JIMMA UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH PROJECT WRITING

MANUAL FOR DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE

BY GETACHEW BAYISSA (MA)

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE

2009

Preface
The Guidelines for Conducting Research in the university has been designed to provide guidance both for students and staffs in which they wish to conduct research. Primarily the manual was prepared to serve as guidelines for students of the Department during their Research Projects in their final year. But now, both for staff and students, it is a guide to ensure that the research they propose meets the requirements of the Department. It is also a means of assessing whether or not to participate in proposed research. It will also serve for uniformity and consistency of both the proposal and research project writings. Research knowledge and skill will increase the number of undergraduate students involved in research, exposing them to the process and products of scholars, and enhancing the undergraduate research experience. Therefore, research supervisors and advisors will find the manual useful for students guidance as well as for objective assessment of the students work. Department of Information Science believes that progress in understanding the profession depends on the honest pursuit of scientific research and the truthful representation of findings. By entering the profession, and by just being information professional, we assume that we have an obligation to maintain the appropriate level of integrity in our academic research activities. We believe that most aspects of the Guidelines are already understood and subscribed to our students and staff since 2007. However, the Guidelines may be of help to those who are relatively new to research. In this respect, they may provide a useful text to encourage discussions of responsible conduct in the profession. To facilitate the reading of these Guidelines, it is divided into fifteen chapters with an easy way of referring to the specific need. Each chapter is divided into multiple sections and subsections. The
information seems full of redundancy but it is mainly aimed at addressing the different aspects of research engagement in the department. Enjoy your research.

Table of Content
Preface.......................................................................................................................................1 Table of Content .......................................................................................................................3 Table of figures .........................................................................................................................9 Chapter One ........................................................................................................................... 10 1.0. Gateways to a Research Project ............................................................................ 10 Chapter Two ........................................................................................................................... 14 2.0. Independent Research Project Proposal Writing ................................................. 14 2.1. Outline for the Proposal Writing ........................................................................... 14 2.2. Preliminary Pages ................................................................................................... 15 2.2.1. Title Page ......................................................................................................... 15 2.2.2. Approval Sheet ................................................................................................ 15 2.2.3. Acknowledgement .......................................................................................... 16 2.2.4. Table of Content.............................................................................................. 16 2.2.5. List of Figures .................................................................................................. 16 2.2.6. List of Appendices ........................................................................................... 17 2.2.7. Project Summary............................................................................................. 17 2.3. Section 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... 17 2.3.1. Objective of the Study .................................................................................... 17 2.3.2. Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 18 2.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses ........................................................ 18 2.3.4. Scope of the Study .......................................................................................... 21 2.3.5. Limitations and Delimitations of the study ................................................... 21 2.3.6. Significance of the study ................................................................................ 23 2.3.7. Assumptions (if any) ....................................................................................... 23 2.3.8. Definition of terms .......................................................................................... 24 2.4. Section 2: Literature Review.................................................................................. 24 2.5. Section 3: Research Methodology ........................................................................ 25 2.5.1. Research Method used ................................................................................... 26 2.5.2. Population of the Study .................................................................................. 29 2.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size .......................................................... 30 2.5.4. Instrumentations ............................................................................................ 32 2.5.5. Procedure for Data Collection ........................................................................ 39 2.5.6. Statistical Methods for the Study .................................................................. 40 2.6. Section 4: Data Analysis, Results and Dissemination .......................................... 40 2.7. Section 5: Budgeting .............................................................................................. 41 2.8. Section 6: Action Plan ............................................................................................ 42 2.9. Section 7: Conclusion ............................................................................................. 42
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2.10. Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 43 2.11. Appendices.......................................................................................................... 46 Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................ 47 3.0. Group Research Project Proposal Writing ............................................................ 47 3.1. Outline for the Proposal Writing ........................................................................... 47 3.2. Preliminary Pages ................................................................................................... 48 3.2.1. Title Page ......................................................................................................... 48 3.2.2. Approval Sheet ................................................................................................ 48 3.2.3. Acknowledgement .......................................................................................... 49 3.2.4. Table of Content.............................................................................................. 49 3.2.5. List of Figures .................................................................................................. 49 3.2.6. List of Appendices ........................................................................................... 50 3.2.7. Project Summary............................................................................................. 50 3.3. Section 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... 50 3.3.1. Objective of the Study/Project ....................................................................... 50 3.3.2. Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 51 3.3.3. Scope of the Study/Project ............................................................................. 52 3.3.4. Limitations and Delimitations of the study/Project ..................................... 52 3.3.5. Significance of the Study/Project ................................................................... 53 3.3.6. Assumptions (if any) ....................................................................................... 53 3.3.7. Definition of terms .......................................................................................... 54 3.4. Section 2: Literature Review.................................................................................. 54 3.5. Section 3: Project Design and Methodology ........................................................ 55 3.5.1. Data Collection Method ................................................................................. 56 3.5.2. Analysis ............................................................................................................ 56 3.5.3. Design .............................................................................................................. 57 3.5.4. Specification .................................................................................................... 58 3.5.5. Experimentation ............................................................................................. 58 3.5.6. Implementation .............................................................................................. 58 3.5.7. Testing ............................................................................................................. 59 3.5.8. Documentation ............................................................................................... 59 3.5.9. Evaluation........................................................................................................ 59 3.6. Section 4: Results and Dissemination ................................................................... 59 3.7. Section 5: Budgeting .............................................................................................. 60 3.8. Section 6: Action Plan ............................................................................................ 60 3.9. Section 7: Conclusion ............................................................................................. 60 3.10. Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 61 3.11. Appendices.......................................................................................................... 64 Chapter Four .......................................................................................................................... 65
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4.0. Independent Research Writing ............................................................................. 65 4.1. Outline of the Research ......................................................................................... 65 4.2. Preliminary Pages ................................................................................................... 66 4.2.1. Title Page ......................................................................................................... 66 4.2.2. Approval Sheet ................................................................................................ 66 4.2.3. Dedication (if any) .......................................................................................... 66 4.2.4. Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ 66 4.2.5. Table of Contents ............................................................................................ 67 4.2.6. List of Figures .................................................................................................. 67 4.2.7. List of Appendices (if any) .............................................................................. 67 4.2.8. Abstract (should finish in one or two paragraph)......................................... 67 4.3. Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................... 70 4.3.1. Objective of the Study .................................................................................... 71 4.3.2. Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 71 4.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses ........................................................ 73 4.3.4. Scope of the Study .......................................................................................... 74 4.3.5. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study ...................................................... 74 4.3.6. Significance of the Study ................................................................................ 75 4.3.7. Assumptions (if any) ....................................................................................... 76 4.3.8. Definition of Terms ......................................................................................... 76 4.4. Chapter 2: Literature Review................................................................................. 76 4.5. Chapter 3: Methodology ........................................................................................ 79 4.5.1. Research Method used ................................................................................... 79 4.5.2. Population of the Study .................................................................................. 82 4.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size .......................................................... 83 4.5.4. Instrumentations ............................................................................................ 85 4.5.5. Procedure for Data Collection ........................................................................ 85 4.5.6. Statistical Methods for the Study .................................................................. 86 4.6. Chapter 4: Data Analysis, Results and Discussion ................................................ 87 4.7. Chapter 5: Summary of the Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation.......... 90 4.8. Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 91 4.9. Appendices ............................................................................................................. 94 Chapter Five ........................................................................................................................... 95 5.0. Group Project Writing ............................................................................................ 95 5.1. General Principles .................................................................................................. 95 5.1.1. Objectives ........................................................................................................ 95 5.1.2. Choosing a Group Project ............................................................................... 95 5.1.3. Staff Proposals ................................................................................................ 95 5.1.4. Students Proposals ......................................................................................... 95
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5.1.5. Assessment ...................................................................................................... 95 5.1.6. Choosing the right project .............................................................................. 96 5.1.7. Allocation ........................................................................................................ 96 5.1.8. Equipment ....................................................................................................... 96 5.1.9. Meeting Your Supervisor ................................................................................ 97 5.1.10. The Project Report .......................................................................................... 97 5.2. Outline of the Research ......................................................................................... 98 5.3. Preliminary Pages ................................................................................................... 99 5.3.1. Title Page ......................................................................................................... 99 5.3.2. Approval Sheet ................................................................................................ 99 5.3.3. Dedication (if any) .......................................................................................... 99 5.3.4. Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... 100 5.3.5. Table of Contents .......................................................................................... 100 5.3.6. List of Figures ................................................................................................ 100 5.3.7. List of Appendices (if any) ............................................................................ 100 5.3.8. Abstract (should finish in one or two paragraph)....................................... 101 5.4. Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 103 5.4.1. Background ................................................................................................... 104 5.4.2. Objective of the Research Project ................................................................ 104 5.4.3. Statement of the Problem ............................................................................ 105 5.4.4. Scope of the Research Project ...................................................................... 106 5.4.5. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study .................................................... 107 5.4.6. Significance of the Project ............................................................................ 108 5.4.7. Assumptions (if any) ..................................................................................... 108 5.4.8. Definition of Terms ....................................................................................... 109 5.5. Chapter 2: Literature Review............................................................................... 109 5.6. Chapter 3: Project Methodology ......................................................................... 111 5.6.1. Data Collection Methodology ...................................................................... 112 5.6.2. Analysis .......................................................................................................... 113 5.6.3. Design ............................................................................................................ 114 5.6.4. Experimentation ........................................................................................... 115 5.6.5. Implementation ............................................................................................ 115 5.6.6. Testing ........................................................................................................... 115 5.6.7. Evaluation...................................................................................................... 116 5.7. Conclusions and Future Work ............................................................................. 116 5.8. Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 116 5.9. Appendix ............................................................................................................... 118 5.10. User Guide ........................................................................................................ 118 5.11. Program Listings ............................................................................................... 118
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Chapter Six ........................................................................................................................... 119 6.0. Format on Writing Style ....................................................................................... 119 6.1. Title Page............................................................................................................... 119 6.2. Page Layout........................................................................................................... 119 6.3. Page Numbering ................................................................................................... 119 6.4. Spacing and Justification...................................................................................... 119 6.5. Font Face and Size ................................................................................................ 119 6.6. Paper size and margins ........................................................................................ 119 6.7. Line and paragraph spacing ................................................................................. 119 6.8. Font type and font size ........................................................................................ 119 Chapter Seven ...................................................................................................................... 121 7.0. Tables and Figures ................................................................................................ 121 7.1. Tables .................................................................................................................... 121 7.1.1. Table numbering and Table title.................................................................. 121 7.1.2. Row and column headings ........................................................................... 121 7.1.3. Paragraph spacing for table ......................................................................... 121 7.1.4. Figures within a column ............................................................................... 121 7.1.5. Table footnotes ............................................................................................. 121 7.2. Figures ................................................................................................................... 122 7.2.1. Figure numbering and title .......................................................................... 122 Chapter Eight ....................................................................................................................... 123 8.0. Pitfalls .................................................................................................................... 123 Chapter Nine ........................................................................................................................ 124 9.0. Supervision and Monitoring ................................................................................ 124 Chapter Ten.......................................................................................................................... 128 10.0. Research Project Assessment .......................................................................... 128 10.1. Background Preparation .................................................................................. 128 10.2. General Competence ....................................................................................... 128 10.3. Technical Achievement .................................................................................... 128 10.4. Report Submission............................................................................................ 128 10.5. General Evaluation Criteria and Procedures .................................................. 128 10.5.1. Quality of Research....................................................................................... 128 10.5.2. Potential Benefit ........................................................................................... 129 Chapter Eleven ..................................................................................................................... 130 11.0. Symposium........................................................................................................ 130 Chapter Twelve ................................................................................................................... 131 12.0. Grade Limits & Minimum Requirements ........................................................ 131 Chapter Thirteen ................................................................................................................. 132 13.0. Prize ................................................................................................................... 132
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Chapter Fourteen ................................................................................................................ 133 14.0. Students Research & Project Coordinator ...................................................... 133 Chapter Fifteen .................................................................................................................... 134 15.0. Timetable 2009/2010 ....................................................................................... 134 References ........................................................................................................................... 136 Index ..................................................................................................................................... 137

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7 FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10 FIGURE 11

Table of figures

15 15 37 48 48 66 66 99 99 121 122

Chapter One
1.0. Gateways to a Research Project
Here are some strategies to help you find a good picture of researching opportunity. Talking to instructors, advisors, and administrative staff in your area of interest have a paramount importance for research endeavor. Follow the following procedures for better benefits: Getting Started: o Begin by brainstorming topics, collecting information, taking a lot of notes, and asking a lot of questions. o Keep your notes and sources organized as you go. o Data gathering process makes the actual writing much easier. o When developing your topic, look for patterns and relationships. o See what conclusions you can draw. o Try discussing your ideas with classmates or your teacher. o A new perspective can help shake up your thinking, and keep your momentum going. Talk to professors: Before you approach professors, o Do your homework. o Read more. o Scan the abstracts from recent publications in your interest area. o When you introduce yourself, discuss your interests, qualifications, and expectations. o Have your rsum and transcripts ready. o You may want to interview other students who have worked with the Instructor. o Contact Instructors during their office hours or via email. Talk with other people in departments: You can talk with any or all of the following o Teaching assistants; o Lab assistants; o Departmental staff, o Academic or non-academic: o Advisors, o Secretaries, o Program directors, o Peers - students you know who have already participated in undergraduate research; o Peers - undergraduate student societies, whether departmental or outside etc. Attend or participate in any Research Symposiums Dont underestimate the course Research Methods and Evaluation Dont underestimate the courses CBTP I and CBTP II Consider summer professional practice at the end of your second academic year Exploit you library resources and key librarians Think of your future career planning Select your topic: Developing the research proposal will normally take place during many occasions, but may occur in consultation with others. Examples of existing research may be found in the professional/scholarly journal literature and sample

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projects in the department. Make sure that your topic falls under one or more of the following predefined Research Thematic Areas: Historical Perspectives Philosophy of Information Information and Communication Publishing and Communication Media Information Resources and Services Science and Technology Information Government Information Legal Information Health Information Humanities and Social Science Information Information Access Information Services and Access Information Sources Knowledge Organization and Mapping Archival and Museum Information Studies Documentations and Document Management Information Conservation and Preservation Documentations and Document Management Knowledge/Information Management Information Organization Information Retrieval Metadata Scholarly Communication /Bibliometrics Digital Resources Development and Management Automation Systems Digital Resources Data Modeling Information Architecture Information Conservation and Preservation Information Resource Development and Management Information Retrieval Information Systems Internet Studies Media Studies Multimedia Studies Metadata Semantic Web User Center Web Design Information and Users Communication Communication Studies Human, Information and Technology Interaction
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 Information and Communication Information Ethics Information Marketing and Literacy Information and Society Intellectual Freedom Intellectual Property Scholarly Management Information Resource Centers Management Knowledge Management (Organizational /personal) Organize Your Writing - Develop an outline to help you stay on track as you write, identifying your main points and what you want to conclude. Keep in mind basic essay and paper structure: The introduction should give your reader an idea of the essay's intent, including a basic statement of what the essay will discuss. o The body presents the evidence that supports your idea. Use concrete examples whenever and avoid generalities. o The conclusion should summarize and make sense of the evidence you presented in the body. The Rough Draft - You may find as you write that you end up with a different idea than the one you began with. o If your first topic or conclusion doesn't hold water, be open to changing it. o If necessary, re-write your outline to get yourself back on track. Brush up you communication skills: Get involved in writing: Go to departmental talk: Think outside the box: Don't overlook possibilities for cross-disciplinary work where your skills overlap with another fields of study. Follow the following extra and general tips and you will be fine: o Leave enough time to show your draft to others -- use the writing center, if possible. A fresh perspective can help you polish your paper, and catch inconsistencies and mistakes. o Describe a problem that is about the same size as your solution. Dont draw a dark picture of nuclear war, teen suicide and lethal air pollution if you are planning a modest neighborhood arts program for children. o Dont describe the absence of your project as the problem. "We dont have enough beds in our battered womens shelter" is not the problem. The problem is increased levels of domestic violence. More shelter beds is a solution. o Become familiar with the vocabulary of your subject. For example, when writing about fiction, drama, and poetry, critical writers use words such as: syntax, tone, attitude, voice, speaker, and thesis. o Refine and Proofread o When you're done, take a break so you can come back to your writing with fresh eyes. Ask yourself: Is the writing clear? Do the ideas make sense? Are all of your requirements fulfilled? Did you avoid repetition? Have I used proper grammar and spelling? How does it sound read out loud? o

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o o o

Remember the title and first paragraph are going to form a strong impression in the mind of the reviewer. Facts must lead logically and inevitably to the conclusion and/or the solution presented. Remember that proposal reviewers may come from a variety of disciplines and may not be familiar with your field of study. Reviewers may also have to compare proposals across disciplines and methodological lines. Keep this in mind when writing. Proposals should be directed toward a general audience (unless otherwise specified) and avoid excessive use of jargon!

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Chapter Two
2.0. Independent Research Project Proposal Writing
Every student's project proposal is different and all the advice given in these pages does not necessarily apply to every student. Check with your supervisor if you are not sure about any aspect of the process of writing up your research. The research proposal can serve many useful functions. The most

important is that it helps you to think out the research project you are about to undertake and predict any difficulties that might arise. For those who aren't quite sure what their focus will be, the research proposal can be a space to explore options, perhaps with one proposal for each potential topic (which can then be more easily compared and evaluated than when they are still just ideas in one's head). Research proposals can be effective starting places to discuss projects with your Advisor too. The Advisor who is initially skeptical about a project may be able to imagine it more easily after reading a well written research proposal (this doesn't mean he or she will approve the topic, especially if there are significant potential difficulties that you haven't considered).

2.1.

Outline for the Proposal Writing

This manual assumes that you will end up with at least ten major parts: Preliminary Pages Title Page Approval Sheet Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Appendices (if any) Project Summary Section 1: Introduction Objective of the Study Statement of the Problem Research Questions and or Hypotheses Scope of the Study Limitation and Delimitation of the Study Significance of the Study Assumptions (if any) Definition of Terms Section 2: Literature Review Section 3: Research Methodology Research Method Used Population of the Study Sampling Techniques and Sample Size Instrumentations Procedure for Data Collection Statistical Methods for the Study
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Section 4: Data Analysis, Results and Dissemination Section 5: Budgeting Section 6: Action plan Section 7: Conclusion Bibliography Appendices

2.2.

Preliminary Pages
2.2.1. Title Page
Institution Name Title By Submitted to: An Independent Research/A Research Project Proposal Submitted to the Department of Information Science, College of Engineering and Technology, Jimma University, in meeting the preliminary research requirement for partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor in Information Science. Jimma, Ethiopia January 2009

Figure 1

Note: Give your project a working title, which may or may not become the title of your paper. This should be a short phrase describing the subject of the proposal. The title of the project
must be brief, scientifically or technically valid, intelligible to a scientifically or technically literate reader, and suitable for use in the public press. NSF may edit the title of a project prior to making an award

2.2.2. Approval Sheet

This Independent Research/Research Project Proposal en-titled .. has been read and approved as meeting the preliminary research requirements of the Department of Information Science in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Information Science, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia. Research and Scholarly Communication Management Team Leader _______________________________________________________________ Principal Advisor _____________________________________________________________________ Advisors ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 2

Note: When the proposal is approved or accepted, you begin your research project with more confidence, especially if the department council has indicated their enthusiasm for your work. Since approval represents a sort of contract, you need to consider how to handle changes since some change is likely as the research unfolds. Note that substantial changes will mean a return to the approver for another approval. 15

2.2.3. Acknowledgement Acknowledgement in scientific literature writing is a statement of gratitude for friends, family, instructors, advisors, organizations etc for assistance in producing a specific work. Receiving a credit by way of acknowledgment indicates that the person or organization did
not have a direct hand in producing the work in question, but may have contributed criticism, or encouragement to the performer(s). Apart from citation, which is not usually considered to be an acknowledgment, but acknowledgment of conceptual support is widely considered to be the most important for identifying intellectual debt.

2.2.4. Table of Content A table of contents, may be headed simply "Contents," is an organized list of divisions (chapters or articles) and the pages on which they start or the place where they may be found in the order in which the parts appear. The contents usually includes the titles or descriptions of the first-level headers, such as chapter titles in longer works, and often includes second-level or section titles (A-heads) within the chapters as well, and occasionally even third-level titles (subsections or B-heads). The depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal reports (ten or more pages and being too long to put into a memo or letter) also have tables of contents. Documents of fewer than ten pages do not require tables of contents, but often have a short list of contents at the beginning. Table of Contents as a gateway through the document shall automatically be indexed or generated. 2.2.5. List of Figures Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of figures to locate visual information in a certain body of document. The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in a research documents. Figures concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence. Often Advisors, reviewers and readers review them independently of other sections of a report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways to include them. Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in Arabic number through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two parts, the first part referring to the section number: for example, "Figure 3-5" for the fifth figure in Chapter 3. Be sure the figure captions are descriptive. Example: List of Figures Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Information Management Cycle Metadata Characteristics Lotkas Citation Analysis Shannons Models of Communication Knowledge Spectrum 3 5 6 8 10
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2.2.6. List of Appendices Any literary matter added to a document, but not necessarily essential to its completeness, and thus distinguished from supplement, which is intended to supply deficiencies and correct inaccuracies. Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of appendices to locate some extra/detail information attached as if by being hung on or as an appendage. Appendices are supplementary materials usually attached at the end of a piece of writing. 2.2.7. Project Summary

The proposal must contain a summary of the proposed activity suitable for publication, not more than one page in length. It should not be an abstract of the proposal, but rather a self-contained description of the activity that would result if the proposal were accepted. The summary should be written in the third person and include a statement of objectives and methods to be employed. It must clearly address in separate statements (within the one-page summary): the intellectual merit of the proposed activity; and the broader impacts resulting from the proposed activity. It should be informative to other persons working in the same or related fields and, insofar as possible, understandable to a scientifically or technically literate lay reader. Proposals that do not separately address both merit review criteria within the one-page Project Summary will be returned without review.

2.3.

Section 1: Introduction

Explain your interest in and experience with this topic. Describe your any previous research articles readings conducted on this or related topics and any classes you have taken on this or related topics. If you have personal experience that has led you to want to do more research, describe that here too. Be short, fashionable and stylish. Clearly support your statement with documentation and references, and include a review of the literature that supports the need for your research or creative endeavor. A discussion of present understanding and/or state of knowledge concerning the question or a discussion of the context of the scholarly or creative work is clearly described.

2.3.1. Objective of the Study

Objectives are specifically for targets within the general goal. Objectives are time related to achieve a certain task. Objectives are measurable activities to achieve goals; the end points envisioned for the proposed project. These objectives might be, for example, development of a specified measurement capability that meets a prescribed accuracy, data rate, instrument packaging characteristics (size, weight, etc.), and other possible requirements. The objectives section of a proposal is typically very brief, usually a half-page at most. This is because the rationale for objectives could also be explained in the problem statement, while the ways of achieving the objectives should be explained in the
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methodology section. Indicating both the general and specific objectives of the project will be important. The General objectives provide a short statement of the development goal being pursued by the research. The Specific objectives are operational in nature. They may indicate specific types of knowledge to be produced, certain audiences to be reached, and certain forms of capacity to be reinforced. These are the objectives against which the success of the project will be judged. It is important to distinguish the specific objectives from the means of achieving them.

2.3.2. Statement of the Problem

Explain what you hope your research will find or show. State your question or series of questions before you begin your research. After you have conducted significant research you should be able to answer your question(s) in one or two sentences, which may become the thesis of the final paper. Generally this section should normally make up one of the significant parts of the proposal. It should describe the problem that is to be investigated and the questions that will guide the research process. Note that proper justification of the importance of the research questions to be addressed requires some sense of the likely contribution to knowledge that the research will make and its place in current debate or technological advance. Often, this can be presented in the form of research hypotheses to be tested. This section should provide a brief overview of the literature and research done in the field related to the problem, and of the gaps that the proposed research is intended to fill. To show the importance of the problem, this section may discuss such points as: How the research relates to the development priorities of the country or countries concerned; The scientific importance of the problem; The magnitude of the problem and how the research results will contribute to its solution; The special importance of the project for vulnerable social groups; and The need to build up research capacity in the proposed area of research.

2.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses

If you are articulating the research questions state explicitly what question(s) your research will address. A hypothesis is sometimes described as an educated guess. That's not the same thing as a guess and not really a good description of a hypothesis either. Let's try working through an example.

