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This article is about the mobility for electrons and holes in metals and semiconductors. For the general concept, see Electrical mobility. In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric eld. In semiconductors, there is an analogous quantity forholes, called hole mobility. The term carrier mobility refers in general to both electron and hole mobility in semiconductors. Electron and hole mobility are special cases ofelectrical mobility of charged particles in a uid under an applied electric eld. When an electric eld E is applied across a piece of material, the electrons respond by moving with an average velocity called the drift velocity, . Then the electron mobility is dened as . Electron mobility is almost always specied in units ofcm2/(Vs). This is different from the SI unit of mobility, m2/(Vs). They are related by 1m2/(Vs) = 104cm2/(Vs). Conductivity is proportional to the product of mobility and carrier concentration. For example, the same conductivity could come from a small number of electrons with high mobility for each, or a large number of electrons with a small mobility for each. For metals, it would not typically matter which of these is the case, most metal electrical behavior depends on conductivity alone. Therefore mobility is relatively unimportant in metal physics. On the other hand, for semiconductors, the behavior of transistors and other devices can be very different depending on whether there are many electrons with low mobility or few electrons with high mobility. Therefore mobility is a very important parameter for semiconductor materials. Almost always, higher mobility leads to better device performance, with other things equal. Semiconductor mobility depends on the impurity concentrations (including donor and acceptor concentrations), defect concentration, temperature, and electron and hole concentrations. It also depends on the electric eld, particularly at high elds when velocity saturation occurs. It can be determined by the Hall effect, or inferred from transistor behavior.
Contents [hide] 1 Introduction 1.1 Drift velocity in an electric eld 1.2 Denition and units 1.3 Relation to conductivity 2 Examples 3 Electric eld dependence and velocity saturation 4 Relation between scattering and mobility 4.1 Ionized impurity scattering 4.2 Lattice (phonon) scattering 4.3 Piezoelectric scattering 4.4 Surface roughness scattering 4.5 Alloy scattering

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Electron mobility - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 4.6 Inelastic scattering 4.7 Electron-electron scattering 4.8 Relation between mobility and scattering time 4.9 Matthiessen's rule 4.10 Temperature dependence of mobility 5 Measurement of semiconductor mobility 5.1 Hall mobility 5.2 Field-effect mobility 5.2.1 Using saturation mode 5.2.2 Using the linear region 6 Doping concentration dependence in heavily-doped silicon 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Introduction
Drift velocity in an electric eld
Main article: Drift velocity

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Without any applied electric eld, in a solid, electrons (or, in the case of semiconductors, both electrons and holes) move around randomly. Therefore, on average there will be no overall motion of charge carriers in any particular direction over time. However, when an electric eld is applied, each electron is accelerated by the electric eld. If the electron were in a vacuum, it would be accelerated to faster and faster velocities (called ballistic transport). However, in a solid, the electron repeatedly scatters off crystal defects, phonons, impurities, etc. Therefore, it does not accelerate faster and faster; instead it moves with a nite average velocity, called the drift velocity. This net electron motion is usually much slower than the normally occurring random motion. In a semiconductor the two charge carriers, electrons and holes, will typically have different drift velocities for the same electric eld. Quasi-ballistic transport is possible in solids if the electrons are accelerated across a very small distance (as small as the mean free path), or for a very short time (as short as the mean free time). In these cases, drift velocity and mobility are not meaningful.

Denition and units

See also: Electrical mobility The electron mobility is dened by the equation: . where: E is the magnitude of the electric eld applied to a material, vd is the magnitude of the electron drift velocity (in other words, the electron driftspeed) caused by the electric eld, and is the electron mobility.

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The hole mobility is dened by the same equation. Both electron and hole mobilities are positive by denition. Usually, the electron drift velocity in a material is directly proportional to the electric eld, which means that the electron mobility is a constant (independent of electric eld). When this is not true (for example, in very large electric elds), the mobility depends on the electric eld.

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The SI unit of velocity is m/s, and the SI unit of electric eld isV/m. Therefore the SI unit of mobility is (m/s)/(V/m)
2 = m2/(Vs). However, mobility is much more commonly expressed in cm /(Vs) = 104 m2/(Vs).

Mobility is usually a strong function of material impurities and temperature, and is determined empirically, mobility values are typically presented in table or chart form. Mobility is also different for electrons and holes in a given semiconductor.

