4.

First Law of Thermodynamics: Open systems In the preceding section we discussed the application of the first law to closed systems or non-flow processes. In most engineering applications, however we come across equipments through which there is a continuous flow of material in and out. Such processes are called flow processes and systems are termed open systems - such as flow of fluid through nozzle, turbine, compressor, combustion chamber and so on. The flow processes may also involve heat and work interactions. Control volume Instead of fixing attention upon a fixed mass of the flowing fluid, we focus attention on a fixed region in space through which the fluid flow takes place. This fixed region in space is called the control volume and its surface defining the boundary of the control volume is called control surface. A control volume can be fixed in size and shape as in most cases or it may involve a moving boundary. The method of analysis is to consider the control volume and account for all quantities of energy entering and leaving it. The advantage resulting from the control volume concept is as follows: For example, consider a steam turbine. The average change of state of steam from entrance to exit can be related to the shaft work delivered by the turbine and the heat transfer from the turbine across the control volume boundary. Thus, we need not bother about the numerous changes of state and heat and work interactions experienced by the fluid during its passages through the different sections of the turbine. Conservation of mass In the previous section we defined a closed system as one having a fixed quantity of mass that remains unchanged even as the energy change takes place. But according to the relativistic consideration mass can be converted into energy and vice versa as given by the well known equation E = mc2 where E = energy, m = mass, and c = velocity of light = 2.9979 x 108 m/sec This equation suggests that the mass of a system will change when its energy changes. However, for all energy interactions encountered in practice, with the exception of nuclear reactions, the change in the mass is extremely small and even cannot be detected by the most accurate chemical balance. Thus, for closed systems, the conservation of mass principle requiring that mass of the system remains constant during a process is valid. For an open system, since mass can cross the control surfaces, keeping track of the amount of the mass entering and leaving the control volume (CV), the conservation of mass principle is expressed using time rate of mass flow as
(Rate of mass entering CV) - (Rate of mass leaving CV) = (Rate of mass change in CV)

or

(dmi /dt) - (dme /dt) = (dmcv /dt)

where subscripts i, e, and cv stand for inlet, exit, and control volume respectively and the mass flow rate can be obtained as
& m = V A = VA/v

where = density = 1/v and V = velocity of the fluid, and A = cross section area of the duct through which the fluid flows. Flow work or flow energy Since control volume involves flow of mass across the boundary, some work is required to push the mass into and out of the control volume. This work is called Flow work or flow energy and is necessary to maintain a continuous flow. The relation for the flow work per unit mass flow can be obtained as wflow = P v kJ/kg

Total energy of a flowing fluid We know that the energy of unit mass of a system for a non-flow process is given by e = u + V2/ 2 + gz Since a flowing fluid possesses an additional form of energy the flow energy Pv, the total energy of unit mass of flowing fluid is now given by = Pv + e or = P v + u + V2/ 2 + gz Since by definition h = u + Pv, we have the total energy accompanying unit mass of flowing fluid is = h + V2/ 2 + gz The enthalpy automatically takes care of the flow work and hence using enthalpy, one does not need to be concerned about the flow work.

Steady flow process A steady flow process is one in which the conditions within the control volume as well as at the entrance and exit of the control volume do not vary with time. A steady flow process must satisfy the following requirements: 1. The properties and energy of the fluid can change from point to point within the control volume, but at any given point within the control volume and also at the entrance and exit, they are time-invariant during the entire process. 2. The mass flow rates at the entrance and exit of the control volume are equal and do not vary with time. 3. The rates of heat and work transfer across the control surface are also time-invariant or do not vary with time. A large number of engineering devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers and nozzles operate for long periods of time under the same conditions and hence are termed steady flow devices. Mass balance - Conservation of mass for a steady-flow system or process For a steady-flow process, since properties within a control volume do not change with time, there is no accumulation of mass and the total amount of mass contained within the control volume does not change with time. This requires that the net rate of mass flow entering the control volume must be equal to the net rate of mass flow leaving the control volume. & & mi = m e or i Vi Ai = e Ve Ae

(1/v i) Vi Ai = (1/ve) Ve Ae where, the subscripts i and e refer to inlet and exit respectively, and = density, kg/m3 ; v = 1/ = specific volume, m3/kg V = average flow velocity in flow direction, m/s A = area of cross section normal to the flow, m2 Energy balance - Conservation of energy for a steady-flow system Since no properties within the control volume change with time, there is no accumulation of energy or change of total energy within it or Ecv = 0. This requires that conservation of energy principle is fulfilled as follows: total rate of flow of all forms of energy entering the CV = total rate of flow of all forms of energy leaving the CV

rate of total energy crossing the boundary as heat and work

rate of total energy transported into CV with the mass

rate of total energy transported out of CV with the mass

& & & & ( Q - W ) + mi i = me e & & & & Q - W = me e - mi i where = h + V2/ 2 + gz is the total energy accompanying unit mass of the flowing fluid. For a single inlet and single exit devices, the summation, drops out and the inlet and exit states are denoted by subscripts 1 and 2. The constant mass flow & & & rate through the device (in and out) being m1 = m 2 can be replaced by m . Hence the principle of conservation of energy or the first law for an open system (a steady flow device) can be written as:

& & & & Q - W = m 2 (h2 + V22/ 2 + gz2) - mi (h1 + V12/ 2 + gz1)
or

& & & Q - W = m [(h2 - h1) + (V22/ 2 - V12/ 2) + g(z2 - z1)]

or

& & & Q - W = m [ h + (V2/ 2) + (gz) ]

or

& & Q - W = H + KE + PE

& Dividing this equations by m , we obtain first law relation on a unit mass basis as

q - w = h + (V2/ 2) + (gz)

`
q - w = h + ke + pe
In SI system of units q - w = h + (V2/ 2000) + (gz/1000) kJ/kg where V is in m/s2 and z is in meters 1 + (gz/778) Btu/lb In English system of units q - w = h + (V2/ 2g) 778

Energy Equations or First Law for some Steady-flow Engineering Devices Nozzles and Diffusers are commonly used in jet engines, rockets, spacecrafts, turbines and compressors and even garden hoses. A nozzle is a device used to increase the velocity of a fluid as a result of drop in fluid pressure. A diffuser is a device used to decrease the velocity of a fluid as a result of increase in the fluid pressure. The cross-sectional area of a nozzle decreases in the flow direction for subsonic flow and increases for supersonic flow and the reverse for a diffuser.

& Q = 0. The rate of heat transfer across the nozzle or diffuser surface is usually very small, even when not insulated. The fluid having high velocities, does not get enough time for the heat transfer to take place. Thus, the flow through nozzles and diffusers may be assumed to be adiabatic. & W = 0.

No form of work transfer is present in these devices.

PE = 0. The fluid usually experiences no change in its elevation as it flows through these devices. First law reduces to 0 = H + KE or KE = - H from which we obtain

V22/ 2 - V12/ 2 = h1 - h2 = Cp (T1 T2) It is evident from this equation that the enthalpy or the temperature drops as the velocity increases in a nozzle and vice versa in a diffuser
Compressors, as well as pumps, and fans, are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid.

& Q = 0. The heat transfer across the surfaces of these devices is generally small unless there is intentional cooling of the fluid. & W = - ve. Work is supplied to the compressor from an external source through a rotating shaft and hence represents power input.

PE = 0. The potential energy change that a fluid experiences as it flows through the device is usually very small and may be neglected. KE = 0. The fluid velocities involved with these devices are usually too low to cause any significant change in the kinetic energy.

& From first law, we can write the energy equation as W = - H & & W = - m Cp(T2 T1)

or we write

Work input to the compressor increases the enthalpy of the fluid.

Turbines are devices that deliver or produce shaft work as a result of drop in the kinetic energy of the fluid passing through them, like steam in a steam turbine, combustion gases in a gas turbine or water in a hydraulic turbine. These devices drive electric generators in power plants.

& Q = 0. The heat transfer is usually small (steam and gas turbines are insulted externally) and hence may be neglected & W = + ve. The work or power is transferred from this device in the form of shaft work and hence represents power output.

PE = 0. The potential energy change that a fluid experiences as it flows through the device is usually very small and may be neglected.

& From first law, we can write the energy equation as W = - ( H + KE) or we write & & W = m [ Cp (T1 T2) + (V12/ 2 V22/ 2) ]
Work out put from a turbine is on account of drop in the enthalpy and the kinetic energy in the case of steam and gas turbines, and on account of drop in the kinetic energy in the case of hydraulic turbines in which the temperature of water does not change.
Throttling Valves are devices used to cause a large pressure drop in a fluid by means of a constriction in the flow passage. The flow through these small & devices may be assumed to be adiabatic ( q = 0), since there is neither sufficient time nor large enough area for significant heat transfer to take place. Also, there & is no work transfer ( w = 0), and the change in the potential energy, if any, is very small ( pe = 0). The change in the kinetic energy is also insignificant ( ke = 0). Then, the energy equation from first law is given as h = 0. or h2 = h1 meaning enthalpy during a throttling process is constant.

or

u1 + P1v1 = u2 + P2v2

If the flow energy (Pv) increases during the process (P2v2 > P1v1) , it is done at the expense of internal energy. As a result, internal energy decreases accompanied by a drop in temperature. This phenomenon is used in refrigeration.