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If you put an ice cube on a plate and place it on the table, what will happen? A very young child might guess that it will still be there in a couple of hours. Most people would agree with the hypothesis that: An ice cube will melt in less than 30 minutes. You could put it and watch the ice cube melt and think you've proved a hypothesis. But you will have missed some important steps. For a good project you need to do quite a bit of research before any experimenting. Start by finding some information about how and why water melts. You could read more, or even ask an expert. For our example, you could learn about how temperature and air pressure can change the state of water. Don't forget that elevation above sea level changes air pressure too. Now, using all your research, try to restate that hypothesis. An ice cube will melt in less than 30 minutes in a room at sea level with a temperature of 20C or 68F. But wait a minute. What is the ice made from? What if the ice cube was made from salt water or you sprinkled salt on a regular ice cube? Time for some more research. Would adding salt make a difference? Turns out it does. Would other chemicals change the melting time? Using this new information, let's try that hypothesis again. An ice cube made with tap water will melt in less than 30 minutes in a room at sea level with a temperature of 20C or 68F. Does that seem like an educated guess? No, it sounds like you are stating the obvious. At this point, it is obvious only because of your research. You haven't actually done the experiment. Now it's time to run the experiment to prove the hypothesis. A hypothesis isn't an educated guess. It is a tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation. Once you do the experiment and prove the hypothesis, it becomes part of scientific theory. State your hypotheses about the question. You must state at least two. You are strongly recommended that you should frame your hypothesis using the following format: If (premise), then (prediction), because (mechanism). In the statements of questions and hypothesis one should make sure that the followings are considered: Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are there? Is there a relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of the assumptions underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data, hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework. A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative

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statement of the relations between two or more variables (Kerlinger, 1979; Krathwohl, 1988). Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the study, the nature of the design and methodology, and the audience of the research (at times even the taste and preference of committee members, particularly the Chair). The practice of using hypotheses was derived from using the scientific method in social science inquiry. They have philosophical advantages in statistical testing, as researchers should be and tend to be conservative and cautious in their statements of conclusions (Armstrong, 1974).

Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements. Literary nulla no difference form in terms of theoretical constructs. For example, There is no relationship between support services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college women. Or, There is no difference in school achievement for high and low self-regulated students. Operational nulla no difference form in terms of the operation required to test the hypothesis. For example, There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-aged college women use the student union and their persistence at the college after their freshman year. Or, There is no difference between the mean grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and lower quartiles of the distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory. The operational null is generally the preferred form of hypothesis-writing. Literary alternativea form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you hope the results will show. For example, The more that nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will persist academically. Or, High self-regulated students will achieve more in their classes than low self-regulated students. Operational alternativeSimilar to the literary alternative except that the operations are specified. For example, The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the student union, the more they will persist at the college after their freshman year. Or, Students in the upper quartile of the Selfregulated Inventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade point averages than do students in the lower quartile.

In general, the null hypothesis is used if theory/literature does not suggest a hypothesized relationship between the variables under investigation; the alternative is generally reserved for situations in which theory/research suggests a relationship or directional interplay. Be prepared to interpret any possible outcomes with respect to the questions or hypotheses. It will be helpful if you visualize in your minds eye the tables (or other summary devices) that you expect to result from your research (Guba, 1961). Questions and hypotheses are testable propositions deduced and directly derived from theory (except in grounded theory studies and similar types of qualitative inquiry).
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Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent and independent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader. Be excruciatingly consistent in your use of terms. If appropriate, use the same pattern of wording and word order in all hypotheses. Example: Hypothesis for the relation between arousal level and eye blink rate: In this hypothesis, the statement could be the blink rate decreases as arousal level decreases when arousal level decreases below a certain level. However, with visual tasks, the blink rate tends to temporarily increase as arousal level decrease. In an extended hypothesis, when arousal level increases markedly, the blink rate also increases.

2.3.4. Scope of the Study

Scope of study is a general outline of what the study (i.e. research undertaking) will cover as a tool used to define and group a projects discrete work elements in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project. It provides the necessary framework for detailed cost estimating and control along with providing guidance for schedule development and control. Additionally the scope is a dynamic tool and can be revised and updated as needed by the researcher. It also provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and control of a work and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established. Searching for resources on your subject will be more effective if you have already defined the scope of your research. You may find it helpful to consider the following questions: Does the research cover a particular time period? Does the study cover a specific geographical area? If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place of origin are to be included? Are all dates of publication to be included? Is the research going to cover publications from other countries? Will the research include other languages and scripts? Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political, psychological, etc.

2.3.5. Limitations and Delimitations of the study

Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher. The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent in the design. Generally, these will reflect anticipated inadequacies in regard to internal validity of results. A study has internal validity if the confounding variables have been converted to either controlled or randomized variables and if the research is designed in
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such a way that it is possible to estimate the size of the random variation so that the "experimental" variation may be compared to it for significance. The goal is to recognize inherent threats to internal validity in the study plan. Any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned. Describe the problems you expect to encounter and how you hope to solve them. For example, texts might be unavailable, necessitating travel to other libraries or use of inter-library loan facilities; people you had hoped to interview might be unavailable or unwilling to participate, necessitating that you select other interviewees or change the focus; internet sites might be down or no longer available, etc. (Try to imagine every possible problem so that you have contingency plans and the project doesn't become disrupt.) Document the limitations that could prevent you from successfully completing this project, for example a lack of reference material or limited access to required resources. Another constraint might be the amount time you have available to do research. Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned clearly that it deals with such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and instrumentation. For example, the study may focus on children in only one grade level or measure aptitude using only a group intelligence test. External validity deals with the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to different subjects, settings, experimenters, and so on; the study has external validity. However, there are many threats to external validity which cause the results of a study to be specific to some limited group of people and/or set of conditions. These threats are (a) those dealing with generalizations to populations (What population of subjects can be expected to behave in the same way as did the sample subjects?), and (b) those dealing with the "environment" of the study (Under what conditions, i.e., settings, treatments, experimenters, dependent variables, and so on, can the same results be expected?). The delimitations of a study are those characteristics that limit the scope (define the boundaries) of the inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions that were made throughout the development of the proposal. Among these are the choice of objectives and questions, variables of interest, alternative theoretical perspectives that could have been adopted, etc. The first limiting step was the choice of problem itself; implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected or screened off from view. Go back and review each of these decisions. You will want to prepare a statement of purpose or intent that clearly sets out what is meant to be accomplished by the study but that also includes a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your decisions for excluding certain territory should have been based on such criteria as "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; too problematic because..."; "not feasible" and the like. Make this reasoning explicit. Consider the example of an important study conducted during the 1980s: Imagine a cross-case comparison study of state-level education policy systems that broke entirely
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new conceptual ground in the field of policy studies by exploring for the first time the role of political cultures and prevailing public values in policy making. This study generated detailed profiles of political cultures and public values vis a vis how they differentially shaped education policy choices in each of the states included in the study. There were a number of interesting research questions that could have been asked but were not pursued, such as, "how are the public schools affected by different policy choices on the same educational issues?", or "do these differential policy choices evidence themselves in different educational outcomes among public school students?" These questions were not pursued in this particular study because (a) the focus of the inquiry was on developing a new theory of how policy systems work, not on their outcomes, and (b) the inclusion of these questions, while interesting, would have been beyond the reach of the research team, given limited time and money for conducting the study.

2.3.6. Significance of the study

Explain why this topic is worth considering, or this question or series of questions is worth answering. Answer the following questions: Why should your instructor let you select this topic? What do you hope to learn from it? What will this new knowledge add to the field of knowledge that already exists on this topic? What new perspective will you bring to the topic? What use might your final research paper have for others in this field or in the general public? Who might you decide to share your findings with once the project is complete?

2.3.7. Assumptions (if any)

An assumption is a proposition that is taken for granted, as if it were true based upon presupposition without preponderance of the facts. Assumption may also refer to: In logic, natural deduction systems are defined as an assumption is made in the expectation that it will be discharged in due course via a separate argument. Mathematical modeling can be used to map the outcome of different assumptions on the system being modeled. In business planning and business plans, an assumption is an assertion about some characteristic of the future that underlies the current operations or plans of an organization

Example: Researchers usually assume subjects will give 100% effort. Researchers assume data collection instruments are valid and reliable based upon their previous use.

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2.3.8. Definition of terms

This section of your work contains systematically organized scientific terms in the body with their appropriate definitions. Definition of Terms is a very brief section consisting of a series of definitions of the key terms or concepts found in the proposal/research. Since some words like "recreation" or "leisure" may have various meanings, it is important to clarify to the reader the way they are used in the proposal. Unfamiliar or technical words may also require an exact definition.

2.4.

Section 2: Literature Review

The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area (Wiersma, 1995, p. 406). The literature review accomplishes several important things. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings. It frames the problem earlier identified.

Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of important recent substantive and methodological developments. Delineate the jumping-off place for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known? Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the area or that what has been done is too extensive to permit easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as indications that the writer is not really familiar with the literature. In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of exemplarsthe literature selected should be pertinent and relevant (APA, 2001). Select and reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly or briefly. Committees may want a section outlining your search strategythe procedures you used and sources you investigated (e.g., databases, journals, test banks, experts in the field) to compile your literature review. You will be rewarded for: providing an introductory paragraph which explains what is discussed in the chapter and why it is necessary to include this as part of the dissertation/project demonstrating that you conducted a thorough literature search and have read widely demonstrating that you have read up to date material summarizing what you have read thematically (and not author by author)
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highlighting trends in the discussion of your topic, for example over time; by geography; by sector commenting on the value of what you have read (without discussing the actual topic) organizing your findings from the literature review to fit in with the main themes of your research project identifying gaps in the literature demonstrating that you assimilated and understood what you have read and what you have written

2.5.

Section 3: Research Methodology

Describe the kind of research you will conduct to complete this project. Explain how you will conduct your research in as much detail as possible. If you will consult others (such as a statistician, an ethnographer, or a librarian) explain what role they will serve and how you hope they will enhance your development of an appropriate methodology for this project. Discuss the kinds of sources you hope to consult and the methods you will use to extract and process the information you gather in as much detail as is possible at this stage. (As the project is underway you might find the need to revise your methodology, explore new types of source material, and/or adopt new methods of gathering and processing data. If this happens, revise this section of the proposal.) Students often make the mistake of assuming that the methodology only refers to the methods used to collect data. A description of a projects methodology must include a discussion of the overall approach to the research and discuss analysis and interpretation as well as data collection. Concerning your presentation strategy you can follow the following principles: Present tense is used for relating what other authors say and for discussing the literature, theoretical concepts, methods, etc. o In her article on biodiversity, Jones stipulates that .

In addition, use the present tense when you present your observations on the literature. o However, on the important question of extinction, Jones remains silent.

Past tense is used for recounting events, results found, etc. o Jones and Green conducted experiments over a ten-year period. They determined that it was not possible to recreate the specimen.

Future tense is used for describing how you will accomplish your research. o This thesis will challenge Jones and Greens conclusions about biodiversity and will propose a new approach to the problem of species extinction.

Research will be conducted for the purpose of discovering, interpreting, enhancing, developing standards to systematize measurements, and furthering advancement of knowledge. Methodology is the rationale behind collection of concepts, ideas, theories, and assumptions.
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Combined, a good research methodology is a technique of collecting data systematically. For all those wondering how to write a good research methodology, try using the following. Quantitative Research Methodology Quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation (Descriptive - What is the current situation? And Experimental - What is the cause?) used to measure the feelings and thoughts of people, and actions of the way and why things are done. Everything that is measurable can be used to gather quantitative data. This method of research is used in analysis of natural sciences and social sciences subjects. The quantitative concept can be applied to physics, biology, sociology and journalism. Structured questionnaires and interviews, one-on-one and telephonic data gathering are some of the common ways of collection data for quantitative research.

Qualitative Research Methodology Qualitative research (Historical- What was the situation? And Ethnographic - What is the current situation?) is used to gain an in-depth insight into matters that affect human behavior. It is a study that reflects more on the why and how of decision making, by studying people's culture, value systems, attitudes, behaviors, concerns, motivations, aspirations, etc. Qualitative research is multi-focal in its reasoning, exploring, questioning and answering; hence, it is extremely useful in market research, constructing business decisions and policies, enhancing communication and facilitating research. Unlike quantitative data collection, a method of qualitative research is based on unstructured interviews and recordings, and feedback. Evaluative research methodology usually uses standard social research methods, in terms of service quality assessment, process evaluation and standards for evaluative purposes. The main purpose served by evaluative research is to provide useful feedback for decision making. Most researches prposal fail because they contain information that is irrelevant or one that seems not to answer what it set out to. How to write a good research methodology can be best answered, if one, at the end of every stage, checks for accomplishments and feels that they are closing in with each stage towards solving the problem or understanding the subject highlighted in their research. A good research methodology demands patience, persistence, insight, understanding, curiosity and perseverance.

2.5.1. Research Method used

Methodology can be the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline or the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline or a particular procedure or set of procedures. Methodology includes a philosophically coherent collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry.

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There are many different types of research methods, also called research designs. In real life, some studies may combine the features of several research designs or may contain elements not included below. Descriptive: The term descriptive is self-explanatory and terminology synonymous to this type of research is: describe, write on, depict. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it. Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions and degree in detail of the present situation. The emphasis is on describe rather than on judge or interpret. Because the total population during a specific investigation can not be contemplated as a whole, researchers make use of the demarcation of the population or of the selection of a representative test sample. Test sampling therefore forms an integral part of descriptive research. In descriptive research the following steps should be included: Problem selection and problem formulation. The research problem being tested should be explicitly formulated in the form of a question. o Literature search. Intensive literature search regarding the formulated problem enables the researcher to divide the problem into smaller units. o Problem reduction. o Hypothesis formulation. o Test sampling. The researcher should determine the size of the test sample. o Information retrieval. The application of appropriate information retrieval techniques to comply with the criteria set for authenticity and competency is relevant. o General planning. Any research requires sound planning. o Proposal writing. The proposal entails how the reproduction of factual information, the interpretation of data, conclusions and recommendations can be articulated. Experiment: Participants randomly assigned to different groups being studied. Groups are treated differently in one or a few very specific ways--the independent variable. Behavior resulting from this treatment difference is measured--the dependent variable. If one group gets a specific treatment and ones does not, usually the treated group is called the experimental group and other groups are called control groups. Conditions other than the independent variable are held as constant as possible for all groups. These constant conditions are called controls. If participants are their own control group, that is, they receive both research treatments; the design is called a within-subjects experiment. Conclusions can be taken to indicate a cause and effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Because of this, the experiment is in a class by itself and it is a very special type of research procedure. o

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In order to do experimental research, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms dependent and independent variables. In experimental research it is a prerequisite that the researcher should be able to manipulate the variable and then to assess what the influence of the manipulation on the variable was. A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on different values. Objects are usually not considered as variables - but their characteristics are. As example the following can be considered: a transparency is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics of the transparency are variables, for example the color, design etc. In other words, a transparency as an object can take on different values. Independent variable: The independent variable is the circumstances or characteristics which the researcher can manipulate in his effort to determine what their connection with the observed phenomenon. This means that the researcher has direct control over the variable. As example of an independent variable, are study methods. o Dependent variable: The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the circumstances or characteristics that change, disappear or appear when the researcher implements the independent variable. For example, learning content that should be mastered (student performance) is the dependent variable, while the manipulation of study methods by means of different teaching methods, is the independent variable. Quasi-experiment: Participants achieve membership in different groups as a result of characteristics other than random assignment, for example: gender, age, socioeconomic status, athletic ability, or ethnic identification. A link may be found between one or more of these characteristics and some outcome variables, but cause and effect relationships are not clearly identified. Without random assignment to groups, a researcher cannot clearly demonstrate cause. Co-relational study: In the most general sense, a correlational study investigates the relationship between two variables. Usually the data are reported as correlation coefficients. Strength and direction (positive or negative) of relationships can be demonstrated by correlational studies but causal links remain an open question. Longitudinal study: A longitudinal study follows a group composed of the same people across a period of the life span. The behavior of these individuals is observed and/or measured at several intervals over time in an attempt to study the changes in their behavior. Longitudinal studies may cover a short time, such as a few weeks, or a long time, such as the entire life span. Longitudinal studies may additionally employ other methods, such as quasi-experimental or correlational approaches, but the defining characteristic is that the same people are studied repeatedly across time. Cross sectional study: A cross sectional study usually examines groups of different people who belong to different age groups as a means of studying behavior development across part or all of the life span. These studies can usually be done more easily and quickly than longitudinal studies but the o
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resulting data may be of lower quality. More rarely, the term cross sectional may be used to describe studies which divide and examine segments of society based on variables other than age, such as income, educational level or family size. Survey: A survey is a structured list of questions presented to people. Surveys may be written or oral, face to face or over the phone. It is possible to cheaply survey large numbers of people, but the data quality may be lower than some other methods because people do not always answer questions accurately. Interview: An interview may be highly structured or it may involve less structured narrative. It may include survey methodology. It usually involves people responding orally to questions or talking about their thoughts on a topic. Case study: A case study involves extensive observations of a few individuals. Data collection may include watching behavior, interviews and record searching. Case studies may be retrospective and/or prospective. Usually case studies are employed where the behavior or situation is so rare that other methods, involving larger groups of participants, are not possible. Naturalistic observation: Naturalistic observations can range from unstructured observations of humans or other animals to situations involving hypothesis testing or some manipulations of a natural setting. If you wanted to know if males are likely to hold doors open for females, you could watch until you had seen a number of natural occurrences of this, or you could get a female helper to follow males into buildings and watch to see what happens. It can be difficult to precisely define the natural setting, particularly when the participants are humans. Placing an actual research procedure into this category or others can involve a judgment call which might be debatable. Demonstration: An unsystematically engineered observation of behavior, sometimes involving only one participant. The demonstration provides only very weak evidence. It is not a recognized research method but it is a term which can be quite useful as a descriptor for studies that seem to employ no established method.

2.5.2. Population of the Study

As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. Indicate who will they apply to, when you've finished your research. Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study will be all regular students who access the internet during the sampling time frame", or "...all elites in the city of Jimma", or "...all potential to the service". While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.
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2.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population. The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validitythe extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other situations with other people (Shavelson, 1988). Sampling is critical to external validitythe extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priority. Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validitythe extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated. Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be constructed (Shavelson, 1988). Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative. One must ask oneself, How representative is the sample of the survey population (the group from which the sample is selected) and how representative is the survey population of the target population (the larger group to which we wish to generalize)? When a sample is drawn out of convenience (a nonprobability sample), rationale and limitations must be clearly provided. If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or other relevant group membership). Detail procedures to follow to obtain informed consent and ensure anonymity and/or confidentiality. Note that this applies if you distributed a questionnaire or have based your work on case studies. What is sampling theory? Why is it important to research design? What are the different methods of sampling? What are their advantages and disadvantages? Which sampling method did you use for this survey? Why did you choose this method? How did you determine the size of your sample?
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There are three primary kinds of samples: the convenience, the judgment sample, and the random sample. They differ in the manner in which the elementary units are chosen. Quota sample (Non-probability sample) The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of several categories. The convenient sample (Non-probability sample) A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a population for observation. The judgment sample (Non-probability sample) A judgment sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. The random sample (Probability sample) This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as a probability sample. This is the type of sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles. For example, if you want to select 10 players randomly from a population of 100, you can write their names, fold them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case, every name had any equal chance of being picked. Random numbers can also be used. A simple random sample: A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly. Instead of using a least of random numbers, data collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen randomly as discussed below. such a procedure is called systematic random sampling. A systematic random sample: A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is obtained. For example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get 5. Randomly select any number between 1 and five. Suppose the number you have picked is 4, that will be your starting number. So student number 4 has been selected. From there you will select every 5th name until
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you reach the last one, number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected students. A stratified sample: A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C. A cluster sample: A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For example, a cluster may be some thing like a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the elementary schools in New York State are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, then every school selected becomes a cluster. If you interest is to interview teachers on their opinion of some new program which has been introduced, then all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed. Though very economical cluster sampling is very susceptible to sampling bias. Like for the above case, you are likely to get similar responses from teachers in one school due to the fact that they interact with one another.

2.5.4. Instrumentations
Selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of constructs; this is a crucial step in the proposal. For example, it is at this step that a literary conception such as self-efficacy is related to school achievement becomes scores on the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale are related to Grade Point Average. Strictly speaking, results of your study will be directly relevant only to the instrumental or operational statements (Guba, 1961). There are more than six common ways to get information. These are: literature searches, talking with people, focus groups discussion, personal interviews, telephone surveys, and mail surveys/questionnaire. Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers. The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves. It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records the respondents reply on the interview schedule. Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible. Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being used on a large scale.

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Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the number of research questions increases. Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages. Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make people apprehensive. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-man bias. The researcher's own opinions will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence the respondent. Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument. There are good and bad questions. The qualities of a good question are as follows: Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purpose of a survey is to find out information. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choice items are the most popular type of survey questions because they are generally the easiest for a respondent to answer and the easiest to analyze. Have mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no ambiguity in the mind of the respondent. Produces variability of responses. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Does not imply a desired answer. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five items.

Firstly, respondents will be asked to complete the questionnaire with the researcher not present. This is a questionnaire (self-administered) could be refers to any questionnaire that a respondent completes without the aid of the researcher.
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Secondly, respondents could be asked to complete the questionnaire (controlled or structured) by verbally responding to questions in the presence of the researcher.

Format of the questionnaire: The cover letter is an essential part of the survey. To a large degree, the cover letter will affect whether or not the respondent completes the questionnaire. It is important to maintain a friendly tone and keep it as short as possible. The importance of the cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides an opportunity to persuade the respondent to complete the survey. If the questionnaire can be completed in less than five minutes, the response rate can be increased by mentioning this in the cover letter. Describe why the study is being done (briefly) and identify the sponsors. Dont forget the following to mention: o Mention the incentive. (A good incentive is a copy of the results). o Mention inclusion of a stamped, self-addressed return envelope. o Encourage prompt response without using deadlines. o Describe your confidentiality/anonymity policy. o Give the name and phone number of someone they can call with questions. For instance, you might have decided to understand the characteristics of people who visit your website, or of some other business-related question. Developing a focused and effective questionnaire will help you to efficiently and accurately pinpoint the information that will help you make more informed decisions. Developing a questionnaire is as much an art as it is a science. And just as an artist has a variety of different colors to choose from in the palette, you have a variety of different question formats with which to question an accurate picture of your customers, clients and issues that are important to them. Therefore, questions could be articulated using the following one or multiple forms: The Dichotomous Question The Multiple Choice Questions Rank Order Scaling The Rating Scale The Semantic Differential Scale Likert Rating Scale The Staple Scale The Constant Sum Question The Open-Ended Question The Demographic Question The Dichotomous Question The dichotomous question is generally a "yes/no" question. An example of the dichotomous question is: Have you ever purchased a product or service from our website? Yes
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No The Multiple Choice Questions The multiple-choice question consists of three or more exhaustive, mutually exclusive categories. Multiple choice questions can ask for single or multiple answers. In the following example, we could ask the respondent to select exactly one answer from the 7 possible, exactly 3 of the 7, or as many as 3 of the 7 (1, 2, or 3 answers can be selected). Example: A multiple-choice question to find out how a person first heard about your website is: How did you first hear about our web site? Television Radio Newspaper Magazine Word-of-mouth Internet Other: Please Specify _______________ Rank Order Scaling Rank order scaling questions allow a certain set of brands or products to be ranked based upon a specific attribute or characteristic. Perhaps we know that Toyota, Honda, Mazda, and Ford are most likely to be purchased. You may request that the options be ranked based upon a particular attribute. Ties may or may not be allowed. If you allow ties, several options will have the same scores. Example: Based upon what you have seen, heard, and experienced, please rank the following brands according to their reliability. Place a "1" next to the brand that is most reliable, a "2" next to the brand that is next most reliable, and so on. Remember, no two cars can have the same ranking. __ Honda __ Toyota __ Mazda __ Ford The Rating Scale A rating scale question requires a person to rate a product or brand along a welldefined, evenly spaced continuum. Rating scales are often used to measure the direction and intensity of attitudes. The following is an example of a comparative rating scale question: Which of the following categories best describes your last experience purchasing a product or service on our website? Would you say that your experience was? Very pleasant Somewhat pleasant Neither pleasant nor unpleasant
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Somewhat unpleasant Very unpleasant The Semantic Differential Scale The semantic differential scale asks a person to rate a product, brand, or company based upon a seven-point rating scale that has two bi-polar adjectives at each end. The following is an example of a semantic differential scale question. Notice that unlike the rating scale, the semantic differential scale does not have a neutral or middle selection. A person must choose, to a certain extent, one or the other adjective. Example: Would you say our web site is: (7) Very Attractive (6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) Very Unattractive Likert Rating Scale Likert scales are the most widely used survey scale in questionnaires and survey research. A likert type question asks survey respondents to state their level of agreement with a statement. A likert survey example question might be: Example: Satisfied with our website? Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agrees nor disagrees Agree Strongly agree My suggestion to all survey writers, particularly those who are new to writing surveys, is to word your survey questions so you can use common scales. Here are lists of common scales:
Acceptability Totally unacceptable, Unacceptable, Slightly unacceptable, Neutral, Slightly acceptable, Acceptable, Perfectly acceptable Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree or disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree Never use, Almost never, Occasionally/Sometimes, Almost every time, Frequently use Absolutely inappropriate, Inappropriate, Slightly inappropriate, Neutral, Slightly appropriate, Appropriate, Absolutely appropriate

Agreement

Amount of Use Appropriateness

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Awareness Beliefs

Not at all aware, Slightly aware, Somewhat aware, Moderately aware, Extremely aware Very untrue of what I believe, Untrue of what I believe, Somewhat untrue of what I believe, Neutral, Somewhat true of what I believe, True of what I believe, Very true of what I believe Not at all concerned, Slightly concerned, Somewhat concerned, Moderately concerned, Extremely concerned Not at all familiar, Slightly familiar, Somewhat familiar, Moderately familiar, Extremely familiar Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Always Not at all importance, Slightly important, Somewhat important, Very important, Extremely important Not at all likely, Slightly likely, Somewhat likely, Moderately likely, Very likely Not a priority, Low priority, Medium priority, High priority, Essential Not probable, Somewhat improbable, Neutral, Somewhat probable, Very probable Very poor, Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent Very untrue of me, Untrue of me, Somewhat untrue of me, Neutral, Somewhat true of me, True of me, Very true of me Completely dissatisfied, Mostly dissatisfied, Somewhat dissatisfied, Neither satisfied or dissatisfied, Somewhat satisfied, Mostly satisfied, Completely satisfied Not at all satisfied, Slightly satisfied, Moderately satisfied, Very satisfied, Extremely satisfied

Concern

Familiarity

Frequency Importance

Likelihood Priority Probability Quality Reflective

Satisfaction

Satisfaction

Figure 3

The Staple Scale The staple scale asks a person to rate a brand, product, or service according to a certain characteristic on a scale from +5 to -5, indicating how well the characteristic describes the product or service. The following is an example of a staple scale question: When thinking about Data Mining Technologies, Inc. (DMT), do you believe that the word "innovative" aptly describes or poorly describes the company? On a scale of +5 to 5 with +5 being "very good description of DMT" and -5 being "poor description of DMT," how do you rank DMT according to the word "innovative"? (+5) Describes very well (+4) (+3) (+2) (+1) Innovative
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(-1) (-2) (-3) (-4) (-5) Poorly Describes The Constant Sum Question A constant sum question permits collection of "ratio" data, meaning that the data is able to express the relative value or importance of the options (option A is twice as important as option B). Example: The following question asks you to divide 100 points between a set of options to show the value or importance you place on each option. Distribute the 100 points giving the more important reasons a greater number of points. The computer will prompt you if your total does not equal exactly 100 points. When thinking about the reasons you purchased our Target Find data mining software, please rate the following reasons according to their relative importance. Seamless integration with other software __________ User friendliness of software __________ Ability to manipulate algorithms __________ Level of pre- and post-purchase service __________ Level of value for the price __________ Convenience of purchase/quick delivery __________ Total 100 points This type of question is used when you are relatively sure of the reasons for purchase, or you want input on a limited number of reasons you feel are important. Questions must sum to 100 points. The Open-Ended Question The open-ended question seeks to explore the qualitative, in-depth aspects of a particular topic or issue. It gives a person the chance to respond in detail. Although open-ended questions are important, they are time-consuming and should not be overused. An example of an open-ended question might be: (If the respondent indicates they did not find what they were looking for...) What products of services were you looking for that were not found on our website? Open-ended questions could appear in one of the following forms: Completely unstructured - For example, What is your opinion of questionnaires? Word association - Words are presented and the respondent mentions the first word that comes to mind. Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incomplete sentence. For example, The most important consideration in my decision to buy a new house is . . . Story completion - Respondents complete an incomplete story.
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Picture completion - Respondents fill in an empty conversation balloon. Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain a picture or make up a story about what they think is happening in the picture

The Demographic Question Demographic questions are an integral part of any questionnaire. They are used to identify characteristics such as age, gender, income, race, geographic place of residence, number of children, and so forth. For example demographic questions will help you to classify the difference between product users and non-users. Demographic data helps you paint a more accurate picture of the group of persons you are trying to understand. And by better understanding the type of people who use or are likely to use your product, you can allocate promotional resources to reach these people, in a more cost effective manner.

