Artificial Immune System Based on Normal Model

and Immune Learning

Tao Gong
College of Information Science and Technology
Donghua University
Shanghai 201620, China
e-mail: taogong@dhu.edu.cn
AbstractInspired form natural immune system, a new
artificial immune system was proposed to detect recognize and
eliminate the non-selfs such as computer worms and software
faults. Because unknown non-selfs are very difficult to detect only
by recognizing the features of the non-selfs, a normal model was
built to provide an easy and effective tool for completely detecting
the unknown non-selfs by detecting the known selfs. The
probability for detecting unknown non-selfs with traditional
approaches depends on the complexity for the features of
unknown non-selfs, and the usage of the selfs for detecting the
non-selfs in some systems has been neglected. After the normal
model is built with the space-time properties of the selfs for the
systems, the probability for detecting the unknown non-selfs can
be improved with the normal model. To overcome the bottleneck
for finding which to recognize and how to learn the unknown
worms, an adaptive immune learning model was proposed
against the unknown worms, by searching in the multi-dimension
feature space of worms with random evolutionary computation.
The goal of the adaptive immune learning was to find the most
similar known worm to the unknown worm or establish a new
class for the unknown worm. The normal model and the innate
immune tier on the normal model provided a better source of
unknown non-selfs so that the probability for recognizing the
unknown worms was increased. To recognize and learn the
unknown non-selfs with uncertainty in the artificial immune
system, the evolutionary immune algorithm was used to search
and reason with uncertainty. At last, a prototype for using the
artificial immune system in anti-worm and fault diagnosis
applications validated the models.
Keywordsartificial immune system, normal model, immune
learning, immune algorithm
I. INTRODUCTION
Human immune system is very useful and important for
every person, because the functions of the immune system are
useful for keeping the human body immune and robust. The
immune system is able to detect recognize and eliminate some
non-selfs such as viruses and diseased cells [1], and the doctors
can use artificial immune technique to defend human body
from many diseases and repair many diseased cells.
However, the non-selfs have thousands of types, and even
the types of some new non-selfs are fully unknown for the
immune system. Why can the immune system detect the non-
selfs? Does the immune system know all the features of all
unknown non-selfs? The answer is certainly no. Does the
immune system know all the features of all selfs? The answer
may be yes. Because of the exclusive relation between the set
of selfs and the set of non-selfs, there are two ways to detect
the non-selfs. One is to match the features of the non-selfs with
the memory information of the non-selfs in the system. But the
memory of the immune system is too lacking to represent the
information of too many unknown non-selfs, so in nature this
approach is not feasible to detect all unknown non-selfs.
The other new way is to match the unique features of the
selfs, and the selfs are more knowable for the immune system
than the non-selfs. As we know, the space-time properties of
each self are unique in the four-dimension space-time
coordinate space of the physical world, and the selfs are sure
known by the immune system when the system is normal
because the selfs are just normal parts of the system. The space
property of each self is the unique physical identifier such as
the DNA pattern of the immune cells and the time property of
each self is the time state [2]. Both the physical identifier and
the time state of each immune cell or molecule are known for
the normal immune system, so the new detecting approach is
useful for detecting all the selfs. According to the relation
between the selfs and the non-selfs, any object that is not self is
sure a non-self in the immune system. So the new approach is
also useful for detecting all non-selfs with all the selfs detected.
Based on comparison between the above two ways to detect
non-selfs in the immune system, the new approach is used for
building the artificial immune system in this paper. But the
difficult problem is how to represent the space-time properties
of the selfs, and the key answer is the normal model [3-4].
As we know, the human immune system is complex
especially at learning [5], and there are about 10 lymphocytes
in the human immune system [6]. The large number of
lymphocytes and more molecules cause uncertainty, which is
similar to uncertainty in the quantum theory.
12
The artificial immune system is a tri-tier adaptive system,
inspired from the biological immune system, and the adaptive
immune tier is the most important tier for the system to be
adaptive, intelligent and robust [7]. The immune system is
adaptive, because adaptive immunity of the immune system
can transform the primary immune respond for unknown
viruses into the secondary immune response by adjusting the
knowledge information about the known viruses in some
1320
1-4244-2384-2/08/$20.00 c 2008 IEEE
immune cells [8]. The immune system is intelligent, because
the antibodies can learn unknown viruses and some immune
cells can memorize the results of learning [9-11]. The immune
system is robust, because the adaptive immunity of the system
is useful for recognizing and eliminating unknown viruses so
that the normal state of the system can be maintained and
repaired [12].
The adaptive immunity of the immune system may be
understood by some scientists and immunologists with some
famous immunological theories and models, such as immune
learning [13], immune tolerance [14], immune memory [15],
theory of clonal selection [16], immune network model [17]
and so on. These fruits are very important for many people to
understand and improve our immune systems, so that the
theories and models are praised with the best awards.
Among the theories and models of adaptive immunity,
evolution is a basic mechanism for the immune system and its
immune cells to process the immune response against some
viruses [18]. Inspired from the adaptive immunity of the
biological immune system, some similar models are built in the
artificial immune to simulate the immune system, and the
models are designed and tested with immune evolutionary
algorithms [19-24]. In this paper, an adaptive immune learning
is proposed for recognizing and eliminating some unknown
worms in some web systems, and the algorithm for adaptive
immune learning is built on random search with evolutionary
computation in the multi-dimension feature space of worms.
II. ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEM BASED ON NORMAL
MODEL AND UNCERTAINTY
File-based artificial immune system is a useful artificial
immune system to immunize the file-based systems, and the
file-based systems include the file system of the operation
system, the static Web system, the software systems of the
robot and other control systems etc. The file-based artificial
immune system is comprised of some files and directories, and
the files include the files of the file-based systems and the
program files of immunization.
Suppose the file-based artificial immune system consists
of files and directories, and the file and the directory are
called as the component of the system. The space property
of the component
c
is its absolute pathname, and the time
property of the component is its last revision time. The
absolute pathname of a file include three parts: the first part
is the name of the disk or the URL for the file, the second
part is the name of the directory for the file, and the third
part is the name of the file. The last revision time of the
component is the time that the component is revised for the last
time. , , , and t are used as the four coordinates of
the space-time cyberspace. Because the four-element
coordinates of any physical object are unique in the space-time
coordinates of the real world and the four-element coordinates
represent the current state of the object, the four-element
coordinates of any component are unique in the space-time
coordinates of the cyberspace and the four-element coordinates
represent the last state of the component. During the period
between the last revision time and the current time, the state of
the component has not been revised. Therefore, the four-
element coordinates of the component also represent the
current state of the component, and the state space of
components in the system S is represented as the set of the
four-element coordinates.
S
n m
p
i
i
ti
p
i1
p
i 2
p
i3
p
i1
p
i 2
p
i3 i
} 1 | ) , {( } 1 | ) , , , {(
3 2 1
m n i t p m n (1) i t p p p
i i i i i i
= = + = +
Besides, if and only if the states of all the components in
the file-based artificial immune system are normal, then the
state of the system S is normal. If the state of any component
in the system S is abnormal, then the state of the system S is
abnormal. The state of the file-based artificial immune
system is represented with the four-element coordinates of
all its components, and the space-time properties are used to
store information on the four-element coordinates of the
components in the self database.
S
) (S s
S

) ) , , , (
, ), , , , ( , ), , , , (( ) (
3 , 2 , 1 ,
3 2 1 1 13 12 11
t p p p
t p p p t p p p S s
m n m n m n m n
i i i i
+ + + +
=
(2)
The four-element coordinates of the
component is added into the self database as a record, and
the amount of records in the self database is
) , , , (
3 2 1
t p p p
i i i i
ci
m n + .
To build the normal model of the file-based artificial
immune system, the space-time properties of the normal
components in the initial system are read first and then stored
into the self database. The algorithm for building the normal
model of the initial system includes two steps: one is to backup
the normal system and initialize the self database, and the
second step is to add the space-time properties of each normal
component into the self database when the components are
visited recursively. For the dynamic system, any change in both
the space-time properties of each normal component and any
addition of new file in the system is monitored. If the change or
the addition is legal, then the state of the changed component or
the new file is normal and so the artificial immune system is
still normal; otherwise, the changed component or the new file
is a non-self and so the artificial immune system is abnormal.
From the initial system to the changed system, the normal
model is built dynamically according to Figure 1.
When the file-based artificial immune system is normal,
the four-element coordinates of all the normal components are
used to build the normal model for the system .
S
S
(3) [ = [ =
+
=
+
=
m n
i
i i i i
m n
i
i t p p p N c s N S s N
1
3 2 1
1
)) (( )) ( ( )) ( , , , (
) (c s
i
represents the state of the component , ci
[ ) ( represents
the product of the sets, and represents the normal function
that is defined as such.
) ( N

