09.08.10 Outline I. Research: The Foundation of Psychology A.

psychologists look for answers using scientific method performs experiments and other scientific procedures to systematically gather and analyze information B. Paul Rozins experiment on what causes people to being and end a meal => decisions to start and finish meals are affected by several biological factors signals from the blood tell the brain how much fuel, or energy, the body has Rozin then explores the psychological factors o conducted tests on two men with anterograde amnesia 1 food was given, then finished, moments later they were given again => food wasnt refused, and were partially consumed despite having ate moments before o conducted tests on two people with normal memory of recent events same procedure, however the extra food was refused results suggest: memory of when he/she last ate can influence when he/she will eat again C. Rozins experiment is an example that psychologists begin with speculations and take additional steps toward understanding the process. II. A Brief History of Psychology A. psychologists have been conducting research for over 125 years B. modern psych. began with Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 at University of Leipzig, Germany C. history of psych. can be traced back to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle D. philosophy of empiricism2 was important in the emergence of scientific psychology influences from John Locke, George Berkley and David Heme challenged early Greece ideas empiricists argues that humans learn about the world through experiences and observations o suggest the mind at birth are like blank slates (tabula rasa in Latin) III. Wundt and the Structuralism of Titchener A. by 19th century, Helmholtz and Fechner conducted research on the sensory systems and perceptual processes B. Fechner discovered complex relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli and changes in the human psychological experiences C. Wundt focused his work on the consciousness used the techniques of introspection3 (means looking inward) repeatedly used light or sound and asked the volunteers questions about the sensation when exposed to the stimuli concluded that quality (e.g. cold, blue, etc.) and intensity (e.g. brightness, loudness, etc.) are the two main elements of feeling
1 2

form of amnesia, or memory loss, where new events are not transferred to long-term memory the view that experience, especially of the senses, is the only source of knowledge 3 learning about one's own currently ongoing, or perhaps very recently past, mental states or processes

 transformed psychology from a philosophy to science of mental processes D. Titchener, a student of Wundt, also used introspection to explore the consciousness and other harder to quantify aspects added clearness as an element of sensation called his approach structuralism because he was trying to define the structure of the consciousness E. Ebbinghaus saw introspection as less important than exploring the limits of mental processes his lab conducts (where he uses himself as the only participant) form the basis for modern knowledge of memory Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler argued against Wundt => were called Gestalt psychologists o Claimed that the whole consciousness is not the same as the sum of its parts o Wertheimer argued that if two flashing lights go on and off in a specific sequence, the eyes will only perceive it as one flashing light, jumping back and forth => known as the phi phenomenon 4 IV. Freud and Psychoanalysis A. around the same time as Wundt, Freud explored the unconsciousness in Vienna, Austria B. as a physician, he assumed all mental and behavioral processes had a physical cause C. discovered the unconscious source of physical ailments after several examinations D. developed psychoanalysis, which included a theory of personality and mental disorder as well as a set of treatment methods most were based upon a small number of medical cases and not laboratory experiments, his ideas is controversial V. William James and Functionalism A. James founded psychology lab. at Harvard University in 1870s B. Hall established the psychology research lab. at John Hopkins University in 1883 C. first Canadian psych. laboratory was established in 1889, by Baldwin in Toronto Uni. D. James rejected Wundts and Titcheners approach => saw no point in breaking down the conscience into parts that never operate on its own used Darwins theory, he wanted to understand how memories, sensation, etc. functions to help us adapt to our environment => this approach is called functionalism 5 Jamess emphasis on functions urged N. American psychologists to look at how the mental processes differs from people to people VI. John B. Watson and Behaviorism A. Darwins theory led psychologists to study humans as well as animals B. suggested that if all species involved in the same way, the mental processes should be similar C. they watched what the animals did when confronted with laboratory tasks made inferences based upon these laboratory observations

apparent motion resulting from an orderly sequence of stimuli (as lights flashed in rapid succession a short distance apart on a sign) without any actual motion being presented to the eye 5 mental states are identified by what they do rather than by what they are made of

