Research methodology Simple tabulations in a questionnaire based survey: first stage is called as simple tabulation.

This consists of every question being treated separately for no. of responses. The no. of responses in each category of answers is counted.eg. one of the questions asked is bout user category the output would look like this : 1. users : 200 2. non users : 100 3. irregular users :100 (in a sample size of 500 people)

If the codes were to be used we can code the numbers 1,2,3 for each of the category responses.

PERCENTAGES: We can also calculate percentages of response which can be requested from the computer output. It will appear as follows Frequency . . . Percentage . . .

Users Non users Irregular

Simple tabulations for ranking questions: Suppose we had originally scaled questions in our questionnaire we may have complex answers . FOR EG. Rank the following five brands of refrigerators given below on the scale of 1 to 5. (1= best and 5=worst) BRAND Whirlpool kelvinator godrej samsung videocon RANK

Tabulating ratings commonly used rating scales are as follows: For eg: rate the following attributes of liril soap on the scale of 1 to 5 . (1 = very un satisfactory, 2= unsatisfactory, 3= neither , 4= satisfactory , 5= very satisfactory)

CROSS TABULATIONS: Once you have obtained frequency and percentage tabulation for every question the second stage is cross tabulations this can be done by combining any two of the tables and tabulating the data together. It is called as two variable cross tabulation. For eg. Cross tabulation between brand preference for brand of tea and the region to which the respondent belongs.

CALCULATING PERCENTAGES IN CROSS TABULATION : The genral rule for calculating % is to calculate it across the dependant variable. In the above eg we may assume that brand preference depends upon the region to which the respondents belong. i.e brand is the dependant variable and region is the independent variable.

LACK OF CAUSAL INFERENCE IN CROSS TABULATION: Even if cross tabulation shows a significant association between the two variables it is not necessary that one of them causes the other . casuality or direct effect is an assumption that can be made by the researcher.

Chi square test for cross tabulations: In case of cross tabulations featuring two variables a test of significance called as chi square test can be used if the two variables are statistically associated with each other. Such tests can be requested from the software. From the chi square table output we look out for the significance level of chi square test (pearsons). If for eg. The significance value is .08852 , it means that the value is showing a significant association btwn the above two variables at 91.15 level percent of confidence. i.e. 100- 8.85.

Measures of strength of Association btwn the variables: Chi square value only gives us statistical significane by looking at the T- value. It does not tell us strength of association btwn the two variables which are cross tabulated. If we wish to measure the strength of association from the following four indexes of agreement. 1. 2. 3. 4. Contingency co-efficient C Kramers V Phi correlation coefficient Goodman and kruskals lamda asymmetric coefficient All these indexes of agreements can be requested on SPSS packages. Cross tabulation is weak if their values are close to zero and are strong if their values are close to one .

SPSS commands for frequency tables and cross tabs with chi square test : After the input data has been typed along with variable labels and value labels in a spss data file to get the frequency tables output for a problem : 1. Click on analyse at the spss menu bar. 2. Click on descriptive statistics followed by frequencies. 3. On the dialogue box which appears select the variables for which frequency tables are required. By clicking on the right arrow to transfer them from the variable list on the left to the variables box on the right. 4. Click ok to get the tables with counts and percentages for each of the selected variables. *charts For cross tabulation and chi square test : AFTER THE input data has been typed along with variable labels and value labels in an spss data file, to get the cross tabulations and chi square test output : 1. Click on analyse at the spss menu bar. 2. Click on descriptive statistics followed by cross tabs. 3. Select the row variable for a cross tabulation by highlighting it in the variable list on the left side and clicking on the arrow leading to the row variable box . similarly select the variable u wish to be the column variable in the cross tabulation . 4. Click on statiitics in the main dialogue box then click on chi square in the box titled nominal click on contingency coefficient , phi and kramers V and lamdato give you these statistics associated which measure the strength of the association in a cross tab. Click continue to return to the main dialogue box.

5. Click on cells in the main dialogue boxunder percentages select either row or column depending on ehich is desired. 6. Click continue to return to the main dialogue box. 7. Click ok to get the output containing the required cross tab along with the chi square test and the measures of association like lamda & contingency coefficients . Input data for cross tabs In the given case we are trying to observe association between educational background of students (indepent variable and their grades depenedt variable ) Educational background code Be 1 Bcom 2 Bms 3 Bba 4 Bms 5

Grades A B C

Code 1 2 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Bcom code -1

b.e code-2

Bsc code -3

Bba code -4

B C A C B A A A B A B B C C C A B C C

20 21 22 23 24 25

Ba code -5

B C C C C B