=
. abnormal is , 0
; normal is , 1
) (
x
x
x N (4)
Based on the normal model, the algorithm for detecting
non-selfs is designed with matching the space-time properties
2008 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC 2008) 1321
of the selfs rather than matching the features of the non-self.
Thus, the probability for detecting the non-selfs is increase to 1
in theory on the condition that the time property is correct.
Figure 1. Normal model of the dynamic artificial immune system is built
with the space-time properties of normal components for the initial system.
III. MODEL OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNE LEARNING
A. Tri-tier Immune Model of Artificial Immune System
The adaptive immune tier is the second tier of the tri-tier
immune model for the artificial immune system, and the first
tier is the innate immune tier and the third tier is the parallel
immune tier [25-27]. The innate immune tier is comprised of
two modules. The first module is used to detect the selfs and
the non-selfs in the system that the artificial immune system
protects. The second module is used to recognize the features
of known non-selfs and classify the types of the known worms.
The adaptive immune tier is comprised of two modules. The
first one is used to learn features and types of the unknown
worms with the knowledge about all the known worms. The
second is used to eliminate the non-selfs that were detected.
B. Model for Learning Unknown Worms
The model for learning unknown worms is comprised of the
feature space of known worms, the algorithm for reading the
features of non-selfs, the algorithm for searching the most
similar non-self, the unknown worm that is being recognized,
and the result set of learning, shown in Figure 2.
Model for learning unknown worms
Algorithm for
reading features of
non-selfs
Algorithm for
searching the most
similar non-self
Unknown worm that
is being recognized
Result set of
learning
Feature space of all the
known worms
Normal model
ci
c1
cn
c2

) , (
t p
i i
) , (
1 1
t p
) , (
2 2
t p
) , (
t p
n n

Initial normal AIS

Normal model
ci
c1
cn
c2

) , (
' '
t p
i i
) , (
'
1
'
1
t p
) , (
'
2
'
2
t p
) , (
' '
t p
n n
Figure 2. Model for learning unknown worms.
Suppose the feature dimension of the known worm is q ,
the feature vector of the non-self c is denoted with
, then the feature space of all the known
worms is represented with ,
j
) , , , (
2 1 u u u jq j j

)} , , , {(
2 1 u u u jq j j
M j , , 2 , 1 = ,
and M represents the sum of the known worms. For the
unknown worm c , -dimension features among its features
are measured, and the known features are represented with
, but the other features
are unknown. Suppose the most similar known worm to the
unknown worm is , the algorithm for searching the most
similar worm is denoted with , then the process for learning
the unknown worm can be represented as such.
u
o
) , , , (
2 1
u
i
u
i
u
i o
j j j
) , , , (
2 1
u
l
u
l
u
l o q
j j j

cu ck
As
)) , , , ((
2 1
u
i
u
i
u
i
A c
o
j j j s k
= , o q h u
l
u
l h h
k j
= = , , 2 , 1 , (5)
In the process for learning the unknown worm, the non-self
is classified into the type of the most similar known worm to
the unknown one, according to the feature vector of the
unknown worm. The types of known worms are known and the
amount of the known worms is limited. However, the unknown
worm can not be classified into any type of known worms, and
a new type must be created for the unknown one at that time.
With creation of new type repeated, the types of unknown
worms may be unlimited but numerable. The dimension
coordinate of the feature space for the worms is represented
with , small balls are used to denote the non-selfs,
and the big circles represent the type of the worms.
q i ui
, , 2 , 1 , =

Dynamic normal AIS

ci
c1
cn
c2

Abnormal AIS
t
t
'
t
' '
Repairing Damaged
IV. RANDOM SEARCHING ALGORITHM WITH IMMUNITY
AND EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION
Suppose the current system that the artificial immune
system protects has components, among which the algorithm
for recognizing known worms has regarded k components as
unknown non-selfs. There is some feature information for
k
2
K
known worms in the storage of worms, and each worm has q
features that are coded in some tables. The problem for
recognizing the unknown worms can be solved by finding the
most similar known worm to unknown worm and/or creating a
new type for the unknown worm, and the problem for finding
1322 2008 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC 2008)
the most similar known worm to the unknown worm is a
constrained optimization problem. Suppose the difference
between the unknown worm and a known worm is represented
with a function , the constrained optimization problem
is described as such [23].
) , ( c c f
i u
minimize (6) ) , ( c c f
i u
q
uq u u
u
x x u c 9 e = ) , , , (
2 1