Relation to conductivity

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There is a simple relation between mobility and electrical conductivity. Let n be the number density of electrons, and let e be their mobility. In the electric eld E, each of these electrons will move with the velocity vector , for a total current density of (where e is the elementary charge). Therefore, the electrical conductivity satises:[1]

= nee.
This formula is valid when the conductivity is due entirely to electrons. In a p-type semiconductor, the conductivity is due to holes instead, but the formula is essentially the same: If p is the density of holes and h is the hole mobility, then the conductivity is

= peh.
If a semiconductor has both electrons and holes, the total conductivity is[1]

= e(ne + ph).

Examples
450 cm2/ (Vs).[2]

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2 Typical electron mobility for Si at room temperature (300 K) is 1400 cm / (Vs) and the hole mobility is around

Very high mobility has been found in several low-dimensional systems, such as two-dimensional electron gases (2DEG) (3,000,000 cm2/(Vs) at low temperature),[3] carbon nanotubes (100,000 cm2/(Vs) at room temperature)
[4] and more recently, graphene (200,000 cm2/ Vs at low temperature).[5] Organic semiconductors (polymer, 2 oligomer) developed thus far have carrier mobilities below 10 cm /(Vs), and usually much lower.

Electric eld dependence and velocity saturation

Main article: Velocity saturation

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At low elds, the drift velocity vd is proportional to the electric eld E, so mobility is constant. This value of is called the low-eld mobility. As the electric eld is increased, however, the carrier velocity increases sub-linearly and asymptotically towards a maximum possible value, called the saturation velocity vsat. For example, the value of vsat is on the order of
6 1107 cm/s for both electrons and holes in Si. It is on the order of 610 cm/s for Ge. This velocity is a characteristic of the material and a strong function of doping or impurity levels and temperature. It is one of the key material and semiconductor device properties that determine a device such as a transistor's ultimate limit of speed of response and frequency.

This velocity saturation phenomenon results from a process calledoptical phonon scattering. At high elds, carriers are accelerated enough to gain sufcient kinetic energy between collisions to emit an optical phonon, and they do so very quickly, before being accelerated once again. The velocity that the electron reaches before emitting a phonon is:

where phonon(opt.) is the optical phonon angular frequency and m*is the carrier effective mass in the direction of the electric eld. The value of Ephonon (opt.) is 0.063 eV for Si and 0.034 eV for GaAs and Ge. The saturation

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velocity is only one-half of vemit, because the electron starts at zero velocity and accelerates up tovemit in each cycle.[6] (This is a somewhat oversimplied description.[6]) Velocity saturation is not the only possible high-eld behavior. Another is the Gunn effect, where a sufciently high electric eld can causes intervalley electron transfer, which reduces drift velocity. (This is unusual; increasing the electric eld almost always increases the drift velocity, or else leaves it unchanged.) The result is negative differential resistance. In the regime of velocity saturation (or other high-eld effects), mobility is a strong function of electric eld. This means that mobility is a somewhat less useful concept, compared to simply discussing drift velocity directly.

Relation between scattering and mobility

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Recall that by denition, mobility is dependent on the drift velocity. The main factor determining drift velocity (other than effective mass) is scattering time, i.e., how long the carrier is ballistically accelerated by the electric eld until it scatters (collides) with something that changes its direction and/or energy. The most important sources of scattering in typical semiconductor materials, discussed below, are ionized impurity scattering and acoustic phonon scattering (also called lattice scattering). In some cases other sources of scattering may be important, such as neutral impurity scattering, optical phonon scattering, surface scattering, and defect scattering.[7] Elastic scattering means that energy is (almost) conserved during the scattering event. Some elastic scattering processes are scattering from acoustic phonons, impurity scattering, piezoelectric scattering, etc. In acoustic phonon scattering, electrons scatter from state k to k', while emitting or absorbing a phonon of wave vectorq. This phenomenon is usually modeled by assuming that lattice vibrations cause small shifts in energy bands. The additional potential causing the scattering process is generated by the deviations of bands due to these small transitions from frozen lattice positions. [8]

Ionized impurity scattering

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Semiconductors are doped with donors and/or acceptors, which are typically ionized, and are thus charged. The Coulombic forces will deect an electron or hole approaching the ionized impurity. This is known as ionized impurity scattering. The amount of deection depends on the speed of the carrier and its proximity to the ion. The more heavily a material is doped, the higher the probability that a carrier will collide with an ion in a given time, and the smaller the mean free time between collisions, and the smaller the mobility. When determining the strength of these interactions due to the long-range nature of the Coulomb potential, other impurities and free carriers cause the range of interaction with the carriers to reduce signicantly compared to bare Coulomb interaction. If these scatterers are near the interface, the complexity of the problem increases due to the existence of crystal defects and disorders. Charge trapping centers that scatter free carriers form in many cases due to defects associated with dangling bonds. Scattering happens because after trapping a charge, the defect becomes charged and therefore starts interacting with free carriers. If scattered carriers are in the inversion layer at the interface, the reduced dimensionality of the carriers makes the case differ from the case of bulk impurity scattering as carriers move only in two dimensions. Interfacial roughness also causes short-range scattering limiting the mobility of quasi two-dimensional electrons at the interface. [8]

Lattice (phonon) scattering

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At any temperature above absolute zero, the vibrating atoms create pressure (acoustic) waves in the crystal, which are termed phonons. Like electrons, phonons can be considered to be particles. A phonon can interact (collide) with an electron (or hole) and scatter it. At higher temperature, there are more phonons, therefore increased phonon scattering which tends to reduce mobility.

