidence We tend to accept the first alternative that looks like it might work. Inertia Unwillingness to change thought patterns that we have used in the past in the face of new circumstances. Selective perception We actively screen-out information that we do not think is important. (See prejudice.) In one demonstration of this effect, discounting of arguments with which one disagrees (by judging them as untrue or irrelevant) was decreased by selective activation of right prefrontal cortex.[7] Wishful thinking or optimism bias We tend to want to see things in a positive light and this can distort our perception and thinking.[8] Choice-supportive bias occurs when we distort our memories of chosen and rejected options to make the chosen options seem more attractive. Recency We tend to place more attention on more recent information and either ignore or forget more distant information. (See semantic priming.) The opposite effect in the first set of data or other information is termed Primacy effect (Plous, 1993). Repetition bias A willingness to believe what we have been told most often and by the greatest number of different sources. Anchoring and adjustment Decisions are unduly influenced by initial information that shapes our view of subsequent information. Group think Peer pressure to conform to the opinions held by the group. Source credibility bias We reject something if we have a bias against the person, organization, or group to which the person belongs: We are inclined to accept a statement by someone we like. (See prejudice.) Incremental decision making and escalating commitment We look at a decision as a small step in a process and this tends to perpetuate a series of similar decisions. This can be contrasted withzero-based decision making. (See slippery slope.)

Attribution asymmetry We tend to attribute our success to our abilities and talents, but we attribute our failures to bad luck and external factors. We attribute other's success to good luck, and their failures to their mistakes. Role fulfillment (Self Fulfilling Prophecy) We conform to the decision making expectations that others have of someone in our position. Underestimating uncertainty and the illusion of control We tend to underestimate future uncertainty because we tend to believe we have more control over events than we really do. We believe we have control to minimize potential problems in our decisions. Framing bias is best avoided by using numeracy with absolute measures of efficacy.[9]

Reference class forecasting was developed to eliminate or reduce cognitive biases in decision making.