q
iq i i
i
x x u c 9 e = ) , , , (
2 1

subject to: r c c f
i u
< ) , (
Here, r represents the threshold that is used to detemine if the
unknown worm belongs to any type of known worms.
The constrained optimization problem for finding the most
similar known worm to the unknown worm can be solved with
some evolutionary algorithms, and the algorithm for
recognizing the unknown worms is designed with immune
memory, shown in Figure 3.
The immune memory means that the unknown worm can
be transformed into a known one after learning, and the
immune learning is enhanced.
Before the algorithm for recognizing the unknown worms is
used, the unknown worms must be detected. The algorithm for
detecting selfs and non-selfs on the normal model is used to
detect whether the object is a self or non-self, and the algorithm
for recognizing the known worms is used to determine whether
the non-self is a known worm or unknown worm. For
recognizing more unknown worms, the stage for detecting selfs
and non-selfs is very crucial and the stage for recognizing
known worms is relatively simple.
With the space properties and the time properties of the
components, the normal model uniquely identifies the normal
state of each component and the normal state of the whole
system that the artificial immune system protects. Therefore,
the following two theorems show the advantages of the normal
model to the algorithm for recognizing the unknown worms.
Theorem 1 On the condition that the time properties are
correct, based on the normal model and the tri-tier immune
model of the artificial immune system, the probability for
detecting selfs is 100% and the probability for detecting non-
selfs is also 100%.
[Proof] The normal states of the components in the system
that the artificial immune system protects are represented with
their space-time properties according to the normal model of
the system. Thus, when the normal model of the system is used
to detect the normal files of the system, the normal components
will be all matched in the storage of the selfs so that all the
normal components can be detected. The other objects in the
system are all regarded as the non-selfs. Therefore, no normal
component is detected as a non-self, and no abnormal object is
regarded as a normal component. All in all, 100% selfs of the
system is detected and 100% non-self is also detected. Hence,
the probability for detecting the selfs and the probability for
detecting the non-selfs are both 100%.
Theorem 2 Suppose the event that the artificial immune
system detects the non-selfs by matching the features of the
non-selfs is denoted with D , the event that the artificial
immune system detects the non-selfs is denoted with D , the
probability for recognizing the unknown worms based on the
normal model is represented with
T
N
) ( D R P
N
, the probability for
recognizing the unknown worms only based on matching the
features of the non-selfs is represented with ) ( D R P
T
, then
) ( ) ( D R P D R P
T N
> .
Start
Figure 3. Algorithm for recognizing the unknown worms with evolutionary
computation and immune memory.
[Proof] The artificial immune system recognizes the
unknown worms after the system detects the unknown worms
as unknown non-selfs. Thus, the probability for recognizing the
Read the feature vector of the unknown worm
Compute the difference between the feature
vector of any worm in the colony and that
of the unknown worm, and select the feature
vector that has the minimal difference.
End
Initialize the first colony of feature
vectors for random known worms.
Mutation and crossover of the feature
vectors for other worms and the selected
vectors.
New vectors are useful
for known worms? Yes
No
Select the feature vector that has the minimal difference
and compute the other features with uncertainty.
Read the type of the known
worm for the optimal
The minimal difference
is smaller than ? r
Yes
No
Create a new type for
the unknown worm.
The unknown worm is memorized
and becomes a new known worm.
2008 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC 2008) 1323
unknown worms is a conditional probability ) ( D R P , which is
the probability of the event that unknown worms are
recognized on the condition that the worms are detected.
, , . 1 ) ( = D P
N
1 ) ( < D P
T
) ( ) ( D P D P
T N
>
) ( ) ( ) ( D R P R P D R P
T N
> = .
V. SIMULATION OF ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEM
Unknown non-selfs are difficult to recognize and learn, and
the immune learning is a kind of uncertain learning. The
uncertainty of the artificial immune system tells us to build the
model with the whole features and functions of the system, and
the tri-tier model of immune computation is built on the main
functions of the artificial immune system [28].
The three tiers of immune computation include the innate
immune computing tier, the adaptive immune computing tier
and the parallel immune computing tier. The functions of the
innate immune computing tier are to detect all selfs and non-
selfs with the normal model and recognize the known non-selfs
by matching the features of non-selfs in the non-self database.
The functions of the adaptive immune computing tier are to
learn recognize and memorize unknown non-selfs, eliminate all
non-selfs and repair the damaged system. The functions of the
parallel immune computing tier are to increase efficiency and
load capability of the artificial immune system [29-30].
The tri-tier model of immune computation is an uncertainty
model for the artificial immune system, and some learning
mechanisms are used to learn the unknown non-selfs with the
features of the known non-selfs. To test the approach for
learning unknown worms with evolutionary computation and
immune memory, a web demo system is immunized after
infecting by unknown worms. The unknown worms can not be
matched in the storage of worms for the artificial immune
system, and there are three variants of known worms and two
complete-unknown worms among the unknown worms. The
three variants are respectively modified from the loveletter
worm, the happy-time worm and the Jessica worm [31].
The selfs of the web demo system is represented with the
normal model of the system, and the normal model is uniquely
identified by the space-time properties of all the normal
components when the initial system is normal, as shown in
Figure 4. The system is a part of web-based e-learning system,
which is developed by some web programming languages such
as HTML JSP, Java and JDBC. The system is used to show
how a fire-fighting robot searches a path to find the fire and put
out the fire, and the initial system is normal. Therefore, at the
initial normal state the normal model of the system is built and
used to represent the selfs.
The immune memory is a kind of rote learning, and the
memory part can be regarded as a function in mathematics.
The input vector of the memory function is ,
and the output vector of the memory function is the
combination of unknown features and unknown type of the
unknown worm, as denoted with . The
immune memory can be searched directly and easily, and no
repeated immune computation is needed for learning unknown
features and type, when the memory function
is called.
) ( m
) , , , (
2 1
u
i
u
i
u
i o
j j j

) , , , , (
2 1
T u
l
u
l
u
l o q
j j j

) , , , (
2 1
u
i
u
i
u
i
m
o
j j j

Figure 4. Initial web demo system when the system is normal.
In this example, the three variants are recognized to
belong to three classes of the loveletter worms, the happy-time
worms, and the Jessica worms respectively, and the three
classes are known, shown as the real-line circle in Figure 5.
The other unknown worms are recognized as two brand-
new unknown worms, and two new classes are created for them,
shown as the dashed circle in Figure 5.
v v v 3 2 1
, ,
w w 2 1
,
Figure 5. Learning results of the unknown worms in the feature space.

.
.
.

O
u1
u2
uq
v1
v2
w1
w2
v3
r
1324 2008 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC 2008)
The web demo system is immunized by the artificial
immune system and is now immune from some worms. When
many known worms and the unknown worms attack the demo
system that the artificial immune system protects, the innate
immune tier is activated to detect the worms and recognized the
known worms. Detection of all the worms and recognition of
the unknown worms are both quick because of the normal
model and the storage of known worms.
[9] L. N. de Castro, F. J. von Zuben, Learning and optimization using the
clonal selection principle, IEEE Trans. on Evolutionary Computation,
2002, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 306313.
[10] H. Bersini, F. Varela, Hints for adaptive problem solving gleaned from
immune network, Parallel Problem Solving from Nature. Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag, 1991, pp. 343354.
[11] A. Perelson, R. Hightower, S. Forrest, Evolution (and learning) of v-
region genes, Research in Immunol., 1996, vol. 147, pp. 202208.
[12] T. Gong, Research on Modeling and Robustness Analysis of Immune
Computation, Ph.D. Thesis., Central South University, 2007.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The normal model has been proposed as a tool to represent
the selfs and overcome the bottleneck of detecting unknown
non-selfs. The space property and the time property of the
components in the file-based artificial immune system are
used to build the normal model. The normal model is used to
change the strategy of detecting non-selfs from the way of
matching the features of the non-selfs to the way of matching
the space-time properties of the selfs, and the benefit is the
higher probability for detecting all non-selfs in theory on the
condition that the time property is correct.
The approach for learning many unknown worms with
evolutionary computation and immune memory is a useful and
effective new technique, and the normal model is useful for
increase the probability for recognizing the unknown worms.
[13] H. D. Kim, J. J. Jin, J. A. Maxwell, et al., Enhancing Th2 immune
responses against amyloid protein by a DNA prime-adenovirus boost
regimen for Alzheimer's disease, Immunology Letters, 2007, vol. 112,
no. 1, pp. 3038.
[14] L. W. Collison, C. J. Workman, T. T. Kuo, et. al., The inhibitory
cytokine IL-35 contributes to regulatory T-cell function, Nature, 2007,
vol. 450, no. 7169, pp. 5669.
[15] L. J. Guo, X. J. Zhang, B. Zheng, et al., IgM-mediated signaling is
required for the development of a normal B cell memory response, Mol
Immunol, 2008, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 10717.
[16] P. Ghia, C. Scielzo, M. Frenquelli, et al., From normal to clonal B cells:
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) at the crossroad between
neoplasia and autoimmunity, Autoimmun. Rev., 2007, vol. 7, no. 2, pp.
12731.
[17] Z. Q. Yan, G. K. Hansson, Innate immunity, macrophage activation,
and atherosclerosis, Immunological Reviews, 2007, vol. 219, pp. 187
203.
[18] A. Perelson, R. Hightower, S. Forrest, Evolution (and learning) of v-
region genes, Research in Immunology, 1996, vol. 147, pp.202208.
[19] M. A. Nowak, C. R. Bangham, Population dynamics of immune
responses to persistent viruses, Science, 1996, vol. 272, no. 5258, pp.
7479.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I sincerely thank great support from the National Natural
Science Foundation of China under Grant 60404021, the
Shanghai Educational Development Foundation under Grant
2007CG42, and the Foundation of Donghua Univ. under Grant
104-10-0044017.
[20] D. D. Ho, A. U. Neumann, A. S. Perelson, et al., Rapid turnover of
plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection, Nature, 1995,
vol. 373, no. 6510, pp. 123126.
[21] B. F. Dibrov, M. A. Livshits, M. V. Volkenstein, Mathematical model
of immune processes, J. Theor. Biol., 1977, vol. 65, no. 4, pp.609631.
[22] G. I. Bell, Mathematical model of clonal selection and antibody
production, J. Theor. Biol., 1970, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 191232. REFERENCES
[23] J. Balthrop, S. Forrest, M. E. J. Newman, et al., Technological
Networks and the Spread of Computer Viruses, Science, 2004, vol. 304,
no. 5670, pp. 527529.
[1] R. Medzhitov, C. A. Jr Janeway, Decoding the Patterns of Self and
Nonself by the Innate Immune System, Science, 2002, 12(296):298-300.
[2] S. V. Kim, W. Z. Mehal, X. Dong, et al, Modulation of Cell Adhesion
and Motility in the Immune System by Myo1f, Science, 2006, vol. 314,
no. 5796, pp. 136-139.
[24] S. Sarafijanovic, J. Y. Le Boudec, An artificial immune system
approach with secondary response for misbehavior detection in mobile
ad hoc networks, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, 2005, vol. 16, no. 5,
pp. 10761087.
[3] T. Gong, Z. X. Cai, Anti-Worm Immunization of Web System Based
on Normal model and BP Neural Network, In: Proceedings of
International Symposium on Neural Networks 2006, Wang, J., et al.
(Eds.), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2006, vol. 39713973.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp. 267-272.
[25] T. Gong, Z. X. Cai, Tri-tier Immune System in Anti-virus and Software
Fault Diagnosis of Mobile Immune Robot Based on Normal Model,
Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems, 2008, 51(2): 187201.
[26] T. Gong, Z. X. Cai, An Immune Agent for Web-based AI Course,
International Journal on E-Learning, 2006, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 493506.
[4] T. Gong, Z. X. Cai, Self/non-self Detection Modeling of Immune
System Based on Normal Model of DNA Pattern, In: Proceedings of
World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 2006,
2006, Seoul, pp. 110-113.
[27] T. Gong, Z. X. Cai, Natural Computation Architecture of Immune
Control Based on Normal Model, Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE
International Symposium on Intelligent Control, Munich, 2006, pp.
12311236.
[5] J. F. Traub, A. G. Werschulz, Complexity and Information. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
[28] T. Gong, Z. X. Cai, H. G. He, Immune modelling and programming of
a mobile root demo, J. Cent. South Univ. Technol., 2006,13(6):694-698.
[6] D. Dasgupta, Artificial Neural Networks and Artificial Immune
Systems: Similarities and differences, In: Proceedings of the IEEE
International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1997, pp.
873-878.
[29] Y. Deng, A. Korobka, Performance of a supercomputer built with
commodity components, Parallel Processing, 2001, 27(12): 91-108.
[7] L. N. de Castro, J. Timmis, Artificial Immune Systems: A New Compu-
tational Intelligence Approach. London: Springer-Verlag, 2002.
[30] J. Zhang, S. Chi, Parallel two level block ILU preconditioning
techniques for solving large sparse linear systems, Parallel Computing,
2002, vol. 28, no.10, pp. 1451-1475.
[8] N. K. Jerne, Towards a network theory of the immune system, Ann.
Immunol., 1974, 125C, pp. 373389. [31] E. Levy, Worm Propagation and Generic Attacks, IEEE Security and
Privacy, 2005, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 6365.
2008 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC 2008) 1325