Piezoelectric scattering
Piezoelectric effect can occur only in compound semiconductor due to their polar nature. It is small in most
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semiconductors but may lead to local electric elds that cause scattering of carriers by deecting them, this effect is important mainly at low temperatures where other scattering mechanisms are weak. These electric elds arise from the distortion of the basic unit cell as strain is applied in certain directions in the lattice. [8]

Surface roughness scattering

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Surface roughness scattering caused by interfacial disorder is short range scattering limiting the mobility of quasi two-dimensional electrons at the interface. From high-resolution transmission electron micrographs, it has been determined that the interface is not abrupt on the atomic level, but actual position of the interfacial plane varies one or two atomic layers along the surface. These variations are random and cause uctuations of the energy levels at the interface, which then causes scattering. [8]

Alloy scattering

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In compound (alloy) semiconductors, which many thermoelectric materials are, scattering caused by the perturbation of crystal potential due to the random positioning of substituting atom species in a relevant sublattice is known as alloy scattering. This can only happen in ternary or higher alloys as their crystal structure forms by randomly replacing some atoms in one of the cubic lattices (sublattice) that form zinc-blende structure. Generally, this phenomenon is quite weak but in certain materials or circumstances, it can become dominant effect limiting conductivity. In bulk materials, interface scattering is usually ignored. [8][9][10][11]

Inelastic scattering

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During inelastic scattering processes, signicant energy exchange happens. As with elastic phonon scattering also in the inelastic case, the potential arouses from energy band deformations caused by atomic vibrations. Optical phonons causing inelastic scattering usually have the energy in the range 30-50 meV, for comparison energies of acoustic phonon are typically less than 1 meV but some might have energy in order of 10 meV. There is signicant change in carrier energy during the scattering process. Optical or high-energy acoustic phonons can also cause intervalley or interband scattering, which means that scattering is not limited within single valley. [8]

Electron-electron scattering
Due to the Pauli exclusion principle, electrons can be considered as non-interacting if their density does not

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exceed the value 1017 cm-3 or electric eld value 103 V/cm. However, signicantly above these limits electronelectron scattering starts to dominate. Long range and nonlinearity of the Coulomb potential governing interactions between electrons make these interactions difcult to deal with. [9][8][10]

Relation between mobility and scattering time

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A simple model gives the approximate relation between scattering time (average time between scattering events) and mobility. It is assumed that after each scattering event, the carrier's motion is randomized, so it has zero average velocity. After that, it accelerates uniformly in the electric eld, until it scatters again. The resulting average drift velocity is:[12]

where q is the elementary charge, m* is the carrier effective mass, and is the average scattering time. If the effective mass is anisotropic (direction-dependent), m* is the effective mass in the direction of the electric eld.

Matthiessen's rule

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Normally, more than one source of scattering is present, for example both impurities and lattice phonons. It is normally a very good approximation to combine their inuences using "Matthiessen's Rule" (developed from work by Augustus Matthiessen in 1864):

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. where is the actual mobility, impurities is the mobility that the material would have if there was impurity scattering but no other source of scattering, and lattice is the mobility that the material would have if there was lattice phonon scattering but no other source of scattering. Other terms may be added for other scattering sources, for example . Matthiessen's rule can also be stated in terms of the scattering time: . where is the true average scattering time and impurities is the scattering time if there was impurity scattering but no other source of scattering, etc. Matthiessen's rule is an approximation and is not universally valid. This rule is not valid if the factors affecting the mobility depend on with each other, because individual scattering probabilities cannot be summed unless they are independent of each other. The average free time of ight of a carrier and therefore the relaxation time is inversely proportional to the scattering probability. [8][9][11]For example, lattice scattering alters the average electron velocity (in the electric-eld direction), which in turn alters the tendency to scatter off impurities. There are more complicated formulas that attempt to take these effects into account. [13]