2.5.5. Procedure for Data Collection

Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include survey administration procedures, interview or observation procedures. Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be employed. If appropriate, discuss how you obtained entr. Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to follow and make sure you have described the following. What was the purpose of collecting and analyzing the data? Why was it interesting/useful to look at this topic? Can you summaries the basic questions the research set out to answer in a few straightforward statements? What role did the findings of the literature review have in determining the data collection requirements? Did you need to collect quantitative or qualitative data? Why/why not?

Discussion of alternative methods of data collection Which methods might have been appropriate for data collection (e.g. observation, questionnaire etc.)? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods of data collection with reference to your own research project? (This may be best summarized as a table.)

Discussion of the question content and data required For each of the basic research statements given in "data required" explain how questions asked of the sample generated the data required. Can you use elements of the literature review to strengthen your arguments for using certain questions (e.g. because there are gaps in the literature)? Did you take any decisions to limit the scope of data collection and, if so, why?

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2.5.6. Statistical Methods for the Study

Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately (e.g. case study, grounded

theory etc). If coding procedures are to be used, describe in reasonable detail. If you triangulated, carefully explain how you went about it. Communicate your precise intentions and reasons for these intentions to the reader. This helps you and the reader evaluate the choices you made and procedures you followed. Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and expect to use (e.g. SAS, SPSS, SYSTAT etc). You are expected to manipulate the data yourself using a Statistical Analysis Software Package. One of the above will be made available to you on the lab computers with no cost. Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to use the design, methodology, and analyses you have selected and don't forget you have also considered the following. Were the data collected analyzed manually or by computer? If analyzed by computer, which package was used? Review of the methodology used for the research Did you encounter any problems with the methodology implemented? What were these? How could you avoid these problems? If you were to run the project again what improvements would you make to the methodological approach adopted? How did your method rate for reliability and validity?

2.6.

Section 4: Data Analysis, Results and Dissemination

Concerning your data analysis the expected questions you ask yourself and activities carried out can be in reference to some or all of the following: How will you analyze your data? Identify statistical methods you will use. Does your study design provide adequate power to detect the patterns or effects that you will study? Does an analysis of the statistical power of your proposed sampling regime will require you to estimate the likely variability in your data? A preliminary survey of your study system may help; see Project Guidelines. For some methods of data analysis (e.g., multimodel inference), you should evaluate your study design using alternatives to power analysis. If your project involves alternatives to testing statistical null hypotheses, please consult your instructor for advice. If you need information, references, or software for analysis of statistical power, you may find your statistics text and the following sources helpful.

General information and practical advice: http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/power.html (and links therein) http://www.psycho.uniduesseldorf.de/aap/projects/gpower/how_to_use_gpower.html Links to free power analysis packages:
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o o o o

http://statpages.org/#Power http://www.psycho.uni-duesseldorf.de/aap/projects/gpower/ http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/software/monitor.html http://www.dartmouth.edu/~eugened/power-samplesize.php

Interpretations of the results can also be looked from different corners of questions like: How will your data support or refute your hypotheses? Anticipate how you would interpret both positive and negative results. Your hypotheses should make predictions about the results you will obtain. Describe potential outcomes of your data analysis and the resulting conclusions you would make about your predictions and hypotheses. How would you answer your question(s), given each potential outcome of your data analysis? Begin by defining the major outputs expected from the project, while outlining plans for disseminating or implementing the findings of the proposed research. Examples of outputs include workshops and conferences, reports and publications, new methodologies or technologies, improved research skills, and institutional reinforcement. Show how research results will be communicated to users and decision-makers. Discuss how research results are likely to be used. Identify the immediate or intermediate users of the results and show how they will be given access to the research results. Who will ultimately benefit if the project results are appropriately used? The expected impact of research results can be discussed in reference to some or all of the following: their potential use in other settings; their contribution to existing technical and scientific knowledge; policy formulation and implementation; development processes at the local, national, and regional levels; and the needs of specific target populations.

Discuss any possible obstacles to the execution of the research and to the eventual use of the results. These may include possibilities of political or economic instability, expected difficulties in securing access to data, the difficulty of coming to categorical conclusions, and the partial nature of the results for addressing specific development problems. Standard statistical packages (SPSS) will be used to examine any cross-tabulation, or associations, or grouping which emerges (e.g. through factor analysis). For the qualitative data, a qualitative data analysis software package will be used to assist coding, and derivation of themes, from the interview data.

2.7.

Section 5: Budgeting

The proposal must contain a budget support request, unless a particular program solicitation stipulates otherwise. The amounts requested for each budget line item should be documented and justified in the budget justification table. The budget justification table should not exceed beyond one page. The proposal may request funds under any the categories identified so long
41

as the item and amount are considered necessary, reasonable, allocable, and allowable under the applicable cost principles governing the allowability and university policy. Divide your budget into two categories: Your own Sources: Identify items that you could cover by your own source. Jimma Universitys Support: Make budget marks to the items that you think will be sourced out from Jimma University.

Note: Allow for inflation and indicate the level of inflation used in the estimate. All budget items must be quoted in national currencies.

2.8.

Section 6: Action Plan

Setting the duration of a project has grave consequences in terms of fixing the times for different deliverables and the final report. Planning must be carried out following the rigorous project management standards if there is any. Indicate the time needed to carry out each phase of the project, as well as the project's total duration. Indicate possible constraints in adhering to the timetable. A first-class research proposal or dissertation proposal will also emphasis the principal milestones and their estimated completion date throughout this section. You can include the data in table form; however, you will normally earn a higher mark if you present the material of key activities in the form of a Gantt Chart.

2.9.

Section 7: Conclusion

Conclusions are often the most difficult part of research writing, and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper. A conclusion should: stress the importance of the thesis statement, give the essay a sense of completeness, and leave a final impression on the reader.

Suggestions: Answer the question "So what?" Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful. Synthesize, don't summarize Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together. Redirect your readers Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally.
42

Create a new meaning You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.

Strategies: Echoing the introduction: Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding. Challenging the reader: By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives. Looking to the future: Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally. Posing questions: Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

2.10. Bibliography
Reference information is required. Each reference must include the names of all authors (in the same sequence in which they appear in the publication), the article and journal title, book title, volume number, page numbers, and year of publication. If the document is available electronically, the website address also should be identified. Students must be especially careful to follow accepted scholarly practices in providing citations for source materials relied upon when preparing any section of the proposal. While there is no established page limitation for the references, this section must also include bibliographic citations. At the end of the proposal there should be a full bibliography. Any appendices should come after the full bibliography. Make a list of information resources you plan to consult. In writing a research paper you should aim to make a list of at least 30 potential sources, which you will then narrow down as you conduct the research. Many sources initially seem relevant, but turn out not to be, so it is always better to list all sources that might be of interest. As you eliminate sources, cross them off of this list. Mark sources that are particularly useful, and add new sources as you come across them. This will enable you to make a Works Cited list at the end of your project (i.e.: a list of only the works you have summarized, paraphrased, or quoted from in the paper.) There are different types of citation standard, these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. APA: psychology, education, and other social sciences. MLA: literature, arts, and humanities. AMA: medicine, health, and biological sciences. Turabian: designed for use with all subjects. Chicago: used with all subjects in the "real world" by books, magazines, newspapers, and other non-scholarly publications.

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The department may require you to follow APA. This citation style is used when you are dealing with Social Sciences. In this kind of work you should present not only authors names, but also the necessary dates. If you are using the style for Copy Manuscripts, double space all lines. If you are using the style for Final Manuscripts, single space all lines and skip a line in between each reference. Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books, articles, etc. Indent the second and following lines 5 to 7 spaces or one half inch. Use only the initials of the authors' first (and middle) names. If no author is given, start with the title and then the date. Article titles and book titles: capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle. (Capitalize all significant words of periodical titles.) If you are using a typewriter that cannot produce italics, then use underlining instead. Magazine articles: include the month (and day) as shown under "Magazine Article from a Database" and "Newspapers". Websites: if the date the page was created is not given, use (n.d.). Journal Article: where the page numbering continues from issue to issue Dubeck, L. (1990). Science fiction aids science teaching. Physics Teacher, 28, 316-318. Journal or Magazine Article: that start each issue with page one (for magazine articles, include the month and day - see below) Wilcox, R. V. (1991). Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular Culture, 13(2), 53-65. Magazine or Journal Article from a Database (for journal articles, do not include the month - see above) Mershon, D. H. (1998, November/December). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585. Retrieved July 29, 1999, from Expanded Academic ASAP database. Newspaper Article Di Rado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star trek. Los Angeles Times, p. A3. Books Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York: Pocket Books. Books Article or Chapter James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood. Encyclopedia Article Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In The encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp. 390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier. ERIC Document
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Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling communication in Star trek: The next generation: Conflicts between brothers. Miami, FL: Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 364932) Website Lynch, T. (1996). DS9 trials and tribble-ations review. Retrieved October 8, 1997, from Psi Phi: Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site: http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.html Use the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style in the text. For one author: Placed at the end of the sentence (Blagden, 1988). Placed somewhere in the middle ..(Blagden, 1988) Placed at beginning or towards the beginning of a sentence Blagden (1988) asserted that According to Blagden (1988) For two authors: The entry is same as for one author above, except that the two authors are connected with and (&). .(Tadesse & Bayou, 2000). . (Tadesse & Bayou, 2000).. Tadesse & Bayou (2000) According to Tadesse & Bayou (2000) . For three or more authors: If you are referring to literature written by three or more authors, write the name of the first author followed by et al. .(Tadesse et al., 2000). . (Tadesse et al., 2000).. Tadesse et al. (2000) pointed out According to Tadesse et al. (2000) . For referring to same author or group of authors in the same year: Place letter a, b, etc. immediately after the year, and it does not matter if single, double or multiple authors. The placement is also at your discretion Tadesse & Bayou (2000a, 2000b) For referring to many authors at the same time:
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Arrange them chronologically (i.e., by year in ascending order) and if of the same year then arrange the authors alphabetically and separate them using semi-colon. The placement is at your discretion. Example:
Taylor (1986) and Blagden (1988) reviewed the concepts of use in greater detail.

2.11. Appendices
All additional details of information necessary for the review of a proposal must be contained in this section of the proposal. Appendices may include any supporting documents such as developed data collection instruments, list of organizations that may participate in the study, maps, and etc.

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Chapter Three
3.0. Group Research Project Proposal Writing
Every group of students project proposal is different and all the advice given in these pages does not necessarily apply to every group. Check with your supervisor if you are not sure about any aspect of the process of writing up your research. The research proposal can serve many useful functions. The

most important is that it helps you to think out the research project you are about to undertake and predict any difficulties that might arise. For those who aren't quite sure what their focus will be, the research proposal can be a space to explore options, perhaps with one proposal for each potential topic (which can then be more easily compared and evaluated than when they are still just ideas in one's head). Research proposals can be effective starting places to discuss projects with your Advisor too. The Advisor who is initially skeptical about a project may be able to imagine it more easily after reading a well written research proposal (this doesn't mean he or she will approve the topic, especially if there are significant potential difficulties that you haven't considered).

3.1.

Outline for the Proposal Writing

This manual assumes that you will end up with at least ten major parts: Preliminary Pages Title Page Approval Sheet Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Appendices (if any) Project Summary Section 1: Introduction Objective of the Study/Project Statement of the Problem Scope of the Study/Project Limitation and Delimitation of the Study/Project Significance of the Study/Project Assumptions (if any) Definition of Terms Section 2: Literature Review Section 3: Project Design and Methodology Data Collection Method Analysis Design Specification Experimentation Implementation Testing Documentation
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 Evaluation Section 4: Results and Dissemination Section 5: Budgeting Section 6: Action plan Section 7: Conclusion Bibliography Appendices

3.2.

Preliminary Pages
3.2.1. Title Page
Institution Name Title By Submitted to: A Group Research Project Proposal Submitted to the Department of Information Science, College of Engineering and Technology, Jimma University, in meeting the preliminary research requirement for partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor in Information Science. Jimma, Ethiopia January 2009

Figure 4

Note: Give your project a working title, which may or may not become the title of your paper. This should be a short phrase describing the subject of the proposal. The title of the project
must be brief, scientifically or technically valid, intelligible to a scientifically or technically literate reader, and suitable for use in the public press. NSF may edit the title of a project prior to making an award

3.2.2. Approval Sheet

This Group Research Project Proposal en-titled .. has been read and approved as meeting the preliminary research requirements of the Department of Information Science in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Information Science, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia. Research and Scholarly Communication Management Team Leader _______________________________________________________________ Principal Advisor _____________________________________________________________________ Advisors ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Figure 5

Note: When the proposal is approved or accepted, you begin your research project with more confidence, especially if the department council has indicated their enthusiasm for your work. Since approval represents a sort of contract, you need to consider how to handle changes since some change is likely as the research unfolds. Note that substantial changes will mean a return to the approver for another approval.

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3.2.3. Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement in scientific literature writing is a statement of gratitude for friends, family, instructors, advisors, organizations etc for assistance in producing a specific work. Receiving a credit by way of acknowledgment indicates that the person or organization
did not have a direct hand in producing the work in question, but may have contributed criticism, or encouragement to the performer(s). Apart from citation, which is not usually considered to be an acknowledgment, but acknowledgment of conceptual support is widely considered to be the most important for identifying intellectual debt.

3.2.4. Table of Content

A table of contents, may be headed simply "Contents," is an organized list of divisions (chapters or articles) and the pages on which they start or the place where they may be found in the order in which the parts appear. The contents usually includes the titles or descriptions of the first-level headers, such as chapter titles in longer works, and often includes second-level or section titles (A-heads) within the chapters as well, and occasionally even third-level titles (subsections or B-heads). The depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal reports (ten or more pages and being too long to put into a memo or letter) also have tables of contents. Documents of fewer than ten pages do not require tables of contents, but often have a short list of contents at the beginning. Table of Contents as a gateway through the document shall be indexed or generated automatically using Microsoft Word Processing option.

3.2.5. List of Figures

Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of figures to locate visual information in a certain body of document. The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in a research documents. Figures concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence. Often Advisors, reviewers and readers review them independently of other sections of a report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways to include them. Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in Arabic number through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two parts, the first part referring to the section number: for example, "Figure 3-5" for the fifth figure in Chapter 3. Be sure the figure captions are descriptive. Example: List of Figures Figure 1. Information Management Cycle Figure 2. Metadata Characteristics Figure 3. Lotkas Citation Analysis Figure 4. Shannons Models of Communication Figure 5. Knowledge Spectrum

3 5 6 8 10
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3.2.6. List of Appendices

Any literary matter added to a document, but not necessarily essential to its completeness, and thus distinguished from supplement, which is intended to supply deficiencies and correct inaccuracies. Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of appendices to locate some extra/detail information attached as if by being hung on or as an appendage. Appendices are supplementary materials usually attached at the end of a piece of writing.

3.2.7. Project Summary

The proposal must contain a summary of the proposed activity suitable for publication, not more than one page in length. It should not be an abstract of the proposal, but rather a self-contained description of the activity that would result if the proposal were accepted. The summary should be written in the third person and include a statement of objectives and methods to be employed. It must clearly address in separate statements (within the one-page summary): the intellectual merit of the proposed activity; and the broader impacts resulting from the proposed activity. It should be informative to other persons working in the same or related fields and, insofar as possible, understandable to a scientifically or technically literate lay reader. Proposals that do not separately address both merit review criteria within the one-page Project Summary will be returned without review.

3.3.

Section 1: Introduction

Explain your interest in and experience with this topic. Describe your any previous research articles readings conducted on this or related topics and any classes you have taken on this or related topics. If you have personal experience that has led you to want to do more research, describe that here too. Be short, fashionable and stylish. Clearly support your statement with documentation and references, and include a review of the literature that supports the need for your research or creative endeavor. A discussion of present understanding and/or state of knowledge concerning the question or a discussion of the context of the scholarly or creative work is clearly described. 3.3.1. Objective of the Study/Project Objectives are specifically for targets within the general goal. Objectives are time related to achieve a certain task. Objectives are measurable activities to achieve goals; the end points envisioned for the proposed project. These objectives might be, for example, development of a specified measurement capability that meets a prescribed accuracy, data rate, instrument packaging characteristics (size, weight, etc.), and other possible requirements. The objectives section of a proposal is typically very brief, usually a half-page at most. This is because the rationale for objectives could also be explained in the problem statement, while the ways of achieving the objectives should be explained in the
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methodology section. Indicating both the general and specific objectives of the project will be important. The General objectives provide a short statement of the development goal being pursued by the research. The Specific objectives are operational in nature. They may indicate specific types of knowledge to be produced, certain audiences to be reached, and certain forms of capacity to be reinforced. These are the objectives against which the success of the project will be judged. It is important to distinguish the specific objectives from the means of achieving them. 3.3.2. Statement of the Problem Explain what you hope your research will find or show. State your question or series of questions before you begin your research. After you have conducted significant research you should be able to answer your question(s) in one or two sentences, which may become the thesis of the final paper. Generally this section should normally make up one of the significant parts of the proposal. It should describe the problem that is to be investigated and the questions that will guide the research process. Note that proper justification of the importance of the research questions to be addressed requires some sense of the likely contribution to knowledge that the research will make and its place in current debate or technological advance. Often, this can be presented in the form of research hypotheses to be tested. This section should provide a brief overview of the literature and research done in the field related to the problem, and of the gaps that the proposed research is intended to fill. To show the importance of the problem, this section may discuss such points as: How the research relates to the development priorities of the country or countries concerned; The scientific importance of the problem; The magnitude of the problem and how the research results will contribute to its solution; The special importance of the project for vulnerable social groups; and The need to build up research capacity in the proposed area of research.

As long as the project's objectives is to produce a prototype of a "hard" or "soft" technology and there are reasonable expectations that it will be widely distributed and marketed, the proposal should discuss the socioeconomic implications: Demand and supply: the expected level of demand for the technology; marketing requirements; users' willingness to own; alternative sources of supply; quality competitiveness; input and credit availability. Applicability: the viability for entrepreneurs, farmers, or consumers; efficiency and effectiveness compared to available alternatives.

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Social impact: the impact on working conditions or quality of life; distribution of benefits between income classes and genders; degree and nature of local participation; effect on culture and values; long-term sustainability; the costs and benefits to society (for example, implications for government subsidies, skill, employment generation, savings, etc.). 3.3.3. Scope of the Study/Project

Scope of study is a general outline of what the study (i.e. research undertaking) will cover as a tool used to define and group a projects discrete work elements in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project. It provides the necessary framework for detailed cost estimating and control along with providing guidance for schedule development and control. Additionally the scope is a dynamic tool and can be revised and updated as needed by the researcher. It also provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and control of a work and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established. Searching for resources on your subject will be more effective if you have already defined the scope of your research. You may find it helpful to consider the following questions: Does the research cover a particular time period? Does the study cover a specific geographical area? If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place of origin are to be included? Are all dates of publication to be included? Is the research going to cover publications from other countries? Will the research include other languages and scripts? Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political, psychological, etc. 3.3.4. Limitations and Delimitations of the study/Project Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher. The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent in the design. Any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned. Describe the problems you expect to encounter and how you hope to solve them. For example, texts might be unavailable, necessitating travel to other libraries or use of inter-library loan facilities; people you had hoped to interview might be unavailable or unwilling to participate, necessitating that you select other interviewees or change the focus; internet sites might be down or no longer available, etc. (Try to imagine every possible problem so that you have contingency plans and the project doesn't become disrupt.)
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Document the limitations that could prevent you from successfully completing this project, for example a lack of reference material or limited access to required resources. Another constraint might be the amount time you have available to do research. Delimitations are choices made by the researcher, for example, the study may focus on areas. The delimitations of a study are those characteristics that limit the scope (define the boundaries) of the inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions that were made throughout the development of the proposal. Among these are the choice of objectives and questions, variables of interest, alternative theoretical perspectives that could have been adopted, etc. The first limiting step was the choice of problem itself; implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected or screened off from view. Go back and review each of these decisions. You will want to prepare a statement of purpose or intent that clearly sets out what is meant to be accomplished by the study but that also includes a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your decisions for excluding certain territory should have been based on such criteria as "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; too problematic because..."; "not feasible" and the like. Make this reasoning explicit. 3.3.5. Significance of the Study/Project Explain why this topic is worth considering, or this question or series of questions is worth answering. Answer the following questions: Why should your instructor let you select this topic? What do you hope to learn from it? What will this new knowledge add to the field of knowledge that already exists on this topic? What new perspective will you bring to the topic? What use might your final research paper have for others in this field or in the general public? Who might you decide to share your findings with once the project is complete? 3.3.6. Assumptions (if any) An assumption is a proposition that is taken for granted, as if it were true based upon presupposition without preponderance of the facts. Assumption may also refer to: In logic, natural deduction systems are defined as an assumption is made in the expectation that it will be discharged in due course via a separate argument. Mathematical modeling can be used to map the outcome of different assumptions on the system being modeled. In business planning and business plans, an assumption is an assertion about some characteristic of the future that underlies the current operations or plans of an organization

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Example: Researchers usually assume subjects will give 100% effort. Researchers assume data collection instruments are valid and reliable based upon their previous use. 3.3.7. Definition of terms This section of your work contains systematically organized scientific terms in the body with their appropriate definitions. Definition of Terms is a very brief section consisting of a series of definitions of the key terms or concepts found in the proposal/research. Since some words like "recreation" or "leisure" may have various meanings, it is important to clarify to the reader the way they are used in the proposal. Unfamiliar or technical words may also require an exact definition.

3.4.

Section 2: Literature Review

The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area (Wiersma, 1995, p. 406). The literature review accomplishes several important things. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings. It frames the problem earlier identified.

Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of important recent substantive and methodological developments. Delineate the jumping-off place for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known? Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the area or that what has been done is too extensive to permit easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as indications that the writer is not really familiar with the literature. In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of exemplarsthe literature selected should be pertinent and relevant (APA, 2001). Select and reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly or briefly. Committees may want a section outlining your search strategythe procedures you used and sources you investigated (e.g., databases, journals, test banks, experts in the field) to compile your literature review. Check with your Chair.

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You will be rewarded for: providing an introductory paragraph which explains what is discussed in the chapter and why it is necessary to include this as part of the dissertation/project demonstrating that you conducted a thorough literature search and have read widely demonstrating that you have read up to date material summarizing what you have read thematically (and not author by author) highlighting trends in the discussion of your topic, for example over time; by geography; by sector commenting on the value of what you have read (without discussing the actual topic) organizing your findings from the literature review to fit in with the main themes of your research project identifying gaps in the literature demonstrating that you assimilated and understood what you have read and what you have written

Moreover, your research proposal should cover a range of the established discussions in Information Science, models and theoretical underpinnings that relate to the problem area you have set out to address. The existing state of knowledge should be concisely captured in your proposal with a clear case made for what your proposed research will provide in advance of that which is available. In particular, you should address the specific intentions that your proposal has stated and provide arguments as to why any relevant literature inadequately addresses the issues as well as you propose to achieve.

3.5.

Section 3: Project Design and Methodology

All necessary activities are accomplished in the correct or desired sequence. The documentation developed as a result of any given project is consistent and comparable with the documentation developed from any other project. The documentation developed as a result of a given project contains adequate, understandable information. Appropriate reviews and approvals are obtained at the appropriate points in the project.

Any methodology, regardless of which one is used, ensures that:

The goal of the research design and methodology process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms (although, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy): Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

A good thesis proposal adopts particular methods for technical endeavors such as designs, specifications, and evaluations of systems, theories or other entities. Your proposal should identify the practices you are going to adopt that are relevant to nature of your thesis (a design, evaluation, implementation, analysis, etc.) and provide clear rationale for particular choices of method over others.
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3.5.1. Data Collection Method Write how precisely the data will be collected. If an existing questionnaire will be used, describe its relevance to the proposed study, how it has been used in the past and cite its source; if a pilot questionnaire has been developed and used by the investigators in a preliminary study, attach it as an appendix; if an original questionnaire will be developed, provide an outline of the proposed data categories in which questions will be constructed. For interviews, provide a draft of the proposed interview schedule(s) including, at minimum, the list of topical data categories that will be addressed. Gathering details about the current system may involve: Interviewing staff at different levels from end-users to senior management Examining current business and systems documents and output may include current order documents, computer systems procedures and reports used by operations and senior management Sending out questionnaires the questions have to be carefully constructed to elicit unambiguous answers Observation of current procedures by spending time in various departments. A time and motion study can show where procedures could be more efficient, or to detect bottlenecks 3.5.2. Analysis This is a very important part in the development of an Information System and involves looking at an organization or system and finding out how information is being handled at the moment. System analysis is creative work. It can begin with thinking about how to accomplish something. System analysis can be considered to have three primary functions, each of which is related to the others. First, system analysis is done to fix something that has gone wrong and to help one understand why there is a problem. Second, analysis is used to figure out how to do something more easily and less expensively as new technologies become available. Third, system analysis is done to help design a system that can accommodate future circumstances, such as anticipated events that are not being experienced now, but that might need to be dealt with in the future. The system development cycle consists of the steps taken for the conceptualization and engineering of a system. There are several ways to represent or describe the system development cycle. One is to show the analysis process in a series of blocks in hierarchical (top-down) or horizontal line (timeline) form. Another way is to show the system analysis process as a circle of operations, namely, requirement analysis, specifications, design, implementation, testing, and maintenance. Another approach is to regard the process as representing a waterfall cycleone step flowing into another in a continuous stream. All share a common property of sequencing. System analysis is a step-by-step procedure: each step follows or interacts with the others, and all are directed toward meeting the objectives stated by the intended user of the system.
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If the aim is to improve an existing system the methods of analysis the analysis phase often includes a feasibility study. At the end of this phase a decision may need to be made as to what software to use. The aim of a feasibility study is to see whether it is possible to develop a system at a reasonable cost. At the end of the feasibility study a decision is taken whether to proceed or not. A feasibility study contains the general requirements of the proposed system. 3.5.3. Design This section of the proposal should explain the details of the proposed plan. How will you go about exploring and addressing the primary intension of the research project? What will be your methods? For instance, in order to design a web site, the relational database must be designed first. Conceptual design can be divided into two parts: The data model: The data model focuses on what data should be stored in the database while the process model deals with how the data is processed. To put this in the context of the relational database, the data model is used to design the relational tables. A data model is a conceptual representation of the data structures that are required by a database. The first step in designing a database is to develop an Entity-Relation Diagram (ERD). The ERD serves as a blue print from which a relational database maybe deduced. Figure 1 shows the ERD for the project and later we will show the transformation from ERD to the Relational model. The basic structure of the tables composing the database for the project will be shown along with information about primary and foreign keys. The process model: is used to design the queries that will access and perform operations on those tables. A Process Model tells us about how the data is processed and how the data flows from one table to another to gather the required information. This model consists of the Functional Decomposition Diagram and Data Flow Diagram. The user interface design will closely follow Functional Decomposition Diagram. Generally, the areas that need to be considered in the design process are listed below: Outputs Inputs File Design Hardware Software

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3.5.4. Specification A specification is an explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, or service. Should a material, product or service fail to meet one or more of the applicable specifications, it may be referred to as being out of specification. A technical specification may be developed privately, for example by a corporation, regulatory body, military, etc: It is usually under the umbrella of a quality management system. They can also be developed by standards organizations which often have more diverse input and usually develop voluntary standards: these might become mandatory if adopted by a government, business contract, etc. Sometimes the term specification is used in connection with a data sheet (or spec sheet). A data sheet is usually used for technical communication to describe technical characteristics of an item or product. It can be published by a manufacturer to help people choose products or to help use the products. A data sheet is not a technical specification as described in this article. 3.5.5. Experimentation Experimentation supports research projects that involve building and evaluating information processing and systems development. These are goal-oriented projects usually undertaken by teams of designers, builders, and users. Emphasis is on building the system and on research experiments involving the system that address significant and timely research questions. The building of the system must itself represent a major intellectual effort that will advance the understanding of information processing systems architecture. The system prototypes being built should be suitable for exploring applications and performance issues. 3.5.6. Implementation Implementation is the realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model, design, specification, standard, algorithm, or policy. In any system development, an implementation is a realization of a technical specification or algorithm as a program, software component, or hardware components, or data preparation, or installation, or testing, or maintenance, or other computer system. Many implementations may exist for a given specification or standard. The proposal shall also recommend implementation after completion which is about introducing a new system that can be done in two ways and the proposal should be considerate of which implementation strategy will be used: Direct Implementation Parallel Running

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3.5.7. Testing Any new system needs to be thoroughly tested before being introduced. First of all the system should be tested with normal data to see if it works correctly. Secondly, the system is tested with data containing known errors to try and make it fail ('crash'). Thirdly, the system is tested with very large amounts of data to see how it can cope. It is important that processing time and response rates remain acceptable with varying amounts of data. A test plan should also be designed and proposed. 3.5.8. Documentation The proposal should explain the method of documentation as a number of documents are produced during the development of a new system application. Essentially there are two types: User guides and Technical documentation. User guides are written in plain English and should cover how to run the system, how to enter data, how to modify data and how to save and print reports. The guide should include a list of error messages and advice on what to do if something goes wrong. Technical documentation is used to explain a system to a specialist. This document will be used if any changes have to be made to the system. It is a very important document which needs to be fully up-to-date. 3.5.9. Evaluation Be warned that many projects fall down through poor evaluation. Simply building a system and documenting its design and functionality is not enough to gain top marks. It is extremely important that you evaluate what you have done both in absolute terms and in comparison with existing techniques, Website or database or a program or a system etc. This might involve quantitative evaluation, for example based on numerical results, performance etc. or something more qualitative such as impressibility, functionality, ease-of-use etc. At some point you should also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of what you have done. Avoid statements like "The project has been a complete success and we have solved all the problems associated with... It is important to understand that there is no such thing as a perfect project. Even the very best pieces of work have their limitations and you are expected to provide a proper critical appraisal of what you have done.

3.6.

Section 4: Results and Dissemination

Discuss how research results are likely to be used. Identify the immediate or intermediate users of the results and show how they will be given access to the research results. Who will ultimately benefit if the project results are appropriately used? The expected impact of results can be discussed in reference to some or all of the following:
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their potential use in other settings; their contribution to existing technical and scientific knowledge; policy formulation and implementation; development processes at the local, national, and regional levels; and the needs of specific target populations.

Discuss any possible obstacles to the execution of the research and to the eventual use of the results. These may include possibilities of political or economic instability, expected difficulties in securing access to data, the difficulty of coming to categorical conclusions, and the partial nature of the results for addressing specific development problems.

3.7.

Section 5: Budgeting

The proposal must contain a budget support request, unless a particular program solicitation stipulates otherwise. The amounts requested for each budget line item should be documented and justified in the budget justification table. The budget justification table should not exceed beyond one page. The proposal may request funds under any the categories identified so long as the item and amount are considered necessary, reasonable, allocable, and allowable under the applicable cost principles governing the allowability and university policy. Divide your budget into two categories: Your own Sources: Identify items that you could cover by your own source. Jimma Universitys Support: Make budget marks to the items that you think will be sourced out from Jimma University.

Note: Allow for inflation and indicate the level of inflation used in the estimate. All budget items must be quoted in national currencies.

3.8.

Section 6: Action Plan

Setting the duration of a project has grave consequences in terms of fixing the times for different deliverables and the final report. Planning must be carried out following the rigorous project management standards if there is any. Indicate the time needed to carry out each phase of the project, as well as the project's total duration. Indicate possible constraints in adhering to the timetable. A first-class research proposal or dissertation proposal will also emphasis the principal milestones and their estimated completion date throughout this section. You can include the data in table form; however, you will normally earn a higher mark if you present the material of key activities in the form of a Gantt Chart.

3.9.

Section 7: Conclusion

Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write, and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper. A conclusion should:
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stress the importance of the thesis statement, give the essay a sense of completeness, and leave a final impression on the reader.

Suggestions: Answer the question "So What?" Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful. Synthesize, don't summarize Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together. Redirect your readers Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. Create a new meaning You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.

Strategies: Echoing the introduction: Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding. Challenging the reader: By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives. Looking to the future: Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally. Posing questions: Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

3.10. Bibliography
Reference information is required. Each reference must include the names of all authors (in the same sequence in which they appear in the publication), the article and journal title, book title, volume number, page numbers, and year of publication. If the document is available electronically, the website address also should be identified. Students must be especially careful to follow accepted scholarly practices in providing citations for source materials relied upon when preparing any section of the proposal. While there is no established page limitation for the references, this section must also include bibliographic citations. At the end of the proposal there should be a full bibliography. Any appendices should come after the full bibliography.

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Make a list of information resources you plan to consult. In writing a research paper you should aim to make a list of at least 30 potential sources, which you will then narrow down as you conduct the research. Many sources initially seem relevant, but turn out not to be, so it is always better to list all sources that might be of interest. As you eliminate sources, cross them off of this list. Mark sources that are particularly useful, and add new sources as you come across them. This will enable you to make a Works Cited list at the end of your project (i.e.: a list of only the works you have summarized, paraphrased, or quoted from in the paper.) There are different types of citation standard, these are: 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. APA: psychology, education, and other social sciences. MLA: literature, arts, and humanities. AMA: medicine, health, and biological sciences. Turabian: designed for use with all subjects. Chicago: used with all subjects in the "real world" by books, magazines, newspapers, and other non-scholarly publications.

The department may require you to follow APA. This citation style is used when you are dealing with Social Sciences. In this kind of work you should present not only authors names, but also the necessary dates. If you are using the style for Copy Manuscripts, double space all lines. If you are using the style for Final Manuscripts, single space all lines and skip a line in between each reference. Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books, articles, etc. Indent the second and following lines 5 to 7 spaces or one half inch. Use only the initials of the authors' first (and middle) names. If no author is given, start with the title and then the date. Article titles and book titles: capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle. (Capitalize all significant words of periodical titles.) If you are using a typewriter that cannot produce italics, then use underlining instead. Magazine articles: include the month (and day) as shown under "Magazine Article from a Database" and "Newspapers". Websites: if the date the page was created is not given, use (n.d.).

Journal Article: where the page numbering continues from issue to issue Dubeck, L. (1990). Science fiction aids science teaching. Physics Teacher, 28, 316318. Journal or Magazine Article: that start each issue with page one (for magazine articles, include the month and day - see below) Wilcox, R. V. (1991). Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular Culture, 13(2), 53-65. Magazine or Journal Article from a Database (for journal articles, do not include the month - see above)

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Mershon, D. H. (1998, November/December). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585. Retrieved July 29, 1999, from Expanded Academic ASAP database. Newspaper Article Di Rado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star trek. Los Angeles Times, p. A3. Books Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York: Pocket Books. Books Article or Chapter James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood. Encyclopedia Article Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In The encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp. 390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier. ERIC Document Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling communication in Star trek: The next generation: Conflicts between brothers. Miami, FL: Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 364932) Website Lynch, T. (1996). DS9 trials and tribble-ations review. Retrieved October 8, 1997, from Psi Phi: Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site: http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.html Use the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style in the text. For one author: i. Placed at the end of the sentence (Blagden, 1988). ii. Placed somewhere in the middle ..(Blagden, 1988) iii. Placed at beginning or towards the beginning of a sentence Blagden (1988) asserted that According to Blagden (1988)

For two authors: The entry is same as for one author above, except that the two authors are connected with and (&). .(Tadesse & Bayou, 2000). . (Tadesse & Bayou, 2000)..
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Tadesse & Bayou (2000) According to Tadesse & Bayou (2000) . For three or more authors: If you are referring to literature written by three or more authors, write the name of the first author followed by et al. .(Tadesse et al., 2000). . (Tadesse et al., 2000).. Tadesse et al. (2000) pointed out According to Tadesse et al. (2000) . For referring to same author or group of authors in the same year: Place letter a, b, etc. immediately after the year, and it does not matter if single, double or multiple authors. The placement is also at your discretion Tadesse & Bayou (2000a, 2000b) For referring to many authors at the same time: Arrange them chronologically (i.e., by year in ascending order) and if of the same year then arrange the authors alphabetically and separate them using semi-colon. The placement is at your discretion. Example:
Taylor (1986) and Blagden (1988) reviewed the concepts of use in greater detail.

3.11. Appendices
All additional details of information necessary for the review of a proposal must be contained in this section of the proposal. Appendices may include any supporting documents such as developed data collection instruments, guides, manuals, list of organizations that may participate in the study, maps, and etc.

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Chapter Four
4.0. Independent Research Writing
Every student's dissertation/project is different and all the advice given in these pages does not necessarily apply to every student. Check with your supervisor if you are not sure about any aspect of the process of writing up your research.

4.1.

Outline of the Research

During preparation of the actual individual student research writing it is assumed that you will end up with at least eight major parts: Preliminary Pages Title Page Approval sheet Dedication (if any) Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Appendices (if any) Abstract Chapter 1.0 Introduction Objective of the Study Statement of the Problem Research Questions and or Hypotheses Scope and Limitation of the Study Significance of the Study Assumptions (if any) Definition of Terms Chapter 2.0 Literature Review Chapter 3.0 Methodology Research Method used (development of websites or database or systems survey) Population of the Study Sampling Techniques and Sample Size Instrumentations Procedure for Data Collection Procedure for Development of Websites or Database or Systems Statistical Methods for the Study Chapter 4.0 Data Analysis/Results/Discussions Chapter 5.0 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations References or Bibliography (should start on new page) Appendices (if any)

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4.2.

Preliminary Pages
4.2.1. Title Page
Institution Name Title By Submitted to: An Independent Research Project Submitted to the Department of Information Science, College of Engineering and Technology, Jimma University, in partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of Bachelor in Information Science. Jimma, Ethiopia May 2009

Figure 6

4.2.2. Approval Sheet

This Independent Research/Research Project en-titled .. has been read and approved as the requirements of the Department of Information Science in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor in Information Science, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia. Research and Scholarly Communication Management Team Leader ____________________________________________________________________________ Principal Advisor ____________________________________________________________________________ Advisors ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 7

4.2.3. Dedication (if any) A Dedication is a section at the very beginning of your work (before any other body matter) containing a tribute to something (frequently someone) in connection with the writing or publication of the whole work. 4.2.4. Acknowledgements Acknowledgement in scientific literature writing is a statement of gratitude for friends, family, instructors, advisors, organizations etc for assistance in producing a specific work. Receiving a credit by way of acknowledgment indicates that the person or organization did
not have a direct hand in producing the work in question, but may have contributed criticism, or encouragement to the performer(s). Apart from citation, which is not usually considered to be an acknowledgment, but acknowledgment of conceptual support is widely considered to be the most important for identifying intellectual debt.

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4.2.5. Table of Contents A table of contents, may be headed simply "Contents," is an organized list of divisions (chapters or articles) and the pages on which they start or the place where they may be found in the order in which the parts appear. The contents usually includes the titles or descriptions of the first-level headers, such as chapter titles in longer works, and often includes second-level or section titles (A-heads) within the chapters as well, and occasionally even third-level titles (subsections or B-heads). The depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal reports (ten or more pages and being too long to put into a memo or letter) also have tables of contents. Documents of fewer than ten pages do not require tables of contents, but often have a short list of contents at the beginning. Table of Contents as a gateway through the document shall automatically be indexed or generated. 4.2.6. List of Figures Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of figures to locate visual information in a certain body of document. The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in a research documents. Figures concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence. often Advisors, reviewers and readers review them independently of other sections of a report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways to include them. Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in Arabic number through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two parts, the first part referring to the section number: for example, "Figure 3-5" for the fifth figure in Chapter 3. Be sure the figure captions are descriptive. 4.2.7. List of Appendices (if any) Any literary matter added to a document, but not necessarily essential to its completeness, and thus distinguished from supplement, which is intended to supply deficiencies and correct inaccuracies. Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of appendices to locate some extra/detail information attached as if by being hung on or as an appendage. Appendices are supplementary materials usually attached at the end of a piece of writing. 4.2.8. Abstract (should finish in one or two paragraph) An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of an original research work, acting as the point-ofentry for any given scientific paper or patent application. Use the following as a checklist for your abstract:
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Motivation: Why do we care about the problem and the results? If the problem isn't obviously "interesting" it might be better to put motivation first; but if your work is incremental progress on a problem that is widely recognized as important, then it is probably better to put the problem statement first to indicate which piece of the larger problem you are breaking off to work on. This section should include the importance of your work, the difficulty of the area, and the impact it might have if successful. Problem statement: What problem are you trying to solve? What is the scope of your work (a generalized approach, or for a specific situation)? Be careful not to use too much jargon. In some cases it is appropriate to put the problem statement before the motivation, but usually this only works if most readers already understand why the problem is important. Approach: How did you go about solving or making progress on the problem? Did you use simulation, analytic models, prototype construction, or analysis of field data for an actual product? What was the extent of your work (did you look at one application program or a hundred programs in twenty different programming languages?) What important variables did you control, ignore, or measure? Results: What's the answer? Specifically, most good computer architecture papers conclude that something is so many percent faster, cheaper, smaller, or otherwise better than something else. Put the result there, in numbers. Avoid vague, hand-waving results such as "very", "small", or "significant." If you must be vague, you are only given license to do so when you can talk about orders-ofmagnitude improvement. There is a tension here in that you should not provide numbers that can be easily misinterpreted, but on the other hand you don't have room for all the caveats. Conclusions: What are the implications of your answer? Is it going to change the world (unlikely), be a significant "win", be a nice hack, or simply serve as a road sign indicating that this path is a waste of time (all of the previous results are useful). Are your results general, potentially generalizable, or specific to a particular case?

Other Considerations:

An abstract must be a fully self-contained, capsule description of the paper. Meet the word count limitation between 150 to 200 words is common. Any major restrictions or limitations on the results should be stated, if only by using "weasel-words" such as "might", "could", "may", and "seem". Think of a half-dozen search phrases and keywords that people looking for your work might use. Some publications request "keywords". These have two purposes. They are used to facilitate keyword index searches, which are greatly reduced in importance now that on-line abstract text searching is commonly used.

Two types of abstracts are typically used: Descriptive Abstracts: Tell readers what information the report, article, or paper contains.
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Includes the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper. Do not provide results, conclusions, or recommendations. Are always very short, usually under 200 words. Introduce the subject to readers, who must then read the report, article, or paper to find out the author's results, conclusions, or recommendations.

Informative Abstracts Communicate specific information from the report, article, or paper. Include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper. Provide the report, article, or paper's results, conclusions, and recommendations. Are short -- from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the original work being abstracted. Allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report, article, or paper. An effective abstract has the following qualities: Uses one or more well developed paragraphs: these are unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone. Uses an introduction/body/conclusion structure which presents the article, paper, or report's purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations in that order. Follows strictly the chronology of the article, paper, or report. Provides logical connections (or transitions) between the information included. Adds no new information, but simply summarizes the report. Is understandable to a wide audience. Often times use passive verbs to downplay the author and emphasize the information. Check with your teacher if you're unsure whether or not to use passive voice.

To write an effective abstract, follow these steps: Reread the article, paper, or report with the goal of abstracting in mind. o Look specifically for these main parts of the article, paper, or report: purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendation. o Use the headings, outline heads, and table of contents as a guide to writing your abstract. o If you're writing an abstract about another person's article, paper, or report, the introduction and the summary are good places to begin. These areas generally cover what the article emphasizes. After you've finished rereading the article, paper, or report, write a rough draft without looking back at what you're abstracting. o Don't merely copy key sentences from the article, paper, or report: you'll put in too much or too little information. o Don't rely on the way material was phrased in the article, paper, or report: summarize information in a new way. Revise your rough draft to o correct weaknesses in organization.
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o Improve transitions from point to point. o drop unnecessary information. o add important information you left out. o Eliminate wordiness o Fix errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Print your final copy and read it again to catch any glitches that you find.

4.3.

Chapter 1: Introduction

The introduction serves two purposes. First, it allows you to provide the reader with some brief background information about the topic. Second, it lets you state your research question. Note that your research question must always be in your introduction. It's best to make it the last sentence of your introduction. Your introductions should not exceed two pages (double spaced, typed). The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with the intention of defending it. It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand and appreciate your objectives. The abstract is the only text in a research paper to be written without using paragraphs in order to separate major points. Approaches vary widely, however the first chapter of a dissertation is normally given the title Introduction, and it serves many purposes. It is the place where you should: Discuss the motivation for the work that is being reported. Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing in the first place? Provide a broad context. Defend the model - why did you use this particular organism or system? What are its advantages? You might comment on its suitability from a theoretical point of view as well as indicate practical reasons for using it. Provide a rationale. State your specific hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describe the reasoning that led you to select them. State the aims and objectives of the work. State and define the problem that the dissertation is trying to address or solve. Very briefly describe the experimental design and how it accomplished the stated objectives. Give an indication of how the work will be progressed. Provide a brief overview of each of the main chapters that the reader will encounter.

When writing the motivation for the research work that has been carried out, do not go into the details. Leave this for later chapters. Give a brief overview of the problem that you are tackling, and be specific about what the work is trying to achieve, and what you will be doing to meet these objectives. From an assessment point of view, one of the measures of success is whether the objectives listed in this chapter have been achieved. While a research project may start off with a set of objectives, it is often the case that these will change as the project evolves. Such is the nature of research. You should take this into consideration when stating the objectives of the project.

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Like the abstract, the Introduction should be written to engage the interest of the reader. It should also give the reader an idea of how the dissertation is structured, and in doing so, define the thread of the contents. Style: Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will be submitted after all of the work is completed. Organize your ideas, making one major point with each paragraph. If you make the four points listed above, you will need a minimum of four paragraphs. Present background information only as needed in order support a position. The reader does not want to read everything you know about a subject. State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify. As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and phrases.

4.3.1. Objective of the Study Objectives are specifically for targets within the general goal. Objectives are time related to achieve a certain task. Objectives are measurable activities achieved goals; the end points envisioned. These objectives might be, for example, development of a specified measurement capability that meets a prescribed accuracy, data rate, instrument packaging characteristics (size, weight, etc.), and other possible requirements. The objectives section of the research is typically very brief, usually a half-page at most. This is because the rationale for objectives could also be explained in the problem statement, while the ways of achieving the objectives should be explained in the methodology section. Indicating both the general and specific objectives of the project will be important. The General objectives provide a short statement of the development goal being pursued by the research. The Specific objectives are operational in nature. They may indicate specific types of knowledge to be produced, certain audiences to be reached, and certain forms of capacity to be reinforced. These are the objectives against which the success of the project will be judged. It is important to distinguish the specific objectives from the means of achieving them.

4.3.2. Statement of the Problem Explain what your research has found out or show. State your question or series of questions answered during the research period. After you have conducted significant research you should be able to answer your question(s) in one or two sentences, which may become the thesis of the final paper. Generally this section should normally make up one of the significant parts of the research. It should describe the problem that were investigated and the questions that have guided the research process. Note that proper justification of the importance of the research questions addressed requires some sense
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of the likely contribution to knowledge that the research made and its place in current debate or technological advance. Often, this can be presented in the form of research hypotheses tested. This section should provide a brief overview of the literature and research done in the field related to the problem, and of the gaps that the research filled. To show the importance of the problem, this section may discuss such points as: How the research relates to the development priorities of the country or countries concerned; The scientific importance of the problem; The magnitude of the problem and how the research results contribute to its solution; The special importance of the project for vulnerable social groups; and The need to build up research capacity in the proposed area of research.

If one of the project's objectives is to produce a prototype of a "hard" or "soft" technology and there are reasonable expectations that it will be widely distributed and marketed, the research should discuss the socioeconomic implications: Demand and supply: the expected level of demand for the technology; marketing requirements; users' willingness to own; alternative sources of supply; quality competitiveness; input and credit availability. Applicability: the viability for entrepreneurs, farmers, or consumers; efficiency and effectiveness compared to available alternatives. Social impact: the impact on working conditions or quality of life; distribution of benefits between income classes and genders; degree and nature of local participation; effect on culture and values; long-term sustainability; the costs and benefits to society (for example, implications for government subsidies, skill, employment generation, savings, etc.).

In the statement of problem one should make sure that the followings are met: The problem statement describes the context of the study and it also identifies the general analysis approach (Wiersma, 1995, p. 404). A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study (Creswell, 1994, p. 50). It is important in a research that the problem are easily identified and recognized. Sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In such cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have difficulty recognizing the problem. A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that under girds the study. This is of major importance in nearly all research and requires careful attention. It is essential in all quantitative research and much qualitative research.
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State the problem in terms intelligible to someone who is generally sophisticated but who is relatively uninformed in the area of your investigation. Effective problem statements answer the question Why does this research need to be conducted. If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly or briefly, and without resorting to hyper speaking (i.e., focusing on problems of macro or global issues OR local or national issues that certainly will not be informed or alleviated by the study), then the statement of the problem will come off as ambiguous and diffuse.

4.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses Your hypothesis in the proposal was your explanation that you will test to determine whether it is true or false. Therefore, you should explain your justification in measurable variables (those that changed or manipulated) with results compared with each other. Avoid over-generalizing, and reference the research findings of others to support why you think this will work.
Example: How Are Hypotheses Written? Chocolate may cause pimples. Salt in soil may affect plant growth. Plant growth may be affected by the color of the light. Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature. Ultra violet light may cause skin cancer. Temperature may cause leaves to change color.

All of these are examples of hypotheses because they use the tentative word "may.". However, their form is not particularly useful. Using the word may does not suggest how you would go about proving it. If these statements had not been written carefully, they may not have even been hypotheses at all. For example, if we say "Trees will change color when it gets cold." we are making a prediction. Or if we write, "Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer." could be a conclusion. One way to prevent making such easy mistakes is to formalize the form of the hypothesis. Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is "independent" and the other is "dependent." The independent variable is the one you, the "scientist" control and the dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or measure the results. In the statements the dependent variable is bold and the independent variable is bold and italic. Formalized Hypotheses example: If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people with a high exposure to uv light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer. If leaf color change is related to temperature , then exposing plants to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color. Notice that these statements contain the words, if and then. They are necessary in a formalized hypothesis. But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. For example, "If I play the lottery, then I will get rich." This is a simple prediction. In a formalized hypothesis, a tentative relationship is stated. For example, if the frequency of winning is related to frequency of buying lottery tickets. "Then" is followed by a prediction of what will happen if you increase or decrease the frequency of buying lottery tickets. If you always ask yourself that if one thing is related to another, then you should be able to test it. 73

The ultimate value of a formalized hypothesis is it forces us to think about what results we should look for in an experiment.

4.3.4. Scope of the Study Scope of study is a general guide (i.e. research undertaking) used to cover as a tool to define and group a projects discrete work elements in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project. Additionally the scope is a dynamic tool and if there was any change or revision indicate it. The researcher is also expected to clearly define the scope from all necessary directions based on the following addressed questions: Does the research cover a particular time period? Does the study cover a specific geographical area? If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place of origin are to be included? Are all dates of publication to be included? Is the research going to cover publications from other countries? Will the research include other languages and scripts? Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political, psychological, etc.

4.3.5. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher. The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent in the design. Generally, these will reflect anticipated inadequacies in regard to internal validity of results. A study has internal validity if the confounding variables have been converted to either controlled or randomized variables and if the research is designed in such a way that it is possible to estimate the size of the random variation so that the "experimental" variation may be compared to it for significance. The goal is to recognize inherent threats to internal validity in the study plan. Any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned. Describe the problems you expect to encounter and how you hope to solve them. For example, texts might be unavailable, necessitating travel to other libraries or use of inter-library loan facilities; people you had hoped to interview might be unavailable or unwilling to participate, necessitating that you select other interviewees or change the focus; internet sites might be down or no longer available, etc. (Try to imagine every possible problem so that you have contingency plans and the project doesn't become disrupt.) Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned clearly that it deals with such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and instrumentation. For example, the study may focus on children in only one grade level or measure aptitude using only a group intelligence test. External validity deals with the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to different subjects, settings,
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experimenters, and so on; the study has external validity. However, there are many threats to external validity which cause the results of a study to be specific to some limited group of people and/or set of conditions. These threats are (a) those dealing with generalizations to populations (What population of subjects can be expected to behave in the same way as did the sample subjects?), and (b) those dealing with the "environment" of the study (Under what conditions, i.e., settings, treatments, experimenters, dependent variables, and so on, can the same results be expected?). The delimitations of a study are those characteristics that limit the scope (define the boundaries) of the inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions that were made throughout the development of the proposal. Among these are the choice of objectives and questions, variables of interest, alternative theoretical perspectives that could have been adopted, etc. The first limiting step was the choice of problem itself; implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected or screened off from view. Go back and review each of these decisions. You will want to prepare a statement of purpose or intent that clearly sets out what is meant to be accomplished by the study but that also includes a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your decisions for excluding certain territory should have been based on such criteria as "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; too problematic because..."; "not feasible" and the like. Make this reasoning explicit. Consider the example of an important study conducted during the 1980s: Imagine a cross-case comparison study of state-level education policy systems that broke entirely new conceptual ground in the field of policy studies by exploring for the first time the role of political cultures and prevailing public values in policy making. This study generated detailed profiles of political cultures and public values vis a vis how they differentially shaped education policy choices in each of the states included in the study. There were a number of interesting research questions that could have been asked but were not pursued, such as, "how are the public schools affected by different policy choices on the same educational issues?", or "do these differential policy choices evidence themselves in different educational outcomes among public school students?" These questions were not pursued in this particular study because (a) the focus of the inquiry was on developing a new theory of how policy systems work, not on their outcomes, and (b) the inclusion of these questions, while interesting, would have been beyond the reach of the research team, given limited time and money for conducting the study. 4.3.6. Significance of the Study Justify the value of the research conducted using the following series of questions worth answering. What have you learned from it? What this new knowledge add to the field of knowledge that already exists?
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What new perspective has been brought in the area? What is the use of this research others in this field or the community? With whom are you willing to share the final result of the research?

4.3.7. Assumptions (if any) An assumption is a proposition that is taken for granted, as if it were true based upon presupposition without preponderance of the facts. Assumption may also refer to: In logic, natural deduction systems are defined as an assumption is made in the expectation that it will be discharged in due course via a separate argument. Mathematical modeling can be used to map the outcome of different assumptions on the system being modeled. In business planning and business plans, an assumption is an assertion about some characteristic of the future that underlies the current operations or plans of an organization Try to draw a picture of comparison between your assumption during your proposal and the truth you came up with. Example: Researchers usually assume subjects will give 100% effort. Researchers assume data collection instruments are valid and reliable based upon their previous use and you need to prove this. 4.3.8. Definition of Terms This section of your work contains systematically organized scientific terms in the body with their appropriate definitions. Definition of Terms is a very brief section consisting of a series of definitions of the key terms or concepts found in the proposal/research. Since some words like "recreation" or "leisure" may have various meanings, it is important to clarify to the reader the way they are used in the proposal. Unfamiliar or technical words may also require an exact definition. The final research out put will also include new terminologies that have been found during researching time.

4.4.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

There are many titles for this chapter, e.g. "Literature Survey"; "Previous Work", and other similar phrases. The Literature Review is there for you to: provide details about the motivation for the project state why the problem addressed by the dissertation is important set the scene for the work described in the dissertation describe what others have done and hence sets a benchmark for the current project jusify the use of specific solution techniques or problem solving procedures in your work

It is called the Literature Review because the contents of this chapter are based on published material. A thorough literature review is essential because it shows that you have studied rigorously what others have done. This lends credibility when you state the problem the dissertation is addressing, and when you provide reasons as to why obtaining a solution is
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important. Where applicable, you should also include a critique of the available solutions to the problem that your are tackling. This would implicitly provide justifications for the project and, at the same time, establish benchmarks against which your contributions can be assessed. Therefore, make sure that you seek out the most recent information relating to your field of study. You may, if you wish, include a discussion about your approach to the problem, and which of the published work will form the basis of your investigations. The Literature Review is obviously a very important chapter. However, students doing research for the first time often find it difficult to write. There are a number of reasons for this: they do not know where to look for information there may be a huge amount of published work on the subject area, dating back many years, and they find it difficult to judge which material is relevant the work is a "hot-topic" and keeping track of the state-of-the-art is difficult they find it difficult to summarise the ideas and results of numerous publications into a coherent single account

Unfortunately, much of these skills can be gained only through experience. The following tips will, hopefully, make life that much easier. Consult librarians. Nowadays, an increasing number of journals are available on-line, accessed via University Library Website. Make it a point to keep abreast of developments in your field of study by making regular visits to the library and to the electronic journals websites. When reading a technical paper, jot down the key points and make a note of the journal or technical publication where the paper was published. Devise a cataloguing system that will allow you to retrieve the paper quickly. This will come in handy when you write the Literature Survey, and when you compile the reference list. When writing the Literature Review: Include only those works that is relevant to your research. You may have read dozens upon dozens of papers, but there will be some that do not contribute to the points that you are trying to make, or there will be papers that give identical information. Because of the time you spent trying to understand them, you may be tempted incorporate all that you have read. Attempting to do this will make what is already a difficult task impossible. Make sure that you have read and understood cited work; otherwise you can get into hot water. Organize your content according to ideas instead of individual publications. This helps ensure the smooth flow of contents and make the chapter more readable. It also shows that you have an appreciation of the subject area. Do not simply quote or paraphrase the contents of published articles. You should try to weave the information into focused views, incorporating where possible, your own opinions and comments. This will demonstrate your deeper understanding of the topic.

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In terms of a literature review, "the literature" means the works you consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem. Make sure how useful are the following sources? Journal articles: these are good especially for up-to-date information. Bear in mind, though, that it can take up to two years to publish articles. They are frequently used in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research, and because all reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research). Books: books tend to be less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article. Text books are unlikely to be useful for including in your literature review as they are intended for teaching, not for research, but they do offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources. http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM - sources#sources Conference proceedings: these can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published. They are also helpful in providing information on which people are currently involved in which research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers. Government/corporate reports: many government departments and corporations commission or carry out research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on your field of study. Newspapers: since newspapers are generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience, the information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review. Often newspapers are more helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy, but you should then search for more detailed information in other sources. Theses and dissertations: these can be useful sources of information. However there are disadvantages: 1) they can be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from the library shelf or through interlibrary loan; 2) the student who carried out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings with more caution than published research. http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM - sources#sources Internet: the fastest-growing source of information is on the Internet. It is impossible to characterize the information available but here are some hints about using electronic sources: 1) bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable, 2) the information you find may be intended for a general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general audience is usually less detailed) and 3) more and more refereed electronic journals (ejournals) are appearing on the Internet - if they are refereed it means that there is an editorial board that evaluates the work before publishing it in their e-journal, so the quality should be more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal). CD-ROMS: at the moment, few CR-ROMs provide the kind of specialized, detailed information about academic research that you need for your own research since most are intended for a general audience. However, more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD-ROM for use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching for the information you need. Magazines: magazines intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of information you need. Specialized magazines may be
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more useful (for example business magazines for management students) but usually magazines are not useful for your research except as a starting point by providing news or general information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further research in more specialized sources.

4.5.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Research is conducted for the purpose of discovering, interpreting, enhancing, developing standards to systematize measurements, and furthering advancement of knowledge. Methodology is the rationale behind collection of concepts, ideas, theories, and assumptions. Combined, a good research methodology is a technique of collecting data systematically. For all those wondering how to write a good research methodology, try using the following. Quantitative Research Methodology Quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation (Descriptive - What is the current situation? And Experimental - What is the cause?) used to measure the feelings and thoughts of people, and actions of the way and why things are done. Everything that is measurable can be used to gather quantitative data. This method of research is used in analysis of natural sciences and social sciences subjects. The quantitative concept can be applied to physics, biology, sociology and journalism. Structured questionnaires and interviews, one-on-one and telephonic data gathering are some of the common ways of collection data for quantitative research. Qualitative Research Methodology Qualitative research (Historical- What was the situation? And Ethnographic - What is the current situation used to gain an in-depth insight into matters that affect human behavior? It is a study that reflects more on the why and how of decision making, by studying people's culture, value systems, attitudes, behaviors, concerns, motivations, aspirations, etc. Qualitative research is multi-focal in its reasoning, exploring, questioning and answering; hence, it is extremely useful in market research, constructing business decisions and policies, enhancing communication and facilitating research. Unlike quantitative data collection, a method of qualitative research is based on unstructured interviews and recordings, and feedback. Evaluative research methodology usually uses standard social research methods, in terms of service quality assessment, process evaluation and standards for evaluative purposes. The main purpose served by evaluative research is to provide useful feedback for decision making. Most researches fail because they contain information that is irrelevant or one that seems not to answer what it set out to. How to write a good research methodology can be best answered, if one, at the end of every stage, checks for accomplishments and feels that they are closing in with each stage towards solving the problem or understanding the subject highlighted in their research. A good research methodology demands patience, persistence, insight, understanding, curiosity and perseverance.

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4.5.1. Research Method used Methodology can be the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline or the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline or a particular procedure or set of procedures. Methodology includes a philosophically coherent collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry. There are many different types of research methods, also called research designs. In real life, some studies may combine the features of several research designs or may contain elements not included below. Descriptive: The term descriptive is self-explanatory and terminology synonymous to this type of research is: describe, write on, depict. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it. Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions and degree in detail of the present situation. The emphasis is on describe rather than on judge or interpret. Because the total population during a specific investigation can not be contemplated as a whole, researchers make use of the demarcation of the population or of the selection of a representative test sample. Test sampling therefore forms an integral part of descriptive research. In descriptive research the following steps should be included: Problem selection and problem formulation. The research problem being tested should be explicitly formulated in the form of a question. o Literature search. Intensive literature search regarding the formulated problem enables the researcher to divide the problem into smaller units. o Problem reduction. o Hypothesis formulation. o Test sampling. The researcher should determine the size of the test sample. o Information retrieval. The application of appropriate information retrieval techniques to comply with the criteria set for authenticity and competency, is relevant. o General planning. Any research requires sound planning. o Report writing. The report entails the reproduction of factual information, the interpretation of data, conclusions derived from the research and recommendations. Experiment: Participants randomly assigned to different groups being studied. Groups are treated differently in one or a few very specific ways--the independent variable. Behavior resulting from this treatment difference is measured--the dependent variable. If one group gets a specific treatment and ones does not, usually the treated group is called the experimental group and other groups are called control groups. Conditions other than the independent variable are held as constant as possible for all groups. These constant o
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conditions are called controls. If participants are their own control group, that is, they receive both research treatments; the design is called a within-subjects experiment. Conclusions can be taken to indicate a cause and effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Because of this, the experiment is in a class by itself and it is a very special type of research procedure. In order to do experimental! research, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms dependent and independent variables. In experimental research it is a prerequisite that the researcher should be able to manipulate the variable and then to assess what the influence of the manipulation on the variable was. A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on different values. Objects are usually not considered as variables - but their characteristics are. As example the following can be considered: a transparency is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics of the transparency are variables, for example the colour, design etc. In other words, a transparency as an object can take on different values. Independent variable: The independent variable is the circumstances or characteristics which the researcher can manipulate in his effort to determine what their connection with the observed phenomenon is. This means that the researcher has direct control over the variable. As example of an independent variable, are study methods. o Dependent variable: The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the circumstances or characteristics that change, disappear or appear when the researcher implements the independent variable. For example, learning content that should be mastered (student performance) is the dependent variable, while the manipulation of study methods by means of different teaching methods, is the independent variable. Quasi-experiment: Participants achieve membership in different groups as a result of characteristics other than random assignment, for example: gender, age, socioeconomic status, athletic ability, or ethnic identification. A link may be found between one or more of these characteristics and some outcome variables, but cause and effect relationships are not clearly identified. Without random assignment to groups, a researcher cannot clearly demonstrate cause. Co-relational study: In the most general sense, a correlational study investigates the relationship between two variables. Usually the data are reported as correlation coefficients. Strength and direction (positive or negative) of relationships can be demonstrated by correlational studies but causal links remain an open question. Longitudinal study: A longitudinal study follows a group composed of the same people across a period of the life span. The behavior of these individuals is observed and/or measured at several intervals over time in an attempt to study the changes in their behavior. Longitudinal studies may cover a short time, such as a few weeks, or a long time, such as the entire life span. Longitudinal studies may additionally employ other methods, such as quasi-experimental or o
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correlational approaches, but the defining characteristic is that the same people are studied repeatedly across time. Cross sectional study: A cross sectional study usually examines groups of different people who belong to different age groups as a means of studying behavior development across part or all of the life span. These studies can usually be done more easily and quickly than longitudinal studies but the resulting data may be of lower quality. More rarely, the term cross sectional may be used to describe studies which divide and examine segments of society based on variables other than age, such as income, educational level or family size. Survey: A survey is a structured list of questions presented to people. Surveys may be written or oral, face to face or over the phone. It is possible to cheaply survey large numbers of people, but the data quality may be lower than some other methods because people do not always answer questions accurately. Interview: An interview may be highly structured or it may involve less structured narrative. It may include survey methodology. It usually involves people responding orally to questions or talking about their thoughts on a topic. Case study: A case study involves extensive observations of a few individuals. Data collection may include watching behavior, interviews and record searching. Case studies may be retrospective and/or prospective. Usually case studies are employed where the behavior or situation is so rare that other methods, involving larger groups of participants, are not possible. Naturalistic observation: Naturalistic observations can range from unstructured observations of humans or other animals to situations involving hypothesis testing or some manipulations of a natural setting. If you wanted to know if males are likely to hold doors open for females, you could watch until you had seen a number of natural occurrences of this, or you could get a female helper to follow males into buildings and watch to see what happens. It can be difficult to precisely define the natural setting, particularly when the participants are humans. Placing an actual research procedure into this category or others can involve a judgment call which might be debatable. Demonstration: An unsystematically engineered observation of behavior, sometimes involving only one participant. The demonstration provides only very weak evidence. It is not a recognized research method but it is a term which can be quite useful as a descriptor for studies that seem to employ no established method.

4.5.2. Population of the Study As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When you've finished your research and you make statements based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study is defined as all regular students who access the internet during the sampling time frame", or "...all elites in the city of Jimma", or "...all potential to the service".

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While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population. 4.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population. The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validitythe extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other situations with other people (Shavelson, 1988). Sampling is critical to external validitythe extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priority. Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validitythe extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated. Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be constructed (Shavelson, 1988). Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative. One must ask oneself, How representative is the sample of the survey population (the group from which the sample is selected) and how representative is the survey population of the target population (the larger group to which we wish to generalize)? When a sample is drawn out of convenience (a nonprobability sample), rationale and limitations must be clearly provided. If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or other relevant group membership). Detail procedures to follow to obtain informed consent and ensure anonymity and/or confidentiality. Note that this applies if you distributed a questionnaire or have based your work on case studies.

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What is sampling theory? Why is it important to research design? What are the different methods of sampling? What are their advantages and disadvantages? Which sampling method did you use for this survey? Why did you choose this method? How did you determine the size of your sample?

There are three primary kinds of samples: the convenience, the judgment sample, and the random sample. They differ in the manner in which the elementary units are chosen. Quota sample (Non-probability sample) The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of several categories. The convenient sample (Non-probability sample) A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a population for observation. The judgment sample (Non-probability sample) A judgment sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. The random sample (Probability sample) This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as a probability sample. This is the type of sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles. For example, if you want to select 10 players randomly from a population of 100, you can write their names, fold them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case, every name had any equal chance of being picked. Random numbers can also be used. A simple random sample: A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly. Instead of using a least of random numbers, data collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen randomly as discussed below. such a procedure is called systematic random sampling.

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A systematic random sample: A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is obtained. For example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get 5. Randomly select any number between 1 and five. Suppose the number you have picked is 4, that will be your starting number. So student number 4 has been selected. From there you will select every 5th name until you reach the last one, number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected students. A stratified sample: A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C. A cluster sample: A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For example, a cluster may be some thing like a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the elementary schools in New York State are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, then every school selected becomes a cluster. If you interest is to interview teachers on their opinion of some new program which has been introduced, then all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed. Though very economical cluster sampling is very susceptible to sampling bias. Like for the above case, you are likely to get similar responses from teachers in one school due to the fact that they interact with one another.

4.5.4. Instrumentations Selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of constructs; this is a crucial step in the proposal. For example, it is at this step that a literary conception such as self-efficacy is related to school achievement becomes scores on the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale are related to Grade Point Average. Strictly speaking, results of your study will be directly relevant only to the instrumental or operational statements (Guba, 1961). There are more than six common ways to get information. These are: literature searches, talking with people, focus groups discussion, personal interviews, telephone surveys, and mail surveys/questionnaire.

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4.5.5. Procedure for Data Collection Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include survey administration procedures, interview or observation procedures. Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be employed. If appropriate, discuss how you obtained entr. Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to follow and make sure you have described the following. What was the purpose of collecting and analyzing the data? Why was it interesting/useful to look at this topic? Can you summaries the basic questions the research set out to answer in a few straightforward statements? What role did the findings of the literature review have in determining the data collection requirements? Did you need to collect quantitative or qualitative data? Why/why not?

Discussion of alternative methods of data collection Which methods might have been appropriate for data collection (e.g. observation, questionnaire etc.)? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods of data collection with reference to your own research project? (This may be best summarized as a table.)

Discussion of the question content and data required For each of the basic research statements given in "data required" explain how questions asked of the sample generated the data required. Can you use elements of the literature review to strengthen your arguments for using certain questions (e.g. because there are gaps in the literature)? Did you take any decisions to limit the scope of data collection and, if so, why?

4.5.6. Statistical Methods for the Study

Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately (e.g. case study, grounded theory etc). If coding procedures are to be used, describe in reasonable detail. If you triangulated, carefully explain how you went about it. Communicate your precise intentions and reasons for these intentions to the reader. This helps you and the reader evaluate the choices you made and procedures you followed.

Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and expect to use (e.g. SAS, SPSS, SYSTAT etc). You are expected to manipulate the data yourself using a Statistical Analysis Software Package. One of the above will be made available to you on the lab computers with no cost. Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to use the design, methodology, and analyses you have selected and don't forget you have also considered the following. Were the data collected analyzed manually or by computer?
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If analyzed by computer, which package was used? Review of the methodology used for the research Did you encounter any problems with the methodology implemented? What were these? How could you have avoided these problems? If you were to run the project again what improvements would you make to the methodological approach adopted? How did your method rate for reliability and validity?

4.6.

Chapter 4: Data Analysis, Results and Discussion

Analyze and Interpret the Results: Once the data are collected, you must analyze and interpret the results. Analysis will include data summaries (e.g., calculating means and variances) and statistical tests to verify conclusions. Most scientists lay out their Tables and Figures upon completion of the data analysis before writing the Results section. Write the Table and Figure legends. It is good practice to note the one or two key results that each Table or Figure conveys and use this information as a basis for writing the Results section. Sequence and numbering the Tables and Figures in the order which best enables the reader to reach your conclusions. Write the Results Section: Remember that the Results section has both text and illustrative materials (Tables and Figures). Use the text component to guide the reader through your key results, i.e., those results which answer the question(s) you investigated. Each Table and Figure must be referenced in the text portion of the results, and you must tell the reader what the key result(s) is that each Table or Figure conveys. The presentation and discussion of the results is the heart of the technical report. Many readers, of course, are interested only in obtaining the quick review of the work afforded by the Summary and the concluding section. But readers who have reason to study the entire text of a report will normally spend most of their time on the Results and Discussion section. The first purpose of this section is a well-organized and objective presentation of the results. Tables and figure that show the results should have sufficient supporting description to permit the reader to interpret them quickly and accurately. But do not repeat in words what is already apparent from examination of the tables and figures. The second purpose of this section is a discussion of the results, together with their analysis, to show that the conclusions are warranted. Each major conclusion should be clearly explained and compared with the results of similar work by other investigators. This chapter describes the mechanics for achieving these purposes. The organization, the methods of presentation, and the discussion of results are described. Several examples illustrate the principles involved. The Results and Discussion section should present the data as concisely and clearly as possible. To achieve this goal, prepare a good outline of this section before starting to write. Conventionally, an introductory statement is used to remind readers of the type of tests conducted and the scope of the investigation. Any other statements necessary for correctly interpreting the results should be made in this introductory paragraph.
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An important decision is whether to present this material as a single section or as two separate sections, one entitled "Results" and the other "Discussion." Regardless of the length of the report, a single section combining the results and their discussion is usually preferable because this scheme is clearer and less repetitious. Separate sections may sometimes be desirable: When heterogeneous data must be considered in making a point in the discussion

For example, the use of separate sections may be better when reporting test data on several materials to determine which is best for a particular application. In this case the test results for each material would be presented in the Results section. The Discussion section would then be used to compare the properties of the various materials, to review their advantages and disadvantages for the application being considered, and finally to select the best material. When a large number of similar curves must be compared on a single figure.

If your data fall too close together to be presented on a single plot, you can present the original data in separate figures and later combine only the faired curves (using different types of lines) from these figures on a single figure for comparison and discussion. The report may well be written with these two sections separated. A lengthy presentation of results about which there is little or no discussion is best made in an appendix. Then only the comparison figure need be shown in the Results and Discussion section, with reference made to the APPENDIX. If this section is longer than approximately one page, use the pertinent subheadings determined during your preliminary outlining. Perhaps the most frequently used type of outline groups similar data. Another type of outline groups the data obtained with each of several systems being compared. If results indicate the need for further research, a simple statement to this effect should suffice. Data should be presented as clearly and simply as possible. Although you are familiar with the work, others are not. Avoid taking too much for granted; avoid complicated correlations; avoid making the presentation too long and too involved with insignificant details. First present the data in a simple, readily understood form. Then if necessary, give complicated comparison figures or correlation curves that make sense only to those fully familiar with the field. In preparing the figures and tables take care to put them in acceptable form. Including a summary data table is sometimes desirable. The table should include the data necessary for your readers to evaluate the accuracy of your plots and correlations. Additional data may be included to enable them to devise additional plots and correlations. For the sake of brevity present only the most important data in the summary table. But if calculated data are very important and are widely used in the report, include them in the summary data table even though the reader could obtain these values by independent calculations. The discussion of the results is one of the most important parts of a technical report. To discuss the results adequately, you must clearly understand their significance. This requires that you have mastery of the theory pertaining to your field and broad knowledge of the information already available from work in this and allied fields. The discussion must clearly point out the exact contribution made to the existing fund of knowledge by the new data. If the results have an immediate application, point this out. If possible, give an example to illustrate the method of
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application. Clearly state any significant conclusions and either prove or properly qualify them. But discuss the results; do not merely recapitulate them. The major results and the conclusions, normally stated in both the Summary and the concluding section, must be clearly established here. Any new or unusual result should be explained. If you do not understand the phenomenon or if the data are too limited to permit rigorous analysis, it is sometimes worthwhile to present a speculative discussion outlining several possible causes. Alert your readers that such a discussion is speculative. The discussion of the results sometimes includes the method of computation or derivation, normally presented in the analysis or Procedure sections. Such situations may arise when one figure is derived from preceding figures. If the method is involved, include a complete example as an appendix and indicate only the main steps here. Again, judgment must be exercised to achieve the desired result. Essential information must not be kept from the reader. But trivial details must be subordinated by placing them in an APPENDIX to avoid diluting the text and obscuring the important facts. End the discussion with a short summary explaining the significance of your work. "When you describe the meaning of your little bit of truth, do it simply. I believe that the simplest statements evoke the most wisdom; verbose language and fancy technical words are used to convey shallow thought". Write the Discussion: Interpretation of your results includes discussing how your results modify and fit in with what we previously understood about the problem. Review the literature again at this time. After completing the experiments you will have much greater insight into the subject, and by going through some of the literature again, information that seemed trivial before, or was overlooked, may tie something together and therefore prove very important to your own interpretation. Be sure to cite the works that you refer to. The discussion section is for comment on and explanation of the results. It includes: Explanation of results: the writer comments on whether or not the results were expected, and presents explanations for the results, particularly for those that are unexpected or unsatisfactory. References to previous research: comparison of the results with those reported in the literature, or use of the literature to support a claim, hypothesis or deduction. Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more generally (a conclusion based on reasoning from the results, e.g. we fed fish a new feed, all the fish gained weight, therefore the new feed causes fish to gain weight). Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results (which will be proved or disproved in later research).

There are two basic ways of organizing the results and discussion: Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a different section) Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part then giving a discussion, etc.
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The method of organization you use will depend on the quantity and type of results you obtain from your research. You should look for a method of presentation that makes the information and ideas you are presenting as clear as possible to the reader.

Example: 1.1 Strategies in Real-life Diagnosis In fault diagnosis in advanced manufacturing systems, four typical strategies are found: Restriction of diagnosis to components which are known and susceptible to failures (Historical information); Performing tests that result in least efforts (Least effort); Reconstruction of the conditions that lead to the failure (Reconstruction); Perception of symptoms, i.e. loose connections, odors, sounds, play (Sensory checks). These strategies appeared in about 60% of the total observed strategies. The primary strategy was Historical Information. This corresponds to the result Hoc (1985). In Information theory, strategies such as Information uncertainty, which eliminates the greatest number of failure causes, or Split half, which results in a binary splitting of the problem space, are economical ways to shorten the problem space. We found that in real-life failure diagnosis, even maintenance experts with more than 20 years experience seldom used these strategies. One reason may be that the use of this strategy requires information about conditional probabilities and a fully described problem space that cannot be supposed for troubleshooting in complex manufacturing systems. Follow the following tips to check out how you need to look forward in to discussion part of your research: If you are putting your discussion into a discussion section separate from the results, you may want to provide a summary of the results to remind your reader of your main findings. Put your results in context (e.g. by comparing them with previous research, or with existing theory) in order to explain them. Give reasons to account for differences between your research and previous research or existing theory, or to explain unexpected results. Although there may be some repetition of information in the results and discussion sections, it should be kept to a minimum. Remember too that the focus should be different: while you are simply presenting results and making them meaningful to your reader in the results section, in the discussion section you are explaining them.

4.7.

Chapter 5: Summary of the Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation

After reading your abstract and introduction, most assessors will make a beeline for the Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Work (or similarly titled) chapter. There are
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three distinct parts to this, the last of the main chapters, and arguably the most important of the lot. It is here where you wrap up your research by providing: a summary of the major findings of the thesis a list of the contributions of the work directions for further research

The advisors would want to know whether the project objectives been achieved and whether the work has contributed to knowledge - two of the most important criteria in judging the research work. Therefore, when compiling this chapter, you should focus on answering these questions. Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from your work. You may make references to the relevant chapters that support the listed finding. You may also refer to the work of others for comparison purposes. However, you should not be discussing your results here. All statements should be concise, and should be written to lead on to the contributions that you have made. One way to present the conclusions is to use one paragraph for each conclusion. Alternatively, use a point-by-point format. When writing the research, you should be aware of the worth and relevance of your work in relation to the current situations (another reason for a rigorous Literature Review). Probably the best way to present this information is in point form. You should not be embarrassed about stating what your contributions are to the field of study. However, be realistic and do exercise restraint: your claims must be backed up by the results of your work; otherwise you might "hammered" by the advisors. The Recommendations for Further Research section is also important. Research often exposes further problems and introduces more questions. As a student, there is a time limit to your research project, so it is unlikely that your work would have solved all the problems associated with the area of study. Therefore, you will be expected to make suggestions about how your work can be improved and, based on your findings, whether there are areas that deserve further investigation. What you write in this section will show whether you have a firm appreciation of your work, and whether you have given sufficient thought to its implications, not only within the narrow confines of the research topic, but to related fields. These reflect your ability for original thought, and your potential to carry out original research; key issues in a research degree. As with the Introduction, this chapter should be written using a punchy or effective style and should not be too long. Present your conclusions and contributions concisely and factually.

4.8.

Bibliography

Reference information is required. Each reference must include the names of all authors (in the same sequence in which they appear in the publication), the article and journal title, book title, volume number, page numbers, and year of publication. If the document is available electronically, the website address also should be identified. Students must be especially careful
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to follow accepted scholarly practices in providing citations for source materials relied upon when preparing any section of the proposal. While there is no established page limitation for the references, this section must also include bibliographic citations. This will enable you to make a Works Cited list at the end of your project (i.e.: a list of only the works you have summarized, paraphrased, or quoted from in the paper.) There are different types of citation standard, these are: 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. APA: psychology, education, and other social sciences. MLA: literature, arts, and humanities. AMA: medicine, health, and biological sciences. Turabian: designed for use with all subjects. Chicago: used with all subjects in the "real world" by books, magazines, newspapers, and other non-scholarly publications.

The department may require you to follow APA. This citation style is used when you are dealing with Social Sciences. In this kind of work you should present not only authors names, but also the necessary dates. If you are using the style for Copy Manuscripts, double space all lines. If you are using the style for Final Manuscripts, single space all lines and skip a line in between each reference. Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books, articles, etc. Indent the second and following lines 5 to 7 spaces or one half inch. Use only the initials of the authors' first (and middle) names. If no author is given, start with the title and then the date. Article titles and book titles: capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle. (Capitalize all significant words of periodical titles.) If you are using a typewriter that cannot produce italics, then use underlining instead. Magazine articles: include the month (and day) as shown under "Magazine Article from a Database" and "Newspapers". Websites: if the date the page was created is not given, use (n.d.). Journal Article: where the page numbering continues from issue to issue Dubeck, L. (1990). Science fiction aids science teaching. Physics Teacher, 28, 316-318. Journal or Magazine Article: that start each issue with page one (for magazine articles, include the month and day - see below) Wilcox, R. V. (1991). Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular Culture, 13(2), 53-65. Magazine or Journal Article from a Database (for journal articles, do not include the month - see above) Mershon, D. H. (1998, November/December). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585. Retrieved July 29, 1999, from Expanded Academic ASAP database.
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Newspaper Article Di Rado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star trek. Los Angeles Times, p. A3. Books Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York: Pocket Books. Books Article or Chapter James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood. Encyclopedia Article Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In The encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp. 390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier. ERIC Document Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling communication in Star trek: The next generation: Conflicts between brothers. Miami, FL: Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 364932) Website Lynch, T. (1996). DS9 trials and tribble-ations review. Retrieved October 8, 1997, from Psi Phi: Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site: http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.html Use the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style in the text. For one author: i. Placed at the end of the sentence (Blagden, 1988). ii. Placed somewhere in the middle ..(Blagden, 1988) iii. Placed at beginning or towards the beginning of a sentence Blagden (1988) asserted that According to Blagden (1988) For two authors: The entry is same as for one author above, except that the two authors are connected with and (&). .(Tadesse & Bayou, 2000). . (Tadesse & Bayou, 2000).. Tadesse & Bayou (2000) According to Tadesse & Bayou (2000) . For three or more authors:

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If you are referring to literature written by three or more authors, write the name of the first author followed by et al. .(Tadesse et al., 2000). . (Tadesse et al., 2000).. Tadesse et al. (2000) pointed out According to Tadesse et al. (2000) . For referring to same author or group of authors in the same year: Place letter a, b, etc. immediately after the year, and it does not matter if single, double or multiple authors. The placement is also at your discretion Tadesse & Bayou (2000a, 2000b) For referring to many authors at the same time: Arrange them chronologically (i.e., by year in ascending order) and if of the same year then arrange the authors alphabetically and separate them using semi-colon. The placement is at your discretion. Example:
Taylor (1986) and Blagden (1988) reviewed the concepts of use in greater detail.

4.9.

Appendices

All additional details of information necessary for the review of a proposal must be contained in this section of the proposal. Appendices may include any supporting documents such as developed data collection instruments, list of organizations that have participated in the study, maps, and etc. At the end of the whole work there should be a full bibliography. Any appendices should come after the full bibliography. The longest chapters will be the Literature review and Methodology. The Introduction and Conclusion chapters will be short. Some students find that they need to include additional chapters, this is quite possible. For example, a student writing about a specific organization may need to provide a separate chapter on that organization for context setting before discussing the specifics of the research work.

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Chapter Five
5.0. 5.1. Group Project Writing General Principles

5.1.1. Objectives The individual/group project is by far the most important single piece of work in the degree program. It provides the opportunity for you to demonstrate independence and originality, to plan and organize a large project over a long period, and to put into practice some of the techniques you have been taught throughout the course. Whatever your level of academic achievement so far, you can show your individuality and inspiration in this project. It should be the most satisfying piece of work in your degree. It is worth about a quarter of the final year marks. 5.1.2. Choosing a Group Project The idea for your project may be a proposal from a member of staff or youre own, or perhaps a combination of the two. 5.1.3. Staff Proposals For projects proposed by members of staff you should discuss the project or proposal with the students as soon as possible so that you have plenty of time to think about the best choices for you. Note that not every project proposal is suitable for every student; some may only suit students with a very specific set of interests. 5.1.4. Students Proposals If you have your own idea for an individual/group project it is your responsibility to find a member of staff who both approves of the proposed program of work and is willing to supervise it or you will be allocated a supervisor by the department. You should first submit proposal, and then discuss it with prospective supervisors. The Research Team Leader will be happy to help you find a supervisor but you cannot assume that one can be found in every case. 5.1.5. Assessment It is important when choosing a project to understand the way it will be assessed. A good firstclass project involves a combination of sound background research, a solid implementation, or piece of theoretical work, and a thorough evaluation of the projects output in both absolute and relative terms. A good tip is to try to think of the project as an "investigation", rather than an effort to deliver a fully-functioning "product". Proper evaluation of the project is thus crucial to achieving high marks. The very best projects invariably cover some new ground, e.g. by developing a complex application which does not already exist, or by enhancing some existing application or method to improve its functionality, performance etc.
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A straightforward implementation project is acceptable, but you must appreciate that it is unlikely to gain high marks, regardless of how well it is done. Likewise, projects which are predominantly survey reports, unless they are backed up with experimentation, implementation, or theoretical analysis, e.g. for performing an objective comparison of surveyed methods, techniques etc. Pure survey reports, with no supporting implementation or theory, are not acceptable. 5.1.6. Choosing the right project The projects offered by staff may vary substantially in breadth, depth and degree of difficulty. The most important thing is to shortlist a set of projects that are right for you. Some students are better suited to well-defined and relatively safe projects that provide scope for demonstrating proficiency with a low risk of failure. Other students are better advised to tackle harder, riskier projects that require a high degree of original input and/or technical problem solving. If you are looking to achieve high marks in your project and, particularly, if you are hoping to win one of the illustrious projects prizes, or achieve "Distinguished Project" status, you should choose your shortlist with particular care. The potential supervisors will be happy to offer advice on the suitability of a project, given your individual background, strengths and ambitions. Remember that it is important to balance ambition and realism when making a choice. 5.1.7. Allocation The administration system requires you to specify one preferred project and two others. If you choose from the published proposals your first choice of project cannot be guaranteed since individual supervisors can only take responsibility for a limited number of projects. In some cases you may be allocated the project but another member of staff will be assigned to supervise it. Failing this, you will be allocated one of your other choices. It is extremely important to appreciate that the enthusiasm and interest of the supervisor is one of the keys to a successful project. Some students are disappointed when they do not get their preferred choice. However, you should bear in mind that it is much better to be supervised by an enthusiastic researcher of a `second choice' project, rather than someone who has reluctantly agreed to supervise a `preferred choice' project on behalf of the original researcher. 5.1.8. Equipment You are permitted to develop a program or a system on the departments lab equipment, provided that you can duplicate it for the demonstration any time and any where. However, you should prepare a contingency position in case your equipment misbehaves. If you require non-standard resources e.g. specific hardware or software or access to specific machines, you must make a formal request to the department on project resources but not beyond the limitation given by the university. Ideally, requests for resources should be submitted within two weeks of the project allocation date.

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If you lose your program or your data or your report because of a system failure you will simply lose marks. No extensions will be given at the end of the project for you to re-type a lost report, for example. 5.1.9. Meeting Your Supervisor You must make sure that you arrange regular meetings with your supervisor. The meetings may be brief once your project is under way but your supervisor needs to know that your work is progressing. If you need to talk to your supervisor between meetings and cannot locate them in their office, leave a note, or send mail, asking them to suggest a time when they will be available. When you go to see your supervisor you should have prepared a written list of points you wish to discuss. Take notes during the meeting so that you do not forget the advice you were given or the conclusions that were reached. 5.1.10. The Project Report The project report is an extremely important aspect of the project. It serves to show what you have achieved and should demonstrate that: You understand the wider context of computing or system development by relating your choice of project, and the approach you take, to existing products or research. You can apply the theoretical and practical techniques taught in the course to the problem you are addressing and that you understand their relevance to the wider world of computing or system development. You are capable of objectively criticizing your own work and making constructive suggestions for improvements or further work based on your experiences so far. As an information professional, you can explain your thinking and working processes clearly and concisely to third parties who may not be experts in the field in which you are working.

Most of the project assessors will not have followed the project throughout and will only have a short time to listen to a presentation or see a demonstration. For this reason they will rely heavily on the report to judge the project. You should appreciate that the examiners, who play a crucial role in the final recommendation, have only the report by which to judge your project performance. Many students underestimate the importance of the report and make the mistake of thinking that top marks can be achieved simply for producing a good product. This is fundamentally not the case and many projects have been graded well below their potential because of an indifferent or poor write-up. In order to get the balance right you should consider that the aim of the project is to produce a good report and that Website or database or a program or a system, theory etc. that you developed during the project are merely a means to this end. Don't make the mistake of leaving the write-up to the last minute. Ideally you should produce the bulk of the report as you go along and use the last week or two to bring it together into a coherent document.
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The physical layout and formatting of the report is also important, and yet is very often neglected. A tidy, well lay out and consistently formatted document makes for easier reading and is suggestive of a careful and professional attitude towards its preparation. Many supervisors may advise you to a certain system as this solves most of the formatting problems for you. This is not a requirement, but be aware that if you use a system like MS Word you may have to invest more time to get the layout right. Remember that quantity does not automatically guarantee quality. Conciseness, clarity and elegance are invaluable qualities in report writing, just as they are in programming, and will be rewarded appropriately. Try to ensure that your report contains the following elements (the exact structure, chapter titles etc. is up to you):

5.2.

Outline of the Research

During preparation of the actual individual student research writing it is assumed that you will end up with at least eight major parts: Preliminary Pages Title Page Approval sheet Dedication (if any) Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Appendices (if any) Abstract Chapter 1.0 Introduction Objective of the Research Project Statement of the Problem Research Project Questions Scope and Limitation of the Research Project Significance of the Research project Assumptions (if any) Definition of Terms Chapter 2.0 Literature Review Chapter 3.0 Project Design and Methodology Data Collection Method Analysis Design Experimentation Implementation Testing Evaluation Chapter 4.0 Data Analysis/Results/Discussions Chapter 5.0 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations References or Bibliography (should start on new page)
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Appendices (if any)

5.3.

Preliminary Pages
5.3.1. Title Page

Institution Name Title By Submitted to: A Group Research Project Submitted to the Department of Information Science, College of Engineering and Technology, Jimma University, in partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of Bachelor in Information Science. Jimma, Ethiopia May 2009

Figure 8

Note: - before submission you should assemble a project directory which contains your entire Website or database or system etc. and your project report (source files and pdf or postscript). Make sure this directory is readable! On the front page of the report you should print the directory path so that your project can be accessed electronically if needed. You can update this any time after submission of the report but a version of it should exist at the time of submission. This should include the project title and the name of the author of the report. You can also list the name of your supervisor if you wish. 5.3.2. Approval Sheet
This Independent Research/Research Project en-titled .. has been read and approved as the requirements of the Department of Information Science in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor in Information Science, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia. Research and Scholarly Communication Management Team Leader ____________________________________________________________________________ Principal Advisor ____________________________________________________________________________ Advisors ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

Figure 9

5.3.3. Dedication (if any) A Dedication is a section at the very beginning of your work (before any other body matter) containing a tribute to something (frequently someone) in connection with the writing or publication of the whole work.
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5.3.4. Acknowledgements Acknowledgement in scientific literature writing is a statement of gratitude for friends, family, instructors, advisors, organizations etc for assistance in producing a specific work. Receiving a credit by way of acknowledgment indicates that the person or organization did
not have a direct hand in producing the work in question, but may have contributed criticism, or encouragement to the performer(s). Apart from citation, which is not usually considered to

be an acknowledgment, but acknowledgment of conceptual support is widely considered to be the most important for identifying intellectual debt. 5.3.5. Table of Contents A table of contents, may be headed simply "Contents," is an organized list of divisions (chapters or articles) and the pages on which they start or the place where they may be found in the order in which the parts appear. The contents usually includes the titles or descriptions of the first-level headers, such as chapter titles in longer works, and often includes second-level or section titles (A-heads) within the chapters as well, and occasionally even third-level titles (subsections or B-heads). The depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal reports (ten or more pages and being too long to put into a memo or letter) also have tables of contents. Documents of fewer than ten pages do not require tables of contents, but often have a short list of contents at the beginning. Table of Contents as a gateway through the document shall automatically be indexed or generated. 5.3.6. List of Figures Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of figures to locate visual information in a certain body of document. The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in a research documents. Figures concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence. Often Advisors, reviewers and readers review them independently of other sections of a report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways to include them. Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in Arabic number through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two parts, the first part referring to the section number: for example, "Figure 3-5" for the fifth figure in Chapter 3. Be sure the figure captions are descriptive. 5.3.7. List of Appendices (if any) Any literary matter added to a document, but not necessarily essential to its completeness, and thus distinguished from supplement, which is intended to supply deficiencies and correct inaccuracies. Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of appendices to locate some extra/detail information attached as if by being hung on or as an appendage. Appendices are supplementary materials usually attached at the end of a piece of writing.
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5.3.8. Abstract (should finish in one or two paragraph) An abstract is a brief summary of your research project or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of an original work, acting as the point-of-entry for any given scientific paper. Use the following as a checklist for your abstract: Motivation: Why do we care about the problem and the results? If the problem isn't obviously "interesting" it might be better to put motivation first; but if your work is incremental progress on a problem that is widely recognized as important, then it is probably better to put the problem statement first to indicate which piece of the larger problem you are breaking off to work on. This section should include the importance of your work, the difficulty of the area, and the impact it might have if successful. Problem statement: What problem are you trying to solve? What is the scope of your work (a generalized approach, or for a specific situation)? Be careful not to use too much jargon. In some cases it is appropriate to put the problem statement before the motivation, but usually this only works if most readers already understand why the problem is important. Approach: How did you go about solving or making progress on the problem? Did you use simulation, analytic models, prototype construction, or analysis of field data for an actual product? What was the extent of your work (did you look at one application program or a hundred programs in twenty different programming languages?) What important variables did you control, ignore, or measure? Results: What's the answer? Specifically, most good computer architecture papers conclude that something is so many percent faster, cheaper, smaller, or otherwise better than something else. Put the result there, in numbers. Avoid vague, hand-waving results such as "very", "small", or "significant." If you must be vague, you are only given license to do so when you can talk about orders-ofmagnitude improvement. There is a tension here in that you should not provide numbers that can be easily misinterpreted, but on the other hand you don't have room for all the caveats. Conclusions: What are the implications of your answer? Is it going to change the world (unlikely), be a significant "win", be a nice hack, or simply serve as a road sign indicating that this path is a waste of time (all of the previous results are useful). Are your results general, potentially generalizable, or specific to a particular case?

Other Considerations:
An abstract must be a fully self-contained, capsule description of the paper. Meet the word count limitation between 150 to 200 words is common. Any major restrictions or limitations on the results should be stated, if only by using "weasel-words" such as "might", "could", "may", and "seem". Think of a half-dozen search phrases and keywords that people looking for your work might use.
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Some publications request "keywords". These have two purposes. They are used to facilitate keyword index searches, which are greatly reduced in importance now that on-line abstract text searching is commonly used. Two types of abstracts are typically used: Descriptive Abstracts tell readers what information the report contains. include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report. do not provide results, conclusions, or recommendations. are always very short, usually under 200 words. introduce the subject to readers, who must then read the report to find out the author's results, conclusions, or recommendations.

Informative Abstracts communicate specific information from the report. include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report. provide the report, article, or paper's results, conclusions, and recommendations. are short -- from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the original work being abstracted. allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report.

An effective abstract has the following qualities: uses one or more well developed paragraphs: these are unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone. uses an introduction/body/conclusion structure which presents the report's purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations in that order. follows strictly the chronology of the article, paper, or report. provides logical connections (or transitions) between the information included. adds no new information, but simply summarizes the report. is understandable to a wide audience. often times use passive verbs to downplay the author and emphasize the information. Check with your teacher if you're unsure whether or not to use passive voice.

To write an effective abstract, follow these steps: Reread the report with the goal of abstracting in mind. o Look specifically for these main parts of the report: purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendation. o Use the headings, outline heads, and table of contents as a guide to writing your abstract. o If you're writing an abstract about another person's report, the introduction and the summary are good places to begin. These areas generally cover what the article emphasizes. After you've finished rereading the report, write a rough draft without looking back at what you're abstracting.
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Don't merely copy key sentences from the report: you'll put in too much or too little information. o Don't rely on the way material was phrased in report: summarize information in a new way. Revise your rough draft to o correct weaknesses in organization. o Improve transitions from point to point. o drop unnecessary information. o add important information you left out. o Eliminate wordiness o Fix errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Print your final copy and read it again to catch any glitches that you find. o

5.4.

Chapter 1: Introduction

The introduction serves two purposes. First, it allows you to provide the reader with some brief background information about the topic. Second, it lets you state your research question. Note that your research question must always be in your introduction. It's best to make it the last sentence of your introduction. Your introductions should not exceed two pages (double spaced, typed). The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with the intention of defending it. It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand and appreciate your objectives. The abstract is the only text in a research paper to be written without using paragraphs in order to separate major points. Approaches vary widely, however the first chapter of a dissertation is normally given the title Introduction, and it serves many purposes. It is the place where you should: Discuss the motivation for the work that is being reported. Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing in the first place? Provide a broad context. Defend the model - why did you use this particular organism or system? What are its advantages? You might comment on its suitability from a theoretical point of view as well as indicate practical reasons for using it. Provide a rationale. State your specific objective(s), and describe the reasoning that led you to select them. State the aims and objectives of the work. State and define the problem that the project is trying to address or solve. Very briefly describe the experimental design and how it accomplished the stated objectives. Give an indication of how the work will be progressed. Provide a brief overview of each of the main chapters that the reader will encounter. When writing the motivation for the project work that has been carried out, do not go into the details. Leave this for later chapters. Give a brief overview of the problem that you are tackling, and be specific about what the work is trying to achieve, and what you will be doing to meet these objectives. From an assessment point of view, one of the measures of success is whether the objectives listed in this chapter have been achieved. While a research project may start off
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with a set of objectives, it is often the case that these will change as the project evolves. Such is the nature of research. You should take this into consideration when stating the objectives of the project. Like the abstract, the Introduction should be written to engage the interest of the reader. It should also give the reader an idea of how the dissertation is structured, and in doing so, define the thread of the contents. Style: Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will be submitted after all of the work is completed. Organize your ideas, making one major point with each paragraph. If you make the four points listed above, you will need a minimum of four paragraphs. Present background information only as needed in order support a position. The reader does not want to read everything you know about a subject. State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify. As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and phrases. 5.4.1. Background The background section of the report should set the project into context by relating it to existing published work which you read at the start of the project when your approach and methods were being considered. There are usually many ways of solving a given problem, and you shouldn't just pick one at random. Describe and evaluate as many alternative approaches as possible. The background section can be included as part of the introduction but is usually better as a separate chapter, especially if the project involved significant amount of prior research. The published work may be in the form of research papers, articles, text books, technical manuals, or even existing software or hardware of which you have had hands-on experience. Your must acknowledge the sources of your inspiration. You are expected to have seen and thought about other people's ideas; your contribution will be putting them into practice in some other context. However, avoid plagiarism: if you take another person's work as your own and do not cite your sources of information/inspiration you are being dishonest; in other words you are cheating. When referring to other pieces of work, cite the sources where they are referred to or used, rather than just listing them at the end. 5.4.2. Objective of the Research Project Objectives are specifically for targets within the general goal. Objectives are time related to achieve a certain task. Objectives are measurable activities achieved goals; the end points envisioned. These objectives might be, for example, development of a specified measurement capability that meets a prescribed accuracy, data rate, instrument packaging characteristics (size, weight, etc.), and other possible requirements.
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The objectives section of the research project is typically very brief, usually a half-page at most. This is because the rationale for objectives could also be explained in the problem statement, while the ways of achieving the objectives should be explained in the methodology section. Indicating both the general and specific objectives of the project will be important. The General objectives provide a short statement of the development goal being pursued by the research. The Specific objectives are operational in nature. They may indicate specific types of knowledge to be produced, certain audiences to be reached, and certain forms of capacity to be reinforced. These are the objectives against which the success of the project will be judged. It is important to distinguish the specific objectives from the means of achieving them.

5.4.3. Statement of the Problem Explain what your research project has found out or show. State your question or series of questions answered during the research period. After you have conducted significant research you should be able to answer your question(s) in one or two sentences, which may become the thesis of the final paper. Generally this section should normally make up one of the significant parts of the research project. It should describe the problem that were investigated and the questions that have guided the research process. Note that proper justification of the importance of the research questions addressed requires some sense of the likely contribution to knowledge that the research made and its place in current debate or technological advance. Often, this can be presented in the form of research hypotheses tested. This section should provide a brief overview of the literature and research done in the field related to the problem, and of the gaps that the research filled. To show the importance of the problem, this section may discuss such points as: How the research relates to the development priorities of the country or countries concerned; The scientific importance of the problem; The magnitude of the problem and how the research results contribute to its solution; The special importance of the project for vulnerable social groups; and The need to build up research capacity in the proposed area of research. If one of the project's objectives is to produce a prototype of a "hard" or "soft" technology and there are reasonable expectations that it will be widely distributed and marketed, the research should discuss the socioeconomic implications: Demand and supply: the expected level of demand for the technology; marketing requirements; users' willingness to own; alternative sources of supply; quality competitiveness; input and credit availability.

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Applicability: the viability for entrepreneurs, farmers, or consumers; efficiency and effectiveness compared to available alternatives. Social impact: the impact on working conditions or quality of life; distribution of benefits between income classes and genders; degree and nature of local participation; effect on culture and values; long-term sustainability; the costs and benefits to society (for example, implications for government subsidies, skill, employment generation, savings, etc.). In the statement of problem one should make sure that the followings are met: The problem statement describes the context of the study and it also identifies the general analysis approach (Wiersma, 1995, p. 404). A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study (Creswell, 1994, p. 50). It is important in a research that the problem are easily identified and recognized. Sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In such cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have difficulty recognizing the problem. A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that under girds the study. This is of major importance in nearly all research and requires careful attention. It is essential in all quantitative research and much qualitative research. State the problem in terms intelligible to someone who is generally sophisticated but who is relatively uninformed in the area of your investigation. Effective problem statements answer the question Why does this research need to be conducted. If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly or briefly, and without resorting to hyper speaking (i.e., focusing on problems of macro or global issues OR local or national issues that certainly will not be informed or alleviated by the study), then the statement of the problem will come off as ambiguous and diffuse. Scope of the Research Project

5.4.4.

Scope of research project is a general guide (i.e. research undertaking) used to cover as a tool to define and group a projects discrete work elements in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project. Additionally the scope is a dynamic tool and if there was any change or revision indicate it. The researcher is also expected to clearly define the scope from all necessary directions based on the following addressed questions: Does the research cover a particular time period? Does the study cover a specific geographical area? If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place of origin are to be included? Are all dates of publication to be included?
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Is the research going to cover publications from other countries? Will the research include other languages and scripts? Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political, psychological, etc.

5.4.5. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher. The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent in the design. Generally, these will reflect anticipated inadequacies in regard to internal validity of results. A study has internal validity if the confounding variables have been converted to either controlled or randomized variables and if the research is designed in such a way that it is possible to estimate the size of the random variation so that the "experimental" variation may be compared to it for significance. The goal is to recognize inherent threats to internal validity in the study plan. Any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned. Describe the problems you expect to encounter and how you hope to solve them. For example, texts might be unavailable, necessitating travel to other libraries or use of inter-library loan facilities; people you had hoped to interview might be unavailable or unwilling to participate, necessitating that you select other interviewees or change the focus; internet sites might be down or no longer available, etc. (Try to imagine every possible problem so that you have contingency plans and the project doesn't become disrupt.) Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned clearly that it deals with such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and instrumentation. For example, the study may focus on children in only one grade level or measure aptitude using only a group intelligence test. External validity deals with the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to different subjects, settings, experimenters, and so on; the study has external validity. However, there are many threats to external validity which cause the results of a study to be specific to some limited group of people and/or set of conditions. These threats are (a) those dealing with generalizations to populations (What population of subjects can be expected to behave in the same way as did the sample subjects?), and (b) those dealing with the "environment" of the study (Under what conditions, i.e., settings, treatments, experimenters, dependent variables, and so on, can the same results be expected?). The delimitations of a study are those characteristics that limit the scope (define the boundaries) of the inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions that were made throughout the development of the proposal. Among these are the choice of objectives and questions, variables of interest, alternative theoretical perspectives that could have been adopted, etc. The first limiting step was the choice of problem itself; implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected or screened off from view. Go back and review each of these decisions. You will want to prepare a statement of purpose or intent that clearly sets out what is
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meant to be accomplished by the study but that also includes a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your decisions for excluding certain territory should have been based on such criteria as "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; too problematic because..."; "not feasible" and the like. Make this reasoning explicit. Consider the example of an important study conducted during the 1980s: Imagine a cross-case comparison study of state-level education policy systems that broke entirely new conceptual ground in the field of policy studies by exploring for the first time the role of political cultures and prevailing public values in policy making. This study generated detailed profiles of political cultures and public values vis a vis how they differentially shaped education policy choices in each of the states included in the study. There were a number of interesting research questions that could have been asked but were not pursued, such as, "how are the public schools affected by different policy choices on the same educational issues?", or "do these differential policy choices evidence themselves in different educational outcomes among public school students?" These questions were not pursued in this particular study because (a) the focus of the inquiry was on developing a new theory of how policy systems work, not on their outcomes, and (b) the inclusion of these questions, while interesting, would have been beyond the reach of the research team, given limited time and money for conducting the study. 5.4.6. Significance of the Project Justify the value of the research project conducted using the following series of questions worth answering. What have you learned from it? What this new knowledge add to the field of knowledge that already exists? What new perspective has been brought in the area? What is the use of this research others in this field or the community? With whom are you willing to share the final result of the research?

5.4.7. Assumptions (if any) An assumption is a proposition that is taken for granted, as if it were true based upon presupposition without preponderance of the facts. Assumption may also refer to: In logic, natural deduction systems are defined as an assumption is made in the expectation that it will be discharged in due course via a separate argument. Mathematical modeling can be used to map the outcome of different assumptions on the system being modeled. In business planning and business plans, an assumption is an assertion about some characteristic of the future that underlies the current operations or plans of an organization

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Try to draw a picture of comparison between your assumption during your proposal and the truth you came up with. Example: Researchers usually assume subjects will give 100% effort. Researchers assume data collection instruments are valid and reliable based upon their previous use and you need to prove this. 5.4.8. Definition of Terms This section of your work contains systematically organized scientific terms in the body with their appropriate definitions. Definition of Terms is a very brief section consisting of a series of definitions of the key terms or concepts found in the proposal/research. Since some words like "recreation" or "leisure" may have various meanings, it is important to clarify to the reader the way they are used in the proposal. Unfamiliar or technical words may also require an exact definition. The final research out put will also include new terminologies that have been found during researching time.

5.5.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

There are many titles for this chapter, e.g. "Literature Survey"; "Previous Work", and other similar phrases. The Literature Review is there for you to: provide details about the motivation for the project state why the problem addressed by the dissertation is important set the scene for the work described in the dissertation describe what others have done and hence sets a benchmark for the current project jusify the use of specific solution techniques or problem solving procedures in your work

It is called the Literature Review because the contents of this chapter are based on published material. A thorough literature review is essential because it shows that you have studied rigorously what others have done. This lends credibility when you state the problem the dissertation is addressing, and when you provide reasons as to why obtaining a solution is important. Where applicable, you should also include a critique of the available solutions to the problem that your are tackling. This would implicitly provide justifications for the project and, at the same time, establish benchmarks against which your contributions can be assessed. Therefore, make sure that you seek out the most recent information relating to your field of study. You may, if you wish, include a discussion about your approach to the problem, and which of the published work will form the basis of your investigations. The Literature Review is obviously a very important chapter. However, students doing research for the first time often find it difficult to write. There are a number of reasons for this: they do not know where to look for information there may be a huge amount of published work on the subject area, dating back many years, and they find it difficult to judge which material is relevant the work is a "hot-topic" and keeping track of the state-of-the-art is difficult
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they find it difficult to summarise the ideas and results of numerous publications into a coherent single account

Unfortunately, much of these skills can be gained only through experience. The following tips will, hopefully, make life that much easier. Consult librarians. Nowadays, an increasing number of journals are available on-line, accessed via University Library Website. Make it a point to keep abreast of developments in your field of study by making regular visits to the library and to the electronic journals websites. When reading a technical paper, jot down the key points and make a note of the journal or technical publication where the paper was published. Devise a cataloguing system that will allow you to retrieve the paper quickly. This will come in handy when you write the Literature Survey, and when you compile the reference list.

When writing the Literature Review: Include only those works that is relevant to your research. You may have read dozens upon dozens of papers, but there will be some that do not contribute to the points that you are trying to make, or there will be papers that give identical information. Because of the time you spent trying to understand them, you may be tempted incorporate all that you have read. Attempting to do this will make what is already a difficult task impossible. Make sure that you have read and understood cited work; otherwise you can get into hot water. Organize your content according to ideas instead of individual publications. This helps ensure the smooth flow of contents and make the chapter more readable. It also shows that you have an appreciation of the subject area. Do not simply quote or paraphrase the contents of published articles. You should try to weave the information into focused views, incorporating where possible, your own opinions and comments. This will demonstrate your deeper understanding of the topic.

In terms of a literature review, "the literature" means the works you consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem. Make sure how useful are the following sources? Journal articles: these are good especially for up-to-date information. Bear in mind, though, that it can take up to two years to publish articles. They are frequently used in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research, and because all reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research). Books: books tend to be less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article. Text books are unlikely to be useful for including in your literature review as they are intended for teaching, not for research, but they do offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources. http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM - sources#sources Conference proceedings: these can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published. They are also helpful in providing information on
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which people are currently involved in which research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers. Government/corporate reports: many government departments and corporations commission or carry out research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on your field of study. Newspapers: since newspapers are generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience, the information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review. Often newspapers are more helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy, but you should then search for more detailed information in other sources. Theses and dissertations: these can be useful sources of information. However there are disadvantages: 1) they can be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from the library shelf or through interlibrary loan; 2) the student who carried out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings with more caution than published research. http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM - sources#sources Internet: the fastest-growing source of information is on the Internet. It is impossible to characterize the information available but here are some hints about using electronic sources: 1) bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable, 2) the information you find may be intended for a general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general audience is usually less detailed) and 3) more and more refereed electronic journals (e-journals) are appearing on the Internet - if they are refereed it means that there is an editorial board that evaluates the work before publishing it in their e-journal, so the quality should be more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal). CD-ROMS: at the moment, few CR-ROMs provide the kind of specialized, detailed information about academic research that you need for your own research since most are intended for a general audience. However, more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD-ROM for use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching for the information you need.

Magazines: magazines intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of information you need. Specialized magazines may be more useful (for example business magazines for management students) but usually magazines are not useful for your research except as a starting point by providing news or general information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further research in more specialized sources.

5.6.

Chapter 3: Project Methodology

Research is conducted for the purpose of discovering, interpreting, enhancing, developing standards to systematize measurements, and furthering advancement of knowledge. Methodology is the rationale behind collection of concepts, ideas, theories, and assumptions. Combined, a good Project methodology is a technique of collecting data systematically.

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Any methodology, regardless of which one is used, ensures that: All necessary activities are accomplished in the correct or desired sequence. The documentation developed as a result of any given project is consistent and comparable with the documentation developed from any other project. The documentation developed as a result of a given project contains adequate, understandable information. Appropriate reviews and approvals are obtained at the appropriate points in the project.

The goal of the research design and methodology process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms (although, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy): Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

A good thesis adopts particular methods for technical endeavors such as designs, specifications, and evaluations of systems, theories or other entities. Your proposal should identify the practices you are going to adopt that are relevant to nature of your thesis (a design, evaluation, implementation, analysis, etc.) and provide clear rationale for particular choices of method over others. Although the above processes may not always the best approach. However you choose to structure this part of the report, you should make it clear how you arrived at your chosen approach in preference to the other alternatives documented in the background. If you have built a new piece of Website or database you should describe and justify the design of your program at some high level, possibly using an approved graphical formalism such as Unified Modeling Language (UML). It should also document any interesting problems with, or features of, your implementation. Integration and testing are also important to discuss in some cases. You need to discuss the content of these sections thoroughly with your supervisor. 5.6.1. Data Collection Methodology Write how precisely the data was collected. If an existing questionnaire will be used, describe its relevance to the proposed study, how it has been used in the past and cite its source; if a pilot questionnaire has been developed and used by the investigators in a preliminary study, attach it as an appendix; if an original questionnaire will be developed, provide an outline of the proposed data categories in which questions will be constructed. For interviews, provide a draft of the proposed interview schedule(s) including, at minimum, the list of topical data categories that will be addressed. Gathering details about the current system may involve: Interviewing staff at different levels from end-users to senior management Examining current business and systems documents and output may include current order documents, computer systems procedures and reports used by operations and senior management
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Sending out questionnaires the questions have to be carefully constructed to elicit unambiguous answers Observation of current procedures by spending time in various departments. A time and motion study can show where procedures could be more efficient, or to detect bottlenecks

5.6.2. Analysis This is a very important part in the development of an Information System and involves looking at an organization or system and finding out how information is being handled at the moment. System analysis is creative work. It can begin with thinking about how to accomplish something. System analysis can be considered to have three primary functions, each of which is related to the others. First, system analysis is done to fix something that has gone wrong and to help one understand why there is a problem. Second, analysis is used to figure out how to do something more easily and less expensively as new technologies become available. Third, system analysis is done to help design a system that can accommodate future circumstances, such as anticipated events that are not being experienced now, but that might need to be dealt with in the future. The system development cycle consists of the steps taken for the conceptualization and engineering of a system. There are several ways to represent or describe the system development cycle. One is to show the analysis process in a series of blocks in hierarchical (top-down) or horizontal line (timeline) form. Another way is to show the system analysis process as a circle of operations, namely, requirement analysis, specifications, design, implementation, testing, and maintenance. Another approach is to regard the process as representing a waterfall cycleone-step flowing into another in a continuous stream. All share a common property of sequencing. System analysis is a step-by-step procedure: each step follows or interacts with the others, and all are directed toward meeting the objectives stated by the intended user of the system. If the aim is to improve an existing system the methods of analysis the analysis phase often includes a feasibility study. At the end of this phase a decision may need to be made as to what software to use. The aim of a feasibility study is to see whether it is possible to develop a system at a reasonable cost. At the end of the feasibility study, a decision is taken whether to proceed or not. A feasibility study contains the general requirements of the proposed system.

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The goal of systems analysis is to determine where the problem is in an attempt to fix the system. This step involves breaking down the system in different pieces and drawing diagrams to analyze the situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down functions that need to be created and attempting to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined. Requirement Gathering sometimes require individual/team from client as well as service provider side to get a detailed and accurate requirements. 5.6.3. Design This section of the proposal should explain the details of the proposed plan. How will you go about exploring and addressing the primary intension of the research project? What will be your methods? In systems design functions and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams and other documentation. The output of this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems. The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approved requirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and/or prototype efforts. Design elements describe the desired software features in detail, and generally include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, business process diagrams, pseudo code, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the system in sufficient detail. For instance, in order to design a web site, the relational database must be designed first. Conceptual design can be divided into two parts: The data model: The data model focuses on what data should be stored in the database while the process model deals with how the data is processed. To put this in the context of the relational database, the data model is used to design the relational tables. A data model is a conceptual representation of the data structures that are required by a database. The first step in designing a database is to develop an Entity-Relation Diagram (ERD). The ERD serves as a blue print from which a relational database maybe deduced. Figure 1 shows the ERD for the project and later we will show the transformation from ERD to the Relational model. The basic structure of the tables composing the database for the project will be shown along with information about primary and foreign keys. The process model: is used to design the queries that will access and perform operations on those tables. A Process Model tells us about how the data is processed and how the data flows from one table to another to gather the required information. This model consists of the Functional Decomposition Diagram and Data Flow Diagram. The user interface design will closely follow Functional Decomposition Diagram.
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Generally, the areas that need to be considered in the design process are listed below: Outputs Inputs File Design Hardware Software

5.6.4. Experimentation Experimentation supports research projects that involve building and evaluating information processing and systems development. These are goal-oriented projects usually undertaken by teams of designers, builders, and users. Emphasis is on building the system and on research experiments involving the system that address significant and timely research questions. The building of the system must itself represent a major intellectual effort that will advance the understanding of information processing systems architecture. The system prototypes being built should be suitable for exploring applications and performance issues. 5.6.5. Implementation Implementation is the realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model, design, specification, standard, algorithm, or policy. In any system development, an implementation is a realization of a technical specification or algorithm as a program, software component, or hardware components, or data preparation, or installation, or testing, or maintenance, or other computer system. Many implementations may exist for a given specification or standard. The should justify implementation strategy after completion which is about introducing a new system that can be done in two ways and the proposal should be considerate of which implementation strategy will be used: Direct Implementation Parallel Running

5.6.6. Testing Any new system needs to be thoroughly tested before being introduced. First of all the system should be tested with normal data to see if it works correctly. Secondly, the system is tested with data containing known errors to try and make it fail ('crash'). Thirdly, the system is tested with very large amounts of data to see how it can cope.

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It is important that processing time and response rates remain acceptable with varying amounts of data. A detail statement of the results after test based on designed test plan is necessary. 5.6.7. Evaluation Be warned that many projects fall down through poor evaluation. Simply building a system and documenting its design and functionality is not enough to gain top marks. It is extremely important that you evaluate what you have done both in absolute terms and in comparison with existing techniques, Website or database or a program or a system etc. This might involve quantitative evaluation, for example based on numerical results, performance etc. or something more qualitative such as impressibility, functionality, ease-of-use etc. At some point you should also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of what you have done. Avoid statements like "The project has been a complete success and we have solved all the problems associated with... It is important to understand that there is no such thing as a perfect project. Even the very best pieces of work have their limitations and you are expected to provide a proper critical appraisal of what you have done.

5.7.

Conclusions and Future Work

The project's conclusions should list the things, which have been learnt as a result of the work you have done. For example, "The use of overloading in C++ provides a very elegant mechanism for transparent parallelization of sequential programs", or "The overheads of linear-time n-body algorithms makes them computationally less efficient than O(n log n) algorithms for systems with less than 100000 particles". Avoid tedious personal reflections like "I learned a lot about C++ programming...", or "Simulating colliding galaxies can be real fun... It is common to finish the report by listing ways in which the project can be taken further. This might, for example, be a plan for doing the project better if you had a chance to do it again, turning the project deliverables into a more polished end product, or extending the project into a program.

5.8.

Bibliography

This consists of a list of all the books, articles, manuals etc. used in the project and referred to in the report. You should provide enough information to allow the reader to find the source. You should give the full title and author and should state where it is published, including full issue number and date, and page numbers where necessary. In the case of a textbook, you should quote the name of the publisher as well as the author(s). A weakness of many reports is inadequate citation of a source of information. While there is no established page limitation for the references, this section must also include bibliographic citations. This will enable you to make a Works Cited list at the end of your project (i.e.: a list of only the works you have summarized, paraphrased, or quoted from in the paper.) There are different types of citation standard, these are:
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APA: psychology, education, and other social sciences. MLA: literature, arts, and humanities. AMA: medicine, health, and biological sciences. Turabian: designed for use with all subjects. Chicago: used with all subjects in the "real world" by books, magazines, newspapers, and other non-scholarly publications. The department may require you to follow APA. This citation style is used when you are dealing with Social Sciences. In this kind of work you should present not only authors names, but also the necessary dates. If you are using the style for Copy Manuscripts, double-space all lines. If you are using the style for Final Manuscripts, single space all lines and skip a line in between each reference. Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books, articles, etc. Indent the second and following lines 5 to 7 spaces or one half inch. Use only the initials of the authors' first (and middle) names. If no author is given, start with the title and then the date. Article titles and book titles: capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle. (Capitalize all significant words of periodical titles.) If you are using a typewriter that cannot produce italics, then use underlining instead. Magazine articles: include the month (and day) as shown under "Magazine Article from a Database" and "Newspapers". Websites: if the date the page was created is not given, use (n.d.).

Use the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style in the text. For one author: i. Placed at the end of the sentence (Blagden, 1988). ii. Placed somewhere in the middle ..(Blagden, 1988) iii. Placed at beginning or towards the beginning of a sentence Blagden (1988) asserted that According to Blagden (1988) For two authors: The entry is same as for one author above, except that the two authors are connected with and (&). .(Tadesse & Bayou, 2000). . (Tadesse & Bayou, 2000).. Tadesse & Bayou (2000) According to Tadesse & Bayou (2000) .

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For three or more authors: If you are referring to literature written by three or more authors, write the name of the first author followed by et al. .(Tadesse et al., 2000). . (Tadesse et al., 2000).. Tadesse et al. (2000) pointed out According to Tadesse et al. (2000) . For referring to same author or group of authors in the same year: Place letter a, b, etc. immediately after the year, and it does not matter if single, double or multiple authors. The placement is also at your discretion Tadesse & Bayou (2000a, 2000b) For referring to many authors at the same time: Arrange them chronologically (i.e., by year in ascending order) and if of the same year then arrange the authors alphabetically and separate them using semi-colon. The placement is at your discretion. Example:
Taylor (1986) and Blagden (1988) reviewed the concepts of use in greater detail.

5.9.

Appendix

The appendices contain information which is peripheral to the main body of the report. Information typically included are things like parts of the code, tables, proofs, test cases or any other material which would break up the theme of the text if it appeared in situ. You should try to bind all your material in a single volume if possible.

5.10. User Guide

For projects which result in a new piece of Website or database or system you should provide a proper user guide providing easily understood instructions on how to use it. A particularly useful approach is to treat the user guide as a walk-through of a typical session, or set of sessions, which collectively display all the features of your system. Technical details of how the package works should be in the body of the report. Keep it concise and simple. The extensive use of diagrams illustrating the package in action proves particularly helpful. The user guide is sometimes included as a chapter in the main body of the report, but is often better in an appendix.

5.11. Program Listings

Complete program listings should NOT be part of the report except in specific cases at the request of your supervisor. The project report(s) must be bound in a folder and must include a standard title page agreed by the project coordinator. You are strongly advised to spend some time looking at the reports of previous project students to get a feel for what's good and bad.
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Chapter Six
6.0. 6.1. Format on Writing Style Title Page

All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.

6.2.

Page Layout
Left margin: 1" Right margin: 1" Top margin: 1" Bottom margin: 1"

6.3.

Page Numbering

Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from the top of the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of Chapter 1 (although a page number is not placed on page 1).

6.4.

Spacing and Justification

All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced, except for long quotations and the bibliography (which are single-spaced). There is one blank line between a section heading and the text that follows it. Do not right-justify text. Use ragged-right.

6.5.

Font Face and Size

Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 10 points or larger. Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1) tables and graphs may use a different font, and 2) chapter titles and section headings may use a different font.

6.6. 6.7.

Paper size and margins Line and paragraph spacing

Use A-4 paper (8 x 11) and 2.5 cm for all margins of the manuscripts.

Use double spacing for the body of the text, except for tables and references, where you need to use single line spacing. Do not indent paragraphs but use block typing.

6.8.

Font type and font size

Readability is of paramount importance and should take precedence in selection of an appropriate font for use in the work. Small type size makes it difficult for advisors to read; consequently, the use of small type not in compliance with the above guidelines may be grounds for return the proposal without review. Adherence to type size and line spacing requirements also is necessary to ensure that no researcher will have an unfair advantage, by using smaller type or line spacing to provide more text in the work.
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Capitalize only the first letter of each word, excluding common words in the title and make its font 16 and bold. The common words are prepositions, conjunctions or connectives (such as: of, in, a, and, or, etc.) Example 1: Title & Font size Effect of Photocopying Services on the Provision of Reference and Information Services in College of Agriculture Library, Jimma University, Jimma. Capitalize only the first letter of the main heading and make its font size 16 and bold as above. Example 2: Subheading and Font size Chapter One: Introduction Capitalize only the first letter of the subheading and make its font size 14. Example 3: Sub-subheading Information service If there is a sub-subheading, capitalize only the first letter and make it italic with a font size of 12 without bolding as above.

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Chapter Seven
7.0. 7.1. Tables and Figures Tables
7.1.1. Table numbering and Table title 1. Give tables-numbers (e.g. 1, 2 ) in Arabic numbers consecutively 2. Table title should follow immediately the table number, end without period and appear immediately above the table. 3. The title of a table, including table number should have either a different font or a different appearance from that of the body of the text. Accordingly, make bold the table number and title altogether. 4. All tables must be referred to in the text and must be referred to consecutively. 7.1.2. Row and column headings 1. Capitalize only the first letter 2. Avoid column grids in a table 3. Avoid row grids except the top two and bottom one. 7.1.3. Paragraph spacing for table 1. Use single spacing for paragraph in a table 2. Use the same font and font size as described above 7.1.4. Figures within a column 1. All figures in each column should be aligned to two decimal digits. 2. Any superscript, such as significance sign, should appear to the right after decimal alignment is made. 7.1.5. Table footnotes 1. Table footnotes must be indicated by lowercase letters as superscript in the table 2. They must appear below the table, written one font size less than that of the text and ended with period Sample Table
Table 3.13 librarians classified according to working experience.
________________________________________________________ Working experience N % _______________________________________________________ Less than 5 years 11 21.6 5-10 years 6 11.8 10-15 years 8 15.7 15-20 years 8 15.7 20-25 years 2 3.9 30 years and above 1 2.0 No response 14 27.3 Total 51 100.0 _______________________________________________________ Figure 10

of the figure

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Source: Getachew Bayissa & Gojeh, L.A. (2007). Enhancing public officers quality service
delivery in the public sector of Ethiopia: the role of library and information center. An unpublished sponsored research by Jimma University, Jimma.

7.2.

Figures
7.2.1. Figure numbering and title

1. Give figure numbers in Arabic or Roman numerals and consecutively. 3. Figure title should follow immediately the figure number and end with period. It should appear below the figure. 4. The title of a figure, including figure number should have either a different font or a different appearance from that of the body of the text, accordingly, make bold the figure number and title altogether. 5. Abbreviate Figure as Fig. (for example fig. 1.), both as title and when you refer to it in the text. 6. Do not shadow figures or part thereof. For this purpose, use graphic software. However, Excel made figures are shaded by default. 7. All figures must be referred to in the text and must be referred to consecutively. Sample figure
Figure 11: Reasons for using Jimma University library system by students.

Figure 11

Source: Bekele, T. & Gojeh, L.A. (2007). An Assessment of Undergraduate students library use and services in Jimma University Library System. An Unpublished research in Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.
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Chapter Eight
8.0. Pitfalls
Some of the most useful things to know about individual/group projects are the common pitfalls. Why do some projects go horribly wrong? Here are some of the common causes of failure: Choosing/Starting the project too late: Submit your project request form on time and start the project as soon as you can. The longer you leave it the harder it is to get motivated, especially when all your friends seem to be flying ahead. You should aim to have completed a substantial part of the project by the end of the spring term. Failing to meet your supervisor regularly: If you arrange a meeting with your supervisor, turn up at the agreed time. If you are stuck for any reason and you have no meeting arranged, contact him or her immediately. You gain no sympathy from anyone if you lose contact with your supervisor and produce a poor project as a result. Your supervisor will be happy to help you but they can do nothing if they are unaware that you are having trouble. Allowing too little time for the report: You should try to produce as much of your report as you can as you go along, even though you don't know in advance its exact structure. The last two weeks of the project should be dedicated to pulling together the material you have accumulated and producing a polished final product. You can spend time improving any implementation after you have submitted the report. Failing to plan a fall-back position if the planned work is not completed on time. Try to plan your project in stages so that if things go wrong in a later stage you have a completed stage to fall back on. Trying to satisfy an external customer at the expense of your grades: Do not let any outside interests interfere with your work. The guidance for your project should come from your supervisor, not your prospective employer. Over/Under Ambition: try to be realistic about what you can achieve in the time available. A good project requires a lot of input from you and should prove to be technically challenging throughout. At the same time, however, it is better to do a small job well than it is to fail to do a big job at all. Your supervisor will advise you on his or her expectations of the project and this will help you to set your sights accordingly.

As important as the project is, however, do not let it interfere with your exam revision. You should plan not to spend any time on your project between the end of the spring term and your last examination.

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Chapter Nine
9.0. Supervision and Monitoring
The supervisors of a student take primary responsibility for all academic matters in the progress of the student. The student will be allocated two supervisors, one of which will be designated as the principal supervisor. This includes advising the student and monitoring his or her performance. The Responsibilities of the Principal Supervisor include: Make sure that a student/group of students has submitted an independent research/research project. Giving guidance about the nature of research and the standard expected, about the planning of the research program, about literature and sources, attendance at taught classes, and about requisite techniques (including arranging for instruction where necessary and where possible). Maintaining contact through regular project and seminar meetings, normally at least four times a month and more often if required by the supervisor, (this would be usual near the start of the research). To ensure that at least three extra formal documented meetings per term are held. These meetings must be documented and a copy given to the student and the Department Office. If a student fails to appear at three meetings, and there are no documented problems with illness, then the matter should be raised by the supervisor with the Research and Scholarly Communication Team leader, who after investigation may recommend that a warning for failure to keep term is issued (or other appropriate disciplinary action is taken). Giving detailed advice on the necessary completion dates of successive stages of the work so that the whole thesis may be submitted within the scheduled time. Requesting written work as appropriate and returning such work in reasonable time with constructive criticism about both form and content. Arranging for the students to talk about their work at staff or graduate seminars, and to have practice in presentation if required by the supervisor. Ensuring that the student is made aware of inadequacy of progress or of standards of work below that generally expected. Ensure that postgraduate students are on course to submit within the allocated timescale. Reading and commenting on the candidate's proposal/draft thesis, while recognizing that the thesis should be the student's own effort. Undertaking reporting and other administrative responsibilities as required by the department. Checking that the student has started formally to write up in due time before submission date. Agree with the student at the outset a process model (method of working). Discuss any training needs and action where appropriate Monitor students progress It needs to be clearly understood that the supervisor can only act in an advisory capacity. The final judgment on a students' thesis is based on the explicit declaration
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that it is their own work. In this, students have to demonstrate their own capacity to ask questions, develop the appropriate methodology, and solve them, and finally to write up the work in a logical and lucid fashion. Generally speaking, supervisors will start students working on well defined projects to "get the student thinking" with the requirement that the student will then "take off" and develop their own ideas, to be discussed with the supervisor. Likewise, supervisors will generally recommend detailed modifications to the first draft of the thesis, but the final draft must be the student's own work, although the supervisor will still be expected to comment on it. It is not the duty of the Supervisor to teach the student about basic use of English. The Responsibilities of the supervisory team include: Supporting the principal supervisor Periodic reviewing of the work of the student Meeting with student and possibly principal supervisor at least eight per term Advising on technical aspects of the research Taking the main supervisory role if the principal supervisor is away from the university for more than one month on official business Monitor students progress It needs to be clearly understood that the supervisor can only act in an advisory capacity. The final judgment on a students' thesis is based on the explicit declaration that it is their own work. In this, students have to demonstrate their own capacity to ask questions, develop the appropriate methodology, and solve them, and finally to write up the work in a logical and lucid fashion. Generally speaking, supervisors will start students working on well defined projects to "get the student thinking" with the requirement that the student will then "take off" and develop their own ideas, to be discussed with the supervisor. Likewise, supervisors will generally recommend detailed modifications to the first draft of the thesis, but the final draft must be the student's own work, although the supervisor will still be expected to comment on it. It is not the duty of the Supervisor to teach the student about basic use of English.

The Responsibilities of the Student include: Discussing with their supervisor the type of guidance and comment they find most helpful, and agreeing a schedule of meetings. Taking the initiative in raising problems or difficulties, however elementary they may seem. Maintaining the progress of the work in accordance with the stages agreed with the supervisor including, in particular, the presentation of written material as required in sufficient time to allow for comments and discussion before proceeding to the next stage. Providing a thesis proposal by the required deadline. Deciding if they wish to submit, taking due account of their supervisor's opinion, which is, however, advisory only. If the supervisor does not agree that the thesis should be submitted, he or she will write a letter to this effect, which will be placed on file. To gain sufficient understanding of, and insight to the chosen area of research. To understand that, while the supervisor can provide guidance, the student must be responsible for the original contribution to the subject, and must be responsible for developing a mature, critical knowledge of the subject area and its context.
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The student must take responsibility for ensuring that he or she is fully familiar with the latest developments, trends and controversy in the chosen subject area. Recall that current Journal papers are often several years behind the latest work. By the time the thesis proposal is produced, the student must be in a position of "taking off" on their own line of thinking and initiatives. The nature of supervision is expected to change so that the student no longer requires detailed guidance on the next stage of the research. If necessary, taking courses in spoken and/or written English. To develop informal contacts with peers working in related or similar fields, to gain an understanding of other's research work. Where a student is working in a large project, there is responsibility to find out about the aims, objectives and research thrusts of the project as a whole. If the project is within a larger project, the student's thesis must carefully spell out the work done by the student and the work done by the rest of the team. The student should, wherever possible, seek to promote, publicize and present favorably research in Information Science at Jimma University. The student must understand the difference between guidance from the supervisor rather than being told step by step what to do. Reviews such as the thesis proposal exist to measure the ability and aptitude of the student. Raise any training needs. Once a student is close to finishing his/her period of supervised study they are required to meet with their supervisor to discuss if further work might be needed for the period that they will be on continuation. Attending departmental seminars irrespective of the topic in order to broaden their understanding of Information Science. Present the required amount of soft and hard copies of their work for dissemination. Drafts must be submitted in good style, with excellent typography etc. Please note the advice given later in this handbook which states that the error rate should be less than one error per chapter. If students are not happy with the progress of their work and/or their supervision they should first consult their supervisor. If this fails to resolve the issues then they should be brought to the attention of the Head of Department.

The Responsibilities of the Information Science Research and Scholarly Communications Team Leader include: Ensures that milestones, such as thesis proposals, are met by contacting the supervisor regularly. Supervises the office database containing details of undergraduates and ensures that it is kept up to date. Reviews the undergraduate research guide and procedures as required. If problems arise between the supervisor and student, he/she acts as a first line of advice for the student and if the matter is not then resolved the problem is referred to the Head of Department. The problem, if unresolved, may be taken forward via standard grievance procedures. Reports any problem cases to the Head of Department.

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Although the main responsibility for Monitoring of Progress lies with the student and supervisor, the Team Leader is responsible for checking that the appropriate milestones are met.

Note: The Department is very keen to receive feedback from students. This may be done via written form.

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Chapter Ten
10.0. Research Project Assessment
The initial assessment of the project will be undertaken by the supervisor and second marker. The assessment will then be completed by the assessment team which is made up by supervisors and second markers of other projects, and by other teaching staff and researchers who are interested in the subject area. The team members will attend your presentation and agree a team mark. The team marks are later moderated to ensure that the marks are consistent. The projects are assessed under the following headings:

10.1. Background Preparation

This component assesses the way you arrived at your initial project specification, work program and list of objectives. It particularly addresses the background research undertaken and the manner in which your approach and program of work fits in with the current state-of-the-art.

10.2. General Competence

This assesses your overall approach to the project and your ability to overcome the inevitable complications which arise. The specific areas in which you will be assessed are management and organization, reliability and punctuality, overall technical competence, and your individual contribution to the project.

10.3. Technical Achievement

This assesses the main technical output from the project. It addresses specific issues such as the design, correctness, elegance, and usability etc. of the final product and the significance of the work in relation to the state-of-the-art.

10.4. Report Submission

The report is the overall appearance of the final research product plus its submission on time as per the schedule. The proposals must be submitted in three hard copies including one copy in CD: One hard copy for the principal investigator and two hard copies for the department plus one copy in CD.

10.5. General Evaluation Criteria and Procedures

The Students are encouraged to conduct the research involving interdisciplinary collaboration, as well as for projects with clear potential for technological development in collaboration with organizations. Partnership with organization is a particularly welcomed type of engagement. Generally the research will be judged on the following points under the two broad criteria: 10.5.1. Quality of Research o o o Quality Clarity Significance and
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o o o o o o o

Originality of the research Track record of the principal and co-investigators and relative to other key players in Similar scientific or technological domains Feasibility of proposal Interdisciplinary mix Synergism and added value Potential for collaboration, especially with organization

10.5.2. Potential Benefit o o o o Scientific technological advances and breakthroughs Capacity building ( institute/institution strengthening capability ) Outside institutional demand Training capacity and opportunities

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Chapter Eleven
11.0. Symposium
The symposiums should serve the exchange of information about the out put of research in the areas approved and expected to encourage mutual learning. One of the most important skills which the student research or project aims to assess is the students ability to communicate their ideas and work. As part of the assessment students will be required to make a presentation and demonstration of their project to their assessment team. Each presentation will be timetabled for between 20 and 30 minutes (to be announced) including a demonstration where appropriate and questions and answers. Your supervisor and second marker will be part of the team but you should bear in mind that the majority of the panel will not be familiar with your project; you should take this into account when planning your presentation. Your supervisor will help you to structure your talk and will be willing to go through it with you beforehand. The presentation is not assessed separately but is a compulsory component of the project. The assessment team will not allocate a mark for a project unless there had been a formal presentation. The objective of the presentation is to find out exactly what you have done and to ensure that you get an accurate mark that is consistent with other projects - it is not designed as an opportunity to shoot you down! Bear in mind, that if you develop any Website or database or a program or a system on your own kit, then you have to duplicate it in the facultys lab as well. It is your responsibility to ensure that the project works on that kit or to bring your own work for the presentation is complete.

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Chapter Twelve
12.0. Grade Limits & Minimum Requirements
The grade boundaries set for individual projects are roughly in line with those of the overall degree program, which is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 85% and above - A 70-84% - B 60-69% - C Less than 69% - D

Important - There are strict minimum requirements for individual projects. In order to full fill the requirement, you must achieve at least 30% in you project proposal.
These requirements hold regardless of your performance in the other components of your study.

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Chapter Thirteen
13.0. Prize
The top projects recommended by each assessment team will be reviewed shortly after the presentations and a shortlist of prize candidates will be drawn up. These "prize finalists" will be invited to re-present their work at a special celebration event open to the university. At the end of the day there will be a vote for a "Best Presentation" award and the departmental project prizes will be decided some time afterwards on the basis of the university wide presentations, reports and assessment team comments.

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Chapter Fourteen
14.0. Students Research & Project Coordinator
The Research Project Co-coordinator Dr. L. A. Gojeh is responsible for the overall organization of the final year Student Research, individual or group projects. Students can contact him whenever they have any problem with the organization of their research or project.

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Chapter Fifteen
15.0. Timetable 2009/2010
From 3rd October - 20th November - project proposals posted. You should study the project proposals, and discuss several of them with the members of staff who proposed them. Proposals will continue to arrive after this date so keep looking at the list. You can also suggest your own ideas for an individual/group project, provided that you prepare a detailed project description, and discuss it with a member of staff who is willing to be your supervisor. 1st of November - project allocation complete. Start working on your project as soon as possible. Plan your work, bearing in mind that you may have more options in one term than the other. Remember that the group project will take up much of your time until the end of the first term. 29th of January - final date for the submission of project proposal. 29th of January - allocation of additional assessment team. Your second marker will be chosen by your supervisor so now is the time to ask them who the second marker will be. Both your supervisor and second marker will be members of the same team. This does not apply for independent research undertakings. From 29th January-24th April - project review. You must arrange a date and time with the second marker for the review. You may have the review at any time in this period. Late reviews will be chased up immediately and will reflect badly in your final mark for project management. WARNING: do NOT leave the review until the last minute - staffs are very busy at this time of the year. Prepare a summary of the work you have done on the project so far and give this to the second marker before the review so that they have time to read it before you arrive. They will tell you exactly what they require typically a 1 or 2 page status report and a plan for the remainder of the project. 25th April - Information Science students report submission - hand in your project report. 30th April - report submission Hand in your project report. Before the final draft report submission date, students are expected to meet their supervisors at least six times during 29th January - 30th April 8th of May - presentations The exact timetable will be notified. 30th May
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The shortlist of prize candidates will be invited to re-present their work to the prize committee and other specially invited guests. 13th June - end of term.

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References
Agriculture, College of (2002) Jimma University, College of Agriculture Style Manual for Scientific Writing. Jimma, Ethiopia: College of Agriculture. American Psychological Association (APA). (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (Fourth edition). Washington, DC: Author. Armstrong, R. L. (1974). Hypotheses: Why? When? How? Phi Delta Kappan, 54, 213-214. Bekele, T. & Gojeh, L.A. (2007). An Assessment of Undergraduate students library use and services in Jimma University Library System. An Unpublished research in Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. (1990). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: McGraw-Hill. Getachew Bayissa & Gojeh, L.A. (2007). Enhancing public officers quality service delivery in the public sector of Ethiopia: the role of library and information center. An unpublished sponsored research by Jimma University, Jimma. Guba, E. G. (1961, April). Elements of a proposal. Paper presented at the UCEA meeting, Chapel Hill, NC. Jimma University (2006) Jimma University Research and Publications Office (RPO) Guidelines. Jimma: Jimma University Kerlinger, F. N. (1979). Behavioral research: A conceptual approach. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Krathwohl, D. R. (1988). How to prepare a research proposal: Guidelines for funding and dissertations in the social and behavioral sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Locke, L. F., Spirduso, W. W., & Silverman, S. J. (1987). Proposals that work: A guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1989). Designing qualitative research: Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Shavelson, R. J. (1988). Statistical reasoning for the behavioral sciences (second edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Wiersma, W. (1995). Research methods in education: An introduction (Sixth edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Wilkinson, A. M. (1991). The scientists handbook for writing papers and dissertations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Index
A
abstract, 17, 50, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 90, 101, 102, 103, 104 Acknowledgement, 16, 49, 66, 100 Action plan, 15, 48 Action Plan, 42, 60 Analysis, 15, 16, 40, 47, 49, 56, 65, 86, 87, 98, 113 analytic tools, 40, 86 Appendices, 14, 15, 17, 46, 47, 48, 50, 64, 65, 67, 94, 98, 99, 100 Appendix, 118 Approval Sheet, 14, 15, 47, 48, 66, 99 Assumptions, 14, 23, 47, 53, 65, 76, 98, 108 Dependent variable, 28, 81 Descriptive, 26, 27, 68, 79, 80, 102 Design, 11, 47, 55, 57, 98, 114, 115 Dichotomous Question, 34 Discussion, 39, 86, 88, 89 Documentation, 47, 59

E
Encyclopedia Article, 44, 63, 93 ERIC Document, 44, 45, 63, 93 Evaluation, 10, 48, 59, 98, 116, 128 Experiment, 27, 80 Experimentation, 47, 58, 98, 115 extra and general tips, 12

B
Background, 104, 128 Bibliography, 15, 43, 48, 61, 65, 91, 98, 116 Books, 44, 63, 78, 93, 110 Books Article or Chapter, 44, 63, 93 Brush up you communication skills, 12 Budgeting, 15, 41, 48, 60

F
Format of the questionnaire, 34 Format on Writing Style, 119

G
General Competence, 128 Government/corporate reports, 78, 111 Group Project Writing, 95

C
Case study, 29, 82 CBTP I, 10 CBTP II, 10 CD-ROMS, 78, 111 cluster sample, 32, 85 Conclusion, 15, 42, 48, 60, 90, 94 Conference proceedings, 78, 110 Constant Sum Question, 34, 38 convenient sample, 31, 84 Co-relational study, 28, 81 Cross sectional study, 28, 82

I
Implementation, 47, 58, 98, 115 Independent variable, 28, 81 Information, 2, 11, 12, 16, 27, 49, 55, 56, 80, 90, 113, 118, 120, 126, 134 Informative Abstracts, 69, 102 Instrumentations, 14, 32, 65, 85 Internet, 11, 35, 78, 111 Interview, 29, 32, 82 Introduction, 14, 17, 47, 50, 65, 70, 71, 91, 94, 98, 103, 104, 120 involved in writing, 12

D
Data Analysis, Results and Dissemination, 15, 40 Data Collection, 14, 39, 47, 56, 65, 86, 98, 112 data model, 57, 114 data table, 88 Definition of terms, 24, 54 Delimitation, 14, 47, 74, 107 Delimitations, 21, 22, 52, 53, 74, 107 Demographic Question, 34, 39 Demonstration, 29, 82 departmental talk, 12

J
Journal Article, 44, 62, 92 Journal articles, 78, 110 Journal or Magazine Article, 44, 62, 92 judgment sample, 31, 84

K
Knowledge, 11

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Organization, 12, 16, 49

L
Limitation, 14, 47, 65, 74, 98, 107 Limitations, 21, 52, 74, 107 Limitations and Delimitations of the study, 21, 52 List of Figures, 14, 16, 47, 49, 65, 67, 98, 100 Literature Review, 14, 24, 47, 54, 65, 76, 77, 91, 98, 109, 110 Longitudinal study, 28, 81

Ranking, 33 Variability of responses, 33 Questions and or Hypotheses, 14, 18, 65, 73 Quota sample, 31, 84

R
random sample, 31, 32, 84, 85 Rank Order Scaling, 34, 35 Rating Scale, 34, 35, 36 Recommendation, 90 referencing style, 45, 63, 93, 117 Report Submission, 128 Research, 2, 10, 11, 14, 18, 25, 26, 47, 65, 73, 79, 80, 91, 95, 98, 104, 106, 111, 124, 126, 128, 133, 136 Results and Discussion, 87, 88 Results and Dissemination, 48, 59 Rough Draft, 12

M
Magazines, 78, 111 Methodology, 14, 25, 26, 47, 55, 65, 79, 80, 94, 98, 111, 112 Multiple Choice Questions, 34, 35

N
Naturalistic observation, 29, 82 Newspaper Article, 44, 63, 93 Newspapers, 44, 62, 78, 92, 111, 117

S
Sample Size, 14, 30, 65, 83 Sampling Techniques, 14, 30, 65, 83 Scope of the Study, 14, 21, 47, 52, 74 Semantic Differential Scale, 34, 36 Significance of the study, 23 Significance of the Study/Project, 47, 53 Specification, 47, 58 Staple Scale, 34, 37 Statement of the Problem, 14, 18, 47, 51, 65, 71, 98, 105 Statistical Methods, 14, 40, 65, 86 stratified sample, 32, 85 Supervision and Monitoring, 124 Survey, 29, 76, 77, 82, 109, 110

O
Objective of the Study, 14, 17, 47, 50, 65, 71 Open-Ended Question, 34, 38 Organize Your Writing, 12 Outline for the Proposal Writing, 14, 47

P
Population of the Study, 14, 29, 65, 82 Preliminary Pages, 14, 15, 47, 48, 65, 66, 98, 99 presentation and discussion, 87 Probability sample, 31, 84 process model, 57, 114, 124 Program Listings, 118 Project Assessment, 128 Project Proposal Writing, 14, 47 Project Summary, 14, 17, 47, 50

T
Table of Content, 3, 16, 49 Technical Achievement, 128 Testing, 47, 59, 98, 115 Theses and dissertations, 78, 111 Timetable, 134 Title Page, 14, 15, 47, 48, 65, 66, 98, 99, 119

Q
Qualitative, 26, 79, 136 Quantitative, 26, 79 Quasi-experiment, 28, 81 Questionnaire design Abbreviations, 33 Mutually exclusive options, 33

U
User Guide, 118

138

Website, 45, 59, 63, 77, 93, 97, 99, 110, 112, 116, 118, 130 word count, 68, 101

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