D. Watson believed that observable behavior is most important source of scientific information in psychology thought it was unscientific to use behavior to make inferences about the consciousness and the unconsciousness argued that psychologists should ignore mental events and base psych. only on what they see in overt behavior and in responses to various stimuli => behaviorism 6 recognized the consciousness but considered it worthless to study as it is private believed that most important determinant of behavior is learning o through learning, animals are able to adapt to their environment E. Skinner worked on mapping out details of how rewards and punishment shapes, maintain, and change behavior through operant conditioning used functional analysis to explain behaviors o ex. childrens tantrums are accidently more likely if they receive attention from parents or teachers o ex. virtual addiction to gambling can result from occasional/unpredictable rewards it brings F. Behaviorism dominated psychological research from 1920s-1960s, the conscious state received less attention particularly in United States VII. Psychology Today A. by the end of 1960s, psychologist grew discontent by the limitations of behaviorism and how it ignored mental processes B. computer-based biotechnology offers new ways to study mental processes C. number of psychologist in behavior is equals to those in cognitive and biological in modern days VIII. Unity and Diversity in Psychology A. Psychologists are unified by their commitment to empiricism and scientific research, etc. B. in the 20th century, most were middle-class white men C. today, women constitute about 48% of all psychologists holding doctoral degrees about 17% receiving doctoral degrees are minorities IX. Approaches to Psychology A. diversity can be seen as how psychologists think about, stud, and try to change behavior and mental processes B. with new patients: look for answers in their brain cells and hormones, in their genetic background, in their personality traits, and influences from family and friends C. psychologists decisions are guided by their approach 7to psychology D. modern psychodynamic and behavioral approaches: biological, evolutionary, cognitive, and humanistic E. most psychologists are eclectic8
6 7

theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired though conditioning by assumptions, questions, and methods psychologists believe will be most helpful in their case(s) 8 blending assumptions and methods from two or more approaches in an effort to more fully understand behavior and mental processes

X. The Biological Approach A. assumes that behavior and mental processes are largely shaped by biological processes B. study the psychological effects of hormones, genes, and the activity of the nervous system ex. if looking at memory, they might try to identify what is stored there XI. The Evolutionary Approach A. an approach based mainly upon Darwins book, The Origin of Species evolution occurs through natural selection 9which promotes survival of the fittest B. assumes that the behavior of animals and humans today is also result of evolution through natural selection ex. sees aggression as a form of territory protection ex. sees gender differences in mate-selection preferences as reflecting different ways of helping ones gene to survive in future generations XII. The Psychodynamic Approach A. rooted in Freuds psychoanalysis, this approach assumes that our behavior and mental processes reflects constant, and most unconscious, psychological struggles raging within each person ex. involving conflict between the impulse to satisfy instincts (e.g. food, sex, etc.) and the need to follow societys rules ex. sees aggression as a primitive urge overcoming a persons defense against expressing those urges ex. sees anxiety, depression, or other disorders as overt signs of inner turmoil XIII. The Behavioral Approach A. contrasts sharply against psychodynamic, biological and evolutionary B. founded upon Watsons idea of behavior as a result of learning C. consider the other three approaches as raw material and look into individuals learning history, especially the patterns of reward and punishment the person has experienced D. believe people can change problematic behaviors by unlearning old habits and learning a new today, many have included peoples thoughts, cognitions, as well as overt behavior explores how learning affects development of thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs XIV. The Cognitive Approach A. focuses on how humans take in, mentally represent, and store information; how humans perceive and process that information; and how cognitive processes are related to their behavior B. study the rapid series of hidden mental events ex. describing information processing during an aggressive incident in a theater o perceives that someone has cut into the ticket line o recalls information stored in memory about appropriate social behavior o decides that the other persons action is inappropriate o labels the person as rude and inconsiderate
9

a process by which traits become more or less common in a population due to consistent effects upon the survival or reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution

o considers possible responses and their likely consequences o decides that shoving the person is the best response o executes that response C. focuses on mental processes to understand many kinds of individual and social behaviors, from decision making and problem solving to interpersonal attraction and intelligence D. cognitive psychologists work with other fields (e.g. biology, engineering, etc.) in multidisciplinary field called cognitive science10 XV. The Humanistic Approach A. also known as phenomenological approach B. sees behavior as determined primarily by each persons capacity to choose how to think and act C. dont see choices/decisions as driven by instincts, biological processes, or rewards/punishments ex. sees aggression in a theater line as stemming from a perception that aggression is justified D. tries to understand how each individuals unique experiences guide that persons thoughts and actions E. believes that people are essentially good, that they control themselves, and that they have an innate tendency to grow toward their greatest potential F. Maslow (1908-70) helped shape and promoted the humanistic approach through his famous hierarchy-of-needs theory of motivation

10

interdisciplinary study of mind and how information, e.g., concerning perception, language, reasoning, and emotion, is represented and transformed in the brain