Temperature dependence of mobility

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With increasing temperature, Typical temperature dependence of mobility[1] phonon concentration increases (depends on the temperature range and sample) and causes increased scattering. Si Ge GaAs Thus lattice scattering lowers the Electrons T 2.4 T 1.7 T 1.0 carrier mobility more and more at Holes higher temperature. Theoretical T 2.3 T 2.1 T 2.2 calculations reveal that the mobility in non-polar semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium, is dominated byacoustic phonon interaction. The resulting mobility is expected to be proportional to T 3/2, while the mobility due to optical phonon scattering only is expected to be proportional to T 1/2. Experimentally, values of the temperature dependence of the mobility in Si, Ge and GaAs are listed in table.[1] As , where is the scattering cross section for electrons and holes at a scattering center and

is a thermal average (Boltzmann statistics) over all electron or hole velocities in the lower conduction band or upper valence band, temperature dependence of the mobility can be determined. In here, the following denition for the scattering cross section is used: number of particles scattered into solid angle d per unit time divided by number of particles per area per time (incident intensity), which comes from classical mechanics. As Boltzmann statistics are valid for semiconductors .

(=Debye temperature), the estimated cross For scattering from acoustic phonons for temperatures section ph is determined from the square of the average vibrational amplitude of a phonon to be proportional to T. The scattering from charged defects (ionized donors or acceptors) leads to the cross section . This formula is the scattering cross section for Rutherford scattering, where a point charge (carrier) moves past another point charge (defect) experiencing Coulomb interaction. The temperature dependencies of these two scattering mechanism in semiconductors can be determined by
3/2

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combining formulas for , and defects def

, to be for scattering from acoustic phononsph T

and from charged

T3 / 2. [9][11]

The effect of ionized impurity scattering, however, decreases with increasing temperature because the average thermal speeds of the carriers are increase.[7] Thus, the carriers spend less time near an ionized impurity as they pass and the scattering effect of the ions is thus reduced. These two effects operate simultaneously on the carriers through Matthiessen's rule. At lower temperatures, ionized impurity scattering dominates, while at higher temperatures, phonon scattering dominates, and the actual mobility reaches a maximum at an intermediate temperature.

Measurement of semiconductor mobility

Hall mobility
Main article: Hall effect Carrier mobility is most commonly measured using the Hall effect. The result of the measurement is called the "Hall mobility" (meaning "mobility inferred from a Hall-effect measurement"). Consider a semiconductor sample with a rectangular cross section as shown in the gures, a current is owing in the x-direction and a magnetic eld is applied in the z-direction. The resulting Lorentz force will accelerate the electrons (n-type materials) or holes (p-type materials) in the (y) direction, according to the right hand rule and set up an electric eld y. As a result there is a voltage across the sample, which can be measured with a highimpedance voltmeter. This voltage, VH, is called the Hall voltage. VH is negative for n-type material and positive for p-type material. Mathematically, the Lorentz force acting on a charge Q is given by For electrons:

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Hall Effect measurement setup for holes

For holes:
Hall Effect measurement setup for electrons

In steady state this force is balanced by the force set up by the Hall voltage, so that there is nonet force on the carriers in the y direction. For electron,

y = vxBz
For electrons, the eld points in the -y direction, and for holes, it points in the + direction. y The electron current I is given by I = qnvxtW. Sub vx into the expression for y,

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where RHn is the Hall coefcient for electron, and is dened as

Since

Similarly, for holes

From Hall coefcient, we can obtain the carrier mobility as follows:

Similarly,

Here the value of VHp (Hall voltage), t (sample thickness), I (current) and B (magnetic eld)can be measured directly, and the conductivities n or p are either known or can be obtained from measuring the resistivity.

Field-effect mobility
See also: MOSFET Not to be confused with Wien effect.

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The mobility can also be measured using a eld-effect transistor (FET). The result of the measurement is called the "eld-effect mobility" (meaning "mobility inferred from a eld-effect measurement"). The measurement can work in two ways: From saturation-mode measurements, or linear-region measurements.[14] (See MOSFET for a description of the different modes or regions of operation.)

Using saturation mode

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In this technique,[14] for each xed gate voltage V , the drain-source voltage VDS is increased until the current GS ID saturates. Next, the square root of this saturated current is plotted against the gate voltage, and the slope m sat is measured. Then the mobility is:

where L and W are the length and width of the channel andCi is the gate insulator capacitance per unit area. This equation comes from the approximate equation for a MOSFET in saturation mode:

where Vth is the threshold voltage. This approximation ignores theEarly effect (channel length modulation),

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among other things. In practice, this technique may underestimate the true mobility. [15]

Using the linear region

In this technique,[14] the transistor is operated in the linear region (or "ohