Bridge Basics Because of the wide range of structural possibilities, this Spotter's Guide shows only the most

common fixed (non-movable) bridge types. Other types are listed in the Bridge Terminology page. The drawings are not to scale. Additional related info is found on the other Terminology pages which are linked to the left. The four main factors are used in describing a bridge. By combining these terms one may give a general description of most bridge types.

span (simple, continuous, cantilever), material (stone, concrete, metal, etc.), placement of the travel surface in relation to the structure (deck, pony, through), form (beam, arch, truss, etc.).

The three basic types of spans are shown below. Any of these spans may be constructed using beams, girders or trusses. Arch bridges are either simple or continuous (hinged). A cantilever bridge may also include a suspended span.

Examples of the three common travel surface configurations are shown in the Truss type drawings below. In a Deck configuration, traffic travels on top of the main structure; in a Pony configuration, traffic travels between parallel superstructures which are not cross-braced at the top; in a Through configuration, traffic travels through the superstructure (usually a truss) which is cross-braced above and below the traffic.

Beam and Girder types Simple deck beam bridges are usually metal or reinforced concrete. Other beam and girder types are constructed of metal. The end section of the two deck configuration shows the cross-bracing commonly used between beams. The pony end section shows knee braces which prevent deflection where the girders and deck meet.

One method of increasing a girder's load capacity while minimizing its web depth is to add haunches at the supported ends. Usually the center section is a standard shape with parallel flanges; curved or angled flanged ends are riveted or bolted using splice plates. Because of the restrictions incurred in transporting large beams to the construction site, shorter, more manageable lengths are often joined on-site using splice plates.

Many modern bridges use new designs developed using computer stress analysis. The rigid frame type has superstructure and substructure which are integrated. Commonly, the legs or the intersection of the leg and deck are a single piece which is riveted to other sections.

Orthotropic beams are modular shapes which resist stress in multiple directions at once. They vary in cross-section and may be open or closed shapes.

Arch types There are several ways to classify arch bridges. The placement of the deck in relation to the superstructure provides the descriptive terms used in all bridges: deck, pony, and through. Also the type of connections used at the supports and the midpoint of the arch may be used - counting the number of hinges which allow the structure to respond to varying stresses and loads. A through arch is shown, but this applies to all type of arch bridges.

Another method of classification is found in the configuration of the arch. Examples of solidribbed, brace-ribbed (trussed arch) and spandrel-braced arches are shown. A solid-ribbed arch is commonly constructed using curved girder sections. A brace-ribbed arch has a curved through truss rising above the deck. A spandrel-braced arch or open spandrel deck arch carries the deck on top of the arch.

Some metal bridges which appear to be open spandrel deck arch are, in fact, cantilever; these rely on diagonal bracing. A true arch bridge relies on vertical members to transmit the load which is carried by the arch.

The tied arch (bowstring) type is commonly used for suspension bridges; the arch may be trussed or solid. The trusses which comprise the arch will vary in configuration, but commonly use Pratt or Warren webbing. While a typical arch bridge passes its load to bearings at its abutment; a tied arch resists spreading (drift) at its bearings by using the deck as a tie piece.

Masonry bridges, constructed in stone and concrete, may have open or closed spandrels A closed spandrel is usually filled with rubble and faced with dressed stone or concrete. Occasionally, reinforced concrete is used in building pony arch types.

Truss - simple types A truss is a structure made of many smaller parts. Once constructed of wooden timbers, and later including iron tension members, most truss bridges are built of metal. Types of truss bridges are also identified by the terms deck, pony and through which describe the placement of the travel surface in relation to the superstructure (see drawings above). The king post truss is the simplest type; the queen post truss adds a horizontal top chord to achieve a longer span, but the center panel tends to be less rigid due to its lack of diagonal bracing.

Covered bridge types (truss) Covered bridges are typically wooden truss structures. The enclosing roof protected the timbers from weathering and extended the life of the bridge.

One of the more common methods used for achieving longer spans was the multiple kingpost truss. A simple, wooden, kingpost truss forms the center and panels are added symmetrically. With the use of iron in bridge construction, the Howe truss - - in its simplest form - - appears to be a type of multiple kingpost truss.

Stephen H. Long (1784-1864) was one of the U.S. Army Topographical Engineers sent to explore and map the United States as it expanded westward. While working for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, he developed the X truss in 1830 with further improvements patented in 1835 and 1837. The wooden truss was also known as the Long truss and he is cited as the first American to use mathematical calculations in truss design.

Theodore Burr built a bridge spanning the Hudson River at Waterford, NY in 1804. By adding a arch segments to a multiple kingpost truss, the Burr arch truss was able to attain longer spans. His truss design, patented in 1817, is not a true arch as it relies on the interaction of the arch segments with the truss members to carry the load. There were many of this type in the Pittsburgh area and they continue to be one of the most common type of covered bridges. Many later covered bridge truss types used an added arch based on the success of the Burr truss.

The Town lattice truss was patented in 1820 by Ithiel Town. The lattice is constructed of planks rather than the heavy timbers required in kingpost and queenpost designs. It was easy to construct, if tedious. Reportedly, Mr. Town licensed his design at one dollar per foot - - or two dollars per foot for those found not under license. The second Ft. Wayne railroad bridge over the Allegheny River was an unusual instance of a Town lattice constructed in iron.

Herman Haupt designed and patented his truss configuration in 1839. He was in engineering management for several railroads including the Pennsylvania Railroad (1848) and drafted as superintendent of military railroads for the Union Army during the Civil War. The Haupt truss concentrates much of its compressive forces through the end panels and onto the abutments.

Other bridge designers were busy in the Midwest. An OhioDOT web page cites examples of designs used for some covered bridges in that state. Robert W. Smith of Tipp City, OH, received patents in 1867 and 1869 for his designs. Three variations of the Smith truss are still standing in Ohio covered bridges.

Reuben L. Partridge received a patent for his truss design which is appears to be a modification of the Smith truss. Four of the five Partridge truss bridges near his home in Marysville, Union County, OH, are still in use.

Horace Childs' design of 1846 was a multiple king post with the addition of iron rods. The Childs truss was used exclusively by Ohio bridge builder Everett Sherman after 1883.

Truss - Pratt variations

The Pratt truss is a very common type, but has many variations. Originally designed by Thomas and Caleb Pratt in 1844, the Pratt truss successfully made the transition from wood designs to metal. The basic identifying features are the diagonal web members which form a V-shape. The center section commonly has crossing diagonal members. Additional counter braces may be used and can make identification more difficult, however the Pratt and its variations are the most common type of all trusses. Charles H. Parker modified the Pratt truss to create a "camelback" truss having a top chord which does not stay parallel with the bottom chord. This creates a lighter structure without losing strength; there is less dead load at the ends and more strength concentrated in the center. It is somewhat more complicated to build since the web members vary in length from one panel to the next. When additional smaller members are added to a Pratt truss, the various subdivided types have been given names from the railroad companies which most commonly used each type, although both were developed by engineers of the Pennsylvania Railroad in the 1870s.

The Whipple truss was developed by Squire Whipple as stronger version of the Pratt truss. Patented in 1847, it was also known as the "Double-intersection Pratt" because the diagonal tension members cross two panels, while those on the Pratt cross one. The Indiana Historical Bureau notes one bridge as being a "Triple Whipple" -- possibly the only one -- built with the thought that if two are better than one, three must be stronger yet. The Whipple truss was most commonly used in the trapezoidal form -- straight top and bottom chords -- although bowstring Whipple trusses were also built.

The Whipple truss gained immediate popularity with the railroads as it was stronger and more rigid than the Pratt. It was less common for highway use, but a few wrought iron examples survive. They were usually built where the span required was longer than was practical with a Pratt truss. Further developments of the subdivided variations of the Pratt, including the Pennsylvania and Baltimore trusses, led to the decline of the Whipple truss.

Truss - Warren variations A Warren truss, patented by James Warren and Willoughby Monzoni of Great Britain in 1848, can be identified by the presence of many equilateral or isoceles triangles formed by the web members which connect the top and bottom chords. These triangles may also be further subdivided. Warren truss may also be found in covered bridge designs.

Truss - other types The other truss types shown are less common on modern bridges. A Howe truss at first appears similar to a Pratt truss, but the Howe diagonal web members are inclined toward the center of the span to form A-shapes. The vertical members are in tension while the diagonal members are in compression, exactly opposite the structure of a Pratt truss. Patented in 1840 by William Howe, this design was common on early railroads. The three drawings show various levels of detail. The thicker lines represent wood braces; the thinner lines are iron tension rods. The Howe truss was patented as an improvement to the Long truss which is discussed with covered bridge types.

Friedrich August von Pauli (1802-1883) published details of his truss design in 1865. Probably the most famous Pauli truss, better known as the lenticular truss -- named because of the lens shape, is Pittsburgh's Smithfield Street Bridge. Its opposing arches combine the benefits of a suspension bridge with those of an arch bridge. But like the willow tree, some of its strength is expressed in its flexibility which is often noticeable to bridge traffic.

Before the use of computers, the interaction of forces on spans which crossed multiple supports was difficult to calculate. One solution to the problem was developed by E. M. Wichert of Pittsburgh, PA, in 1930. By introducing a open, hinged quadrilateral over the intermediate piers, each span could be calculated independently. The first Wichert truss was the Homestead High Level Bridge over the Monongahela River in 1937.

The composite cast and wrought iron Bollman truss was common on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Of the hundred or so following Wendell Bollman's design, the 1869 bridge at Savage, MD, is perhaps the only intact survivor. Some of the counter bracing inside the panels has been omitted from the drawing for clarity.

Also somewhat common on early railroads, particularly the B&O, was the Fink truss - designed by Albert Fink of Germany in the 1860s.

Cantilever types - truss A cantilever is a structural member which projects beyond its support and is supported at only one end. Cantilever bridges are constructed using trusses, beams, or girders. Employing the cantilever principles allows structures to achieve spans longer than simple spans of the same superstructure type. They may also include a suspended span which hangs between the ends of opposing cantilever arms. Some bridges which appear to be arch type are, in fact, cantilever truss. These may be identified by the diagonal braces which are used in the open spandrel. A true arch bridge relies on vertical members to transfer the load to the arch. Pratt and Warren bracing are among the most commonly used truss types.

The classic cantilever design is the through truss which extends above the deck. Some have trusses which extend both above and below the deck. The truss configuration will vary.

Suspension types The longest bridges in the world are suspension bridges or their cousins, the cable-stayed bridge. The deck is hung from suspenders of wire rope, eyebars or other materials. Materials for the other parts also vary: piers may be steel or masonry; the deck may be made of girders or trussed. A tied arch resists spreading (drift) at its bearings by using the deck as a tie piece. Though Pittsburgh has been a pioneer in bridge design and fabrication, it has had few suspension bridges. The Pennsylvania Mainline Canal entered the city on John Roebling's first wire-rope suspension bridge in 1845 (replacing a failing 1829 wooden structure). A similar structure still stands at Minnisink Ford, NY, crossing the Delaware River. Roebling and his son Washington Roebling, later famous in building the Brooklyn Bridge, began their work in Saxonburg, PA, north of Pittsburgh.

Terminology STRUCTURES: Bridge Abutment Part of a structure which supports the end of a span or accepts the thrust of an arch; often supports and retains the approach embankment. Anchor span Located at the outermost end, it counterbalances the arm of span extending in the opposite direction from a major point of support. Often attached to an abutment. Anchorage Located at the outermost ends, the part of a suspension bridge to which the cables are attached. Similar in location to an abutment of a beam bridge. Aqueduct A pipe or channel, open or enclosed, which carries water. May also be used as part of a canal to carry boats. Sometimes carried by a bridge. Arch A curved structure which supports a vertical load mainly by axial compression. Arch barrel The inner surface of an arch extending the full width of the structure. Arch ring An outer course of stone forming the arch. Made of a series of voussoirs. An archivolt is an arch ring with decorating moldings. Ballustrade A decorative railing, especially one constructed of concrete or stone, including the top and bottom rail and the vertical supports called ballusters. May also include larger vertical supports called stanchions. Baltimore truss A subdivided Pratt truss commonly constructed for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. It has angled end posts and a top chord which is straight and horizontal. Compare to camelback truss and Pennsylvania truss. Bascule bridge From the French word for "see-saw," a bascule bridge features a movable span (leaf) which rotates on a horizontal hinged axis (trunnion) to raise one end vertically. A large counterweight is used to offset to weight of the raised leaf. May have a single raising leaf or two which meet in the center when closed. Compare to swing bridge and vertical lift bridge.

Beam A horizontal structure member supporting vertical loads by resisting bending. A girder is a larger beam, especially when made of multiple plates. Deeper, longer members are created by using trusses. Bearing A device at the ends of beams which is placed on top of a pier or abutment. The ends of the beam rest on the bearing. Bent Part of a bridge substructure. A rigid frame commonly made of reinforced concrete or steel which supports a vertical load and is placed transerse to the length of a structure. Bents are commonly used to support beams and girders. An end bent is the supporting frame forming part of an abutment. Each vertical member of a bent may be called a column, pier, or pile. The horizontal member resting on top of the columns is a bent cap. The columns stand on top of some type of foundation or footer which is usually hidden below grade. A bent commonly has at least two or more vertical supports. Another term used to describe a bent is capped pile pier. A support having a single column with bent cap is sometimes called a "hammerhead" pier. Bowstring truss A truss having a curved top chord and straight bottom chord meeting at each end. Box girder A steel beam built-up from many shapes to form a hollow cross-section. Brace-ribbed arch (trussed arch) An arch with parallel chords connected by open webbing. Bridge A raised structure built to carry vehicles or pedestrians over an obstacle. Buttress A wall projecting perpendicularly from another wall which prevents its outward movement. Usually wider at its base and tapering toward the top. Cable Part of a suspension bridge extending from an anchorage over the tops of the towers and down to the opposite anchorage. Suspenders or hangers are attached along its length to support the deck. Cable-stayed bridge A variation of suspension bridge in which the tension members extend from one or more towers at varying angles to carry the deck. Allowing much more freedom in design form, this type does

not use cables draped over towers, nor the anchorages at each end, as in a traditional suspension bridge. Camber A positive, upward curve built into a beam which compensates for some of the vertical load and anticipated deflection. Camelback truss A truss having a curved top chord and straight bottom chord meeting at each end, especially when there are more than one used end to end. Compare to Baltimore truss and Pennsylvania truss. Cantilever A structural member which projects beyond a supporting column or wall and is counterbalanced and/or supported at only one end. Castellated girder A steel beam fabricated by making a zig-zag cut along its web, then welding the two sides together at their peaks. This creates a beam which has increased depth and therefore greater strength, but is not increased in weight. Catenary Curve formed by a rope or chain hanging freely between two supports. The curved cables or chains used to support suspension bridges may be referred to as catenaries. Centering Temporary structure or falsework supporting an arch during construction. Chord Either of the two principal members of a truss extending from end to end, connected by web members. Column A vertical structural member used to support compressive loads. Also see pier and pile. Continuous span A superstructure which extends as one piece over multiple supports. Corbelled arch Masonry built over an opening by progressively overlapping the courses from each side until they meet at the top center. Not a true arch as the structure relies on strictly vertical compression, not axial compression. Counter A truss web member which functions only when a structure is partially loaded.

Cradle Part of a suspension bridge which carries the cable over the top of the tower. Cripple A structural member which does not extend the full height of others around it and does not carry as much load. Crown On road surfaces, where the center is the highest point and the surface slopes downward in opposite directions, assisting in drainage. Also a point at the top of an arch. Culvert A drain, pipe or channel which allows water to pass under a road, railroad or embankment. Deck The top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic. Deck truss A truss which carries its deck on its top chord. Compare to pony truss and through truss. Elliptical arch An arch formed by mutiple arcs each of which is drawn from its own center. Compare to a roman arch which is a semi-circular arc drawn from a single centerpoint. Embankment Angled grading of the ground. End post The outwardmost vertical or angled compression member of a truss. Expansion joint A meeting point between two parts of a structure which is designed to allow for movement of the parts due to thermal or moisture factors while protecting the parts from damage. Commonly visible on a bridge deck as a hinged or movable connection. Extrados The outer exposed curve of an arch; defines the lower arc of a spandrel. Eye bar A structural member having a long body and an enlarged head at each end. Each head has a hole though which a pin is inserted to connect to other members. Falsework Temporary structure used as support during construction. Falsework for arch construction is called "centering."

Fill Earth, stone or other material used to raise the ground level, form an embankment or fill the inside of an abutment, pier or closed spandrel. Finial A sculpted decorative element placed at the top of a spire or highpoint of a structure. Fixed arch A structure anchored in its position. Compare to hinged arch. Floor beam Horizontal members which are placed transversely to the major beams, girders, or trusses; used to support the deck. Footing The enlarged lower portion of the substructure or foundation which rests directly on the soil, bedrock, or piles; usually below grade and not visible. Gabion A galvanized wire box filled with stones used to form an abutment or retaining wall. Girder A horizontal structure member supporting vertical loads by resisting bending. A girder is a larger beam, especially when made of multiple metal plates. The plates are usually riveted or welded together. Gusset plate A metal plate used to unite multiple structural members of a truss. Haunch The enlarged part of a beam near its supported ends which results in increased strength; visible as the curved or angled bottom edge of a beam. Hinged arch A two-hinged arch is supported by a pinned connection at each end. A three-hinged arch also includes a third pinned connection at the crown of the arch near the middle of a span. Compare to fixed arch. Howe truss A type of truss in which vertical web members are in tension and diagonal web members in compression. Maybe be recognized by diagonal members which appear to form an "A" shape (without the crossbar) toward the center of the truss when viewed in profile. Compare to Pratt truss and Warren truss.

Humpback A description of the sideview of a bridge having relatively steep approach embankments leading to the bridge deck. Impost The surface which receives the vertical weight at the bottom of an arch. Intrados The interior arc of an arch. Jersey barrier A low, reinforced concrete wall wider at the base, tapering vertically to near mid-height, then continuing straight up to its top. The shape is designed to direct automotive traffic back toward its own lane of travel and prevent crossing of a median or leaving the roadway. Commonly used on new and reconstructed bridges in place of decorative ballustrades, railings or parapets. Keystone The uppermost wedge-shaped voussoir at the crown of an arch which locks the other voussoirs into place. King Truss Two triangular shapes sharing a common center vertical member (king post); the simplest triangular truss system. Compare to queen truss. Knee brace Additional support connecting the deck with the main beam which keep the beam from buckling outward. Commonly made from plates and angles. Lag Crosspieces used to connect the ribs in centering. Lateral bracing Members used to stabilize a structure by introducing diagonal connections. Lattice An assembly of smaller pieces arranged in a gridlike pattern; sometimes used a decorative element or to form a truss of primarily diagonal members. Lenticular truss A truss which uses curved top and bottom chords placed opposite one another to form a lens shape. The chords are connected by additional truss web members. Member One of many parts of a structure, especially one of the parts of a truss.

Parabola A form of arch defined by a moving point which remains equidistant from a fixed point inside the arch and a moving point along a line. This shape when inverted into an arch structure results in a form which allows equal vertical loading along its length. Parapet A low wall along the outside edge of a bridge deck used to protect vehicles and pedestrians. Pennsylvania truss A subdivided Pratt truss invented for use by the Pennsylvania Railroad. The Pennsylvania truss is similar in bracing to a Baltimore truss, but the former has a camelback profile while the latter has angled end posts only, leaving the upper chord straight and horizontal. Compare to camelback truss and Baltimore truss. Pier A vertical structure which supports the ends of a multi-span superstructure at a location between abutments. Also see column and pile. Pile A long column driven deep into the ground to form part of a foundation or substructure. Also see column and pier. Pin A cylindrical bar which is used to connect various members of a truss; such as those inserted through the holes of a meeting pair of eyebars. Pony truss A truss which carries its traffic near its top chord but not low enough to allow crossbracing between the parallel top chords. Compare to deck truss and through truss. Portal The opening at the ends of a through truss with forms the entrance. Also the open entrance of a tunnel. Post One of the vertical compression members of a truss which is perpendicular to the bottom chord. Pratt truss A type of truss in which vertical web members are in compression and diagonal web members in tension. Many possible configuartions include pitched, flat, or camelback top chords. Maybe be recognized by diagonal members which appear to form a "V" shape toward the center of the truss when viewed in profile. Variations include the Baltimore truss and Pennsylvania truss. Compare to Warren truss and Howe truss. Pylon A monumental vertical structure marking the entrance to a bridge or forming part of a gateway.

Queen Truss A truss having two triangular shapes spaced on either side of central apex connected by horizontal top and bottom chords. Compare to king truss. Reinforcement Adding strength or bearing capacity to a structural member. Examples include the placing of metal rebar into forms before pouring concrete, or attaching gusset plates at the intersection of multiple members of a truss. Revet The process of covering an embankment with stones. Revetment A facing of masonry or stones to protect an embankment from erosion. Rib Any one of the arched series of members which is parallel to the length of a bridge, especially those on a metal arch bridge. Rigid frame bridge A type of girder bridge in which the piers and deck girder are fastened to form a single unit. Unlike typical girder bridges which are constructed so that the deck rests on bearings atop the piers, a rigid frame bridge acts as a unit. Pier design may vary. Rise The measure of an arch from the spring line to the highest part of the intrados, which is to say from its base support to the crown. Segmental arch An arch formed along an arc which is drawn from a point below its spring line, thus forming a less than semicircular arch. The intrados of a Roman arch follows an arc drawn from a point on its spring line, thus forming a semi-circle. Simple span A span in which the effective length is the same as the length of the spanning structure. The spanning superstructure extends from one vertical support, abutment or pier, to another, without crossing over an intermediate support or creating a cantilever. Skew When the superstructure is not perpendicular to the substructure, a skew angle is created. The skew angle is the acute angle between the alignment of the superstructure and the alignment of the substructure. Span The horizontal space between two supports of a structure. Also refers to the structure itself. May be used as a noun or a verb.

The clear span is the space between the inside surfaces of piers or other vertical supports. The effective span is the distance between the centers of two supports. Spandrel The roughly triangular area above an arch and below a horizontal bridge deck. A closed spandrel encloses fill material. An open spandrel carries its load using interior walls or columns. Splice plate A plate which joins two girders. Commonly riveted or bolted. Springer The first voussoir resting on the impost of an arch. Spring line The place where an arch rises from its support; a line drawn from the impost. Stanchion One of the larger vertical posts supporting a railing. Smaller, closely spaced vertical supports are ballusters. Also see ballustrade. Stiffener On plate girders, structural steel shapes, such as an angle, are attached to the web to add intermediate strength. Stringer A beam aligned with the length of a span which supports the deck. Strut A compressive member. Substructure The portion of a bridge structure including abutments and piers which supports the superstructure. Superstructure The portion of a bridge structure which carries the traffic load and passes that load to the substructure. Suspended span A simple beam supported by cantilevers of adjacent spans, commonly connected by pins. Suspenders Tension members of a suspension bridge which hang from the main cable to support the deck. Also similar tension members of an arch bridge which features a suspended deck. Also called hangers.

Suspension bridge A bridge which carries its deck with many tension members attached to cables draped over tower piers. Swing bridge A movable deck bridge which opens by rotating horizontally on an axis. Compare to bascule bridge and vertical lift bridge. Through truss A truss which carries its traffic through the interior of the structure with crossbracing between the parallel top and bottom chords. Compare to deck truss and pony truss. Tie A tension member of a truss. Tied arch An arch which has a tension member across its base which connects one end to the other. Tower A tall pier or frame supporting the cable of a suspension bridge. Trestle While Bridge is the more general term (which may be a single span or multi-span, typically one span is longer than the others), Trestle is a longer, multi-span structure -- a series of shorter spans in which most of the spans are of similar length. Trestle is a more common term in relation to railroads, while viaduct is a similar long, multi-span structure for streets. Neither term seems to be exclusive. Although described as a single structure, the Ohio Connecting RR bridge over the Ohio River at Brunot Island could be described as a pair of bridges (one over each river channel) with a trestle at each approach and a trestle connection in the center. But more often, a long structure which does not have a predominantly larger span could be described as a trestle. Truss A structural form which is used in the same way as a beam, but because it is made of an web-like assembly of smaller members it can be made longer, deeper, and therefore, stronger than a beam or girder while being lighter than a beam of similar dimensions. Trussed arch A metal arch bridge which features a curved truss. Upper chord Top chord of a truss. Vault An enclosing structure formed by building a series of adjacent arches.

Vertical lift bridge A movable deck bridge in which the deck may be raised vertically by synchronized machinery at each end. Compare to swing bridge and vertical lift bridge. Viaduct A long, multi-span structure, especially one constructed of concrete. More commonly used in relation to structures carrying motor vehicles. Trestle is the term for a similar structure when used in relation to railroads. Voussoir Any one of the wedge shaped block used to form an arch. Warren truss A type of truss in which vertical web members inclined to form equilateral triangles. May be be recognized by diagonal members which appear to form a series of alternating "V" and "A" shapes (without the crossbar) along the length of the truss when viewed in profile. Often the triangles are bisected by vertical members to reduce the length of the members of the top chord. Compare to Pratt truss and Howe truss. Web The system of members connecting the top and bottom chords of a truss. Or the vertical portion of an I-beam or girder. Wing walls Extensions of a retaining wall as part of an abutment; used to contain the fill of an approach embankment

Terminology STRUCTURES: Engineering Compression Stress characterized by pressing together. Dead load The weight of the structure itself, independent of traffic or the environment, which must be supported by the structure. Compare to live load. Deflection The perpendicular distance a beam bends from straight, due to load and span. Force External influence on an object which tends to produce a change in its shape or causes movement.

Live load The dynamic or moving weight, such as traffic, carried by a structure. Compare to dead load. Moment The tendency of a force to cause a rotating motion. Parallel Positioning of a member so that it is aligned with another in such a way that if extended the two members would not meet. Compare to perpendicular and transverse. Perpendicular Positioning of a member so that it projects out from or crosses another at a right angle. Compare to parallel and transverse. Posttension A type of Prestressing in which reinforcing tendons are fed through tubes which are covered by concrete poured into the form. Once the concrete cures and the forms are removed, the tendon is clamped on one end and jacked tighter on the other until the required tension is achieved. This produces a reinforced concrete beam with a postive camber which is able to withstand greater loads without deflection as compared to unreinforced beams of similar dimensions. Compare to pretension. Prestressing Methods of increasing the load bearing capacity of concrete by applying increased tension on steel tendons or bars inside a beam. Types of prestressing include posttension and pretension. Pretension A type of prestressing in which reinforcing tendons stretched to a desired tension and then covered by concrete poured into the form. Once the concrete cures and the forms are removed, the tension of tendon is transfered to the concrete increasing its compression and creating a positive camber. This produces a reinforced concrete beam which is able to withstand greater loads without deflection as compared to unreinforced beams of similar dimensions. Compare to posttension. Also, cable hangers (or suspenders) used to support a bridge deck are commonly pretensioned before being attached to the deck. Shear Stress placed transversely on a member in opposite directions. Strain The deformation of an object caused by a force acting upon it. Compressive strain is the shortening of an object in compression. Tensile strain is the enlongation of an object in tension. Shearing strain is a lateral deformation caused by a force which tends to move part of an object more than another. Compare to stress.

Stress The resistance of an object to external force. Compressive stress develops as an object in compression resists being shortened. Tensile stress develops as an object in tension resists being enlongated. Shearing stress develops as an object subject to shearing forces resists deformation. Compare to strain. Structure A stable assembly of components which carries a load while resisting various applied stresses, and transfers the load though its foundation to the ground. Tension Stress characterized by pulling apart. Thrust A force caused by one part of a structure pushing outward against another. The thrust at the abutments of segmental arch is also called drift. Transverse Positioning of a member so that it projects out from or crosses another, generally in a horizontal position. Compare to parallel and perpendicular. Also, describes a movement across the length of an object as opposed to along its length.

Terminology STRUCTURES: Tunnel Axis The lengthwise course of a tunnel, especially along the center line. Bentonite Clay formed from volcanic ash which can absorb large amounts of water and expands to many times its normal volume. Used to retain the sides of excavations in wet, unstable soil. Bore Construction method for tunnels which involves digging a tube-like passage through the earth. Usually refers to mountain tunneling. See drill and blast. Caisson A pressurized, bell-shaped structure which allows construction fully under the water. Compare with cofferdam. Cofferdam A waterproof wall, open at the top, enclosing a construction area below the water level. Compare with caisson.

Conduit Pipe or liner used as a passage for other pipes or wires. Course In tunnels, the path of a tunnel. In masonry, one horizontal row of blocks. Consolidation Soil stabilization; see grouting. Cross section The shape of a tunnel; shapes include ovoid, horseshoe, round or square. Cut and cover Construction method which involves excavating a large trench, building a roof structure, then covering it with earth. Commonly used for subways and relatively flat locations. Dewater Removal of water during construction. Diaphragm wall Watertight wall formed from cast-in-place reinforced concrete. Commonly uses slurry wall construction. Drift A horizontal, underground passage. Drill and blast Construction method in which pilot holes are drilled for explosive charges. The resulting debris is carried out and the process is repeated. Embedded wall Retaining wall constructed using sections placed side-by-side or interlocking to form a continuous structure. Includes sheet pile, soldier pile, bored pile and diaphragm wall. Excavation The process of digging or the hole which results. Full face boring machine A tunneling machine which has cutting teeth at its front. It creates the tunnel opening while passing the waste material through the rear. Many types of tunnel boring cut small sections which are progressively enlarged. A full face boring machine cuts the complete cross section of the tunnel at once. See tunnel boring machine (TBM) Grade The elevation of the ground surface. Often used to describe the angle or slope of the surface.

Gravity wall Retaining wall relying on significant mass, dimensions or modular sections. Little or no stability is gained from the natural resistance of the supported. soil. May be large stone blocks, pre-fab concrete modules, or reinforced construction with spread foundations. Grouting Unstable rock and soil is strengthened by the injection of chemicals, cementitous grout, freezing or other methods. Immersed caisson A pressurized, bell-shaped structure which allows construction fully under the water. Immersed tube Construction method using pre-fabricated tunnel sections. While the ends are sealed, it is lowered into position under the water and attached to other sections. Also sunken tube. In-situ Formed or created in its final position. Initial support Applied or installed immediately to the interior surface after excavation to maintain the opening. Includes shotcrete, rock bolts and/or steel ribs. Jacking Construction of small diameter passages by forcing pipe through the soil. Also Pipejacking. Lagging Boards placed side-by-side to retain the face of an excavation. Held in place by soldier piles. Line A description of the location and grade of a tunnel. Lining Materials used to finish the inside surface of the tunnel. The inital supports and preliminary liner are placed as the tunnel is being excavated. These help stabilize the interior surface. Shotcrete may be sprayed on as a preliminary liner. Later, additional coatings may be applied or other types may be used such as prefabricated steel or concrete panels, rock bolting, steel ribs and wood lagging, or masonry. Waterproofing liners are also used. Longitudinal Along the length of a structure. Microtunneling Construction method for tunnels which are too small for humans to dig inside. May be performed using tethered, remote-controlled drilling machines or pipejacking.

Muck Debris removed during excavation. NATM (New Austrian Tunneling Method) Construction method, also known as the shotcrete method. As the excavation progresses, a layer of concrete is immediately sprayed on the interior surface of the tunnel and rock bolts are driven in. This method attempts to maintain the original rock structure by avoiding settling, subsidence and deformation. Additional liners may be added or more layers of shotcrete may be applied. Overburden The soil and rock supported by the roof of a tunnel. Pipe roof method Construction method in which steel pipes are laid along the sides and roof of the tunnel course and the tunnel was then constructed inside. Portal The open end of a tunnel. Usually includes a wall to retain the soil around the opening. May also include service and ventilation building. Profile A side view of the tunnel. Reinforced soil wall Retaining wall using various methods of attaching strips, mesh or other reinforcements to an excavated face. Soil nails may be driven in to attach the reinforcements and added further stability. Rock bolts Steel bar with larger plates at its head. These are driven into the interior surface of the tunnel to stabilize and add strength to the rock. See soil nails. Shaft A vertical, underground passage. Sheet pile Pre-fabricated sections installed vertically side-by-side to form a retaining wall. Shield A metal frame used to maintain the opening as the tunnel boring progresses. As forward progress is made, the liner is constructed behind the shield, and the the shield is jacked or moved forward. Shotcrete Quick-setting concrete is sprayed onto the bare rock surface immediately after excavation. It forms preliminary tunnel liner.

Slurry Wall Construction method used in wet, unstable soil. As the trench is excavated, it is filled with bentonite slurry. This fluid mixture allows the excavation to continue while preventing the passage of groundwater or the collapse of the trench walls. The trench is later backfilled with other material, forms for poured concrete walls, or pre-fabricated wall sections. Soil nail Steel rod driven into the ground to stabilize soil. Used as part of a retaining wall and may be attached to reinforcing strips, mesh or other buried anchors (deadman). Also call a tieback. Soldier pile Steel H-shape beam driven vertically into the ground to provide supports for lagging. Spile Rod driven into soft ground or unstable rock to provide stabilization. A grouted spile is one which is inserted into a pre-drilled hole, when is then back-filled with grout. Sunken tube Construction method using pre-fabricated tunnel sections. While the ends are sealed, it is lowered into position under the water and attached to other sections. Also immersed tube. Tailings In mining, waste material remaining after the valuable minerals have been extracted. Stored in piles or used as fill. Tunnel An underground passage for vehicles or pedestrians, especially one which is created by digging into earth. Occasionally, tunnel structures are built in an excavated area then covered over. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) A tunneling machine which has cutting teeth at its front. It creates the tunnel opening while passing the waste material through the rear. Vault An enclosing structure formed by building a series of adjacent arches. A long passageway having a curved ceiling or roof. Ventilation Circulation of fresh area and exhaust gases. Watertable The underground elevation below which the earth is saturated with groundwater. Groundwater includes rainwater which has seeped below the surface or is supplied by aquifers, water-saturated layer of rock.

Terminology MATERIALS: Masonry Aggregate Crushed stone, gravel, or sand added to cement to make concrete. Ashlar Cut, squared building stone finely dressed on all sides adjacent to other stones. Requires only very thin mortar joints. Random ashlar uses rectangular stones in discontinuous courses. Coursed ashlar uses rectangular stones of the same height in each horizontal course, but each course may vary in height. Broken rangework arranges ashlar units into horizontal courses of varying heights, which may be divided into horizontal groups at various intervals. Belt course A horizontal course in a masonry wall which is of different color, texture, or size. Concrete An artifical, stonelike building material made by combining cement with aggregate and adding sufficient water to cause it to set and bind the materials together. There are various mixtures to meet specific performance requirements. It is also commonly reinforced by placing steel mesh or rods before pouring into the forms. Dressed stone A stone masonry unit which has been squared and shaped for precise fit with other stones. Undressed stone has naturally rough and irregular shapes. Joint The place where two masonry units meet, often bound together by mortar. Masonry Construction method using units such as stone, brick, and concrete block which are usually joined with a binding agent such as mortar. Mortar is a mixture of lime and/or pulverized clay (cement) with very fine sand and water. Less often, the units are held in place by their own weight, especially with very large stones. Also includes concrete construction. Reinforced concrete Concrete which gains added strength by placing wire mesh or rods into the formwork before the concrete it poured. Rubble Rough, irregular stone fragments used in construction of a wall or wall surface.

A random rubble wall has discontinuous courses and may include smaller garrets, small stones used to wedge larger ones into position or fill gaps. A coursed rubble wall is more organized and built to a level course at various intervals. A squared rubble wall is built of roughly squared stones of varying size which are brought to level courses every third of fourth stone. Rustication Ashlar masonry having the visible surfaces raised or textured in contrast to the finely dressed joints.

M-BEAMS DIMENSIONS AND SECTION PROPERTIES OF M2, M3, M4 M BEAM DESCRIPTION M2 M3 M4 TYPE 16.017.519.0PAN RANGE L (m) 18.0 19.5 21.5 DEPTH D (mm) 720 800 880 WEIGHT w (KN/m) 7.71 8.49 9.26 SECTIONAL A (mm2) 316650 348650 380650 AREA Yt (mm) 455 490 527 NEUTRAL AXIS Yb (mm) 265 310 353 MOMENT OF 16.20 x 23.02 x 30.94 x Ixx (mm4) INERTIA 109 109 109 35.64 x 46.96 x 58.77 x Zt (mm3) 106 106 106 SECTION MODULII 61.04 x 74.31 x 87.57 x Zb (mm3) 106 106 106 DIMENSIONS AND SECTION PROPERTIES OF M5, M6, M7 M BEAM DESCRIPTION M5 M6 M7 TYPE 20.022.023.5SPAN RANGE L (m) 22.5 24.0 26.0 DEPTH D (mm) 960 1040 1120 WEIGHT w (KN/m) 8.64 9.42 10.20 SECTIONAL A (mm2) 355050 387050 419050 AREA

NEUTRAL AXIS MOMENT OF INERTIA SECTION MODULII

603 490 527 357 409 460 35.81 x 47.56 x 60.46 x Ixx (mm4) 109 109 109 59.39 x 75.39 x 91.53 x Zt (mm3) 106 106 106 100.33 x 116.23 x 131.54 x Zb (mm3) 106 106 106

Yt (mm) Yb (mm)

DIMENSIONS AND SECTION PROPERTIES OF M8, M9, M10 M BEAM DESCRIPTION M8 M9 M10 TYPE 25.026.528.0SPAN RANGE L (m) 27.0* 28.5* 29.0* DEPTH D (mm) 1200 1040 1360 WEIGHT w (KN/m) 9.58 9.42 11.13 SECTIONAL A (mm2) 393450 425450 457450 AREA Yt (mm) 746 768 792 NEUTRAL AXIS Yb (mm) 454 512 568 MOMENT OF 65.19 x 82.98 x 101.88 x Ixx (mm4) INERTIA 109 109 109 87.39 x 108.09 x 128.65 x Zt (mm3) 106 106 106 SECTION MODULII 143.57 x 161.57 x 179.36 x Zb (mm3) 106 106 106 *Subject to transportation constraints A range of nine M-sections, M2 to M10, are available for use by the bridge engineer to cater for various spans from 16 metres or less up to 28 metres (subject to transportation constraints). Standard web holes (see fig 1) provided at 600mm centers when necessary for threading transverse reinforcement through the bottom of the webs.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS FOR M-BEAM BRIDGES PSEUDO BOX

Construction sequence 1. M-beams are launched at 1-metre centers. 2. Fill gap between bottom flanges of adjacent beams 3. Place reinforcement through web holes & cover reinforcement with a minimum of 50mm in situ concrete. 4. Place permanent formwork between top flanges of adjacent beams 5. Place reinforcement for top slab and end diaphragm beams 6. Cast top slab and end diaphragm beams T-BEAM Construction sequence 1. M-beams are launched at 1-metre centers 2. Place permanent formwork between top flanges of adjacent beams 3. Place reinforcement for top slab and end diaphragm beams 4. Cast top slab and end diaphragm beams. CONSTRUCTION METHODS FOR INVERTED T-BEAM BRIDGES GRILLAGE Construction sequence 1. Inverted T-beams are laid at 508mm centers 2. Fill gap between bottom flanges of adjacent beams at position of diaphragm beams 3. Place diaphragm reinforcement through web holes @ 1.525mm centers together with shear reinforcement 4. Place formwork to sides of diaphragm beams and top flanges of adjacent beams 5. Place reinforcement for top slab 6. Cast top slab and diaphragm beams

SOLID SLAB Construction sequence 1. Inverted T-beams are laid at 508mm centers 2. Fill gap between bottom flanges of adjacent beam length of beams 3. Place reinforcement through web holes @ 762mm centers 4. Place reinforcement for top slab

5. Cast void between contiguous beams together slab.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS FOR I-BEAM BRIDGES Construction sequence 1. I-beams are launched at 1.5 metre centers (typical) 2. Side formwork for diaphragm beams and soffit formwork slab is placed 3. Reinforcement for diaphragm beams is placed. 4. Place reinforcement for top slab. 5. Cast top slab and diaphragm beams. Note: For T-beam construction, web holes are omitted, except at the ends of the M-beam for threading through the end diaphragm beam reinforcement. Hume Industries Concrete Division offer designers a choice of 3 pretensioned bridge beam types for use in bridge construction.

M-BEAMS INVERTED T-BEAMS I-BEAMS For each beam type, a range of sizes are available as shown in the attached tables. These 3 beam types are shown below: For each beam type, a range of sizes are available as shown in the attached tables. FEATURES Hume Prestressed Bridge Beams are 1. designed to BS 5400: Part 4: Code of practice for design of Concrete Bridges: 1984. 2. produced using high strength concrete with characteristic strengths of between 45 N/mm2 to 50 N/mm2 3. used for the construction of highway bridges designed to MOT load requirements. ADVANTAGES OF USING HUME PRESTRESSED BRIDGE BEAMS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. No scaffolding/ props/ falsework required over rivers or roads. Reduce construction site activities. Minimise wet concrete works at site. Ease of construction. Minimum interruption to traffic flow.

6. Cut construction time-beam production in Hume factories proceeds simultaneously with construction work at site. Obtain high quality factory cast beams with minimal supervision 7. No time wasted waiting for beams to gain strength. 8. Working platform immediately available upon launching of beams. 9. Future extension of deck easily implemented by addition of prestressed beams. INFORMATION FOR DESIGNERS

Prestressing strands 12.9 mm diameter 7-wire super strands (low relaxation) conforming to BS 5896: 1980 are used.

Standard Strand Pattern Positions Designers are recommended to choose from the 'standard' strand pattern positions shown for each beam type when finalising their combination of total prestressing force and eccentricity to meet their particular design requirements. Use of standard strand pattern positions allows a reduction in production costs, thus benefiting the client.

28-day concrete cube strengths Hume Prestressed bridge Beams are made with high strength concrete having a 28-day cube strengths of between 45 N/mm2 and 50 N/mm2.

Cubes strength of concrete at transfer Although achievable, transfer cube strengths above 40 N/mm2 should be avoided where possible. A transfer cube strength of up to 38 N/mm2 should be adequate for most cases. It may be possible to avoid high transfer cube strengths by either a small increase in the construction depth or by the use of debonding.

Stacking Each beam should be stacked on timber bearers pierced at about 300 mm to 500 mm from each beam end.

End slots for dowels at fixed end bearings Slots at beam ends can be formed in the bottom flange to accommodate dowel bars at fixed bearing positions where required.

Beam Lengths and Transportation

Subject to design considerations, Hume Prestressed Bridge Beams can be made to lengths (subject to end shortening upon transfer of prestress) required by the designer. Beam lengths should preferably be specified in increments of 50 mm. Maximum beam lengths of up to 27 metres have been successfully transported from Hume factories and launched. Where access to a: bridge site may be a problem, it is recommended that a check be made especially when using long (>22 m) beams for remote areas. For long beams, it is highly recommended that some top reinforcement (in the form of strands / bars) be placed near the top of the beam in order to facilitate transportation without cracking of the beams. INVERTED T-BEAMS IMENSIONS AND SECTION PROPERTIES OF INVERTED T-BEAM SPAN RANGE, 5.5- 9.5- 11.5- 13.0- 14.0- 14.8- 15.5- 17.0L (m) 12.0 13.7 14.5 15.8 17.5 18.3 18.9 19.3 BEAM DEPTH, 535 575 615 650 650 765 840 890 D (mm) WEIGHT, 276 2.96 3.16 3.33 3.51 3.91 4.28 4.53 W (kN/m) SECTIONAL 1133 1215 1297 1368 1440 1604 1758 1860 AREA, A 15 15 15 90 65 65 40 90 (mm2) Yt(mm 341.8 357.7 374.1 388.8 403.8 403.8 472.7 495.5 NEUTR ) AL AXIS Yb(m 193.2 217.3 240.9 261.2 281.2 281.2 367.3 394.5 m) MOMENT OF 13,28 15.64 INERTIA Ixx 3.137 4.113 5.183 6.205 7.306 7.306 3 0 (x109mm4) Zt (x 11.49 13.85 15.95 18.09 18.09 28.10 31.56 106m 9.178 SECTIO 8 4 8 1 1 0 1 m3) N MODU Zb (x 16.23 18.92 21.51 23.75 25.98 25.98 36.16 39.65 LII 106m 7 8 7 9 5 5 5 0 m3)

Fig. 2 - Diaphragm / Web hole details A range of nine inverted T-sections, of depth ranging from 535mm to 890mm (as shown in table above), are available for bridge spans from 5 metres up to 19 metres. Standard web holes (see figure 2 above) are provided at 1525mm centres for transverse reinforcement for diaphragm beams. I-BEAMS DIMENSIONS AND SECTION PROPERTIES OF I-5, I-6 AND I-7 BEAMS I BEAM DESCRIPTION I-5 I-6 I-7 TYPE SPAN RANGE L (m) 18.3 19.8 21.3 DEPTH D (mm) 965 1040 1120 WEIGHT W (kN/m) 6.63 6.91 7.20 SECTIONAL A (mm2) 272625 283875 295875 AREA Yt (mm) 538 579 623 NEUTRAL AXIS Yb (mm) 427 461 497 MOMENT OF 28.15 34.46 x 42.09 x Ixx (mm4) INERTIA x109 109 109 53.32 59.56 67.67 x Zt (mm3) x106 x106 106 SECTION MODULII 65.80 74.76 84.68 x Zb (mm3) x106 x106 106 DIMENSIONS AND SECTION PROPERTIES OF I12, I-13 AND I-14 BEAMS M BEAM DESCRIPTION I-12 I-13 I-14 TYPE SPAN RANGE L (m) 24.4 25.9 27.4 DEPTH D (mm) 1420 1475 1550 WEIGHT W (kN/m) 10.3 10.84 11.21

SECTIONAL AREA NEUTRAL AXIS

A (mm2) 423050 445600 460600 Yt (mm) Yb (mm)

752 768 806 668 707 744 MOMENT OF 93.64 x 106.61 x 122.07 x Ixx (mm4) INERTIA 109 109 109 124.36 x 138.81 x 151.34 x Zt (mm3) SECTION 106 106 106 140.19 x 150.19 x 160.07 x MODULII Zb (mm3) 106 106 106

Diaphragm hole sizes and locations Standard sized diaphragm holes (see fig 1 & 2) for each beam type are located at regular spacings as shown. Adoption of these standard hole sizes and locations will allow a reduction in production cost of the beams. Skewed Beam Ends Skewed ends to beams are expensive and should be avoided where possible. Specification of beam ends with the precise angle of skew to suit the bridge alignment generally increases the beam cost. Where skewed ends are necessary, the use of the 'rationalised skew angles' shown in the table below will help reduce beam costs with no disadvantage to the designer. The use of the rationalised skew angles below ensures that the maximum displacement 's' of the corners of the beams (see figure below) does not exceed 50 mm for M beams. Reinforcement in Skewed Beams Only reinforcement in the end zone of the beam should be skewed. All other reinforcement in the body of the beam should be detailed square to the section.

1 2 3 Rationalised Maximum 'S' (mm) Skew Skew angle at for intermediate skew angle at beam end angles for M-beams* S max 44 0 5.0 45 10 15.1 20 30 37.5 45 52.5 59 Example: Actual angle = 27.5: Use of Column 3 indicate that a skew angle of 25.3 corresponds to a displacement S of about 50mm. To limit displacement S to below 50mm, use a rationalised skew of 30. * For Inverted tee beams, the value of 'S' is half that in column 2. 49 40 44 50 50 25.3 34.0 41.5 49.0 56.0

It is our policy to continuously review and improve products and their design.
Information in this leaflet is subject to change without notice. It is our policy to continuously review and improve products and their design. Information in this page is therefore subject to change without notice.

Bridge Detailing Manual: Inverted-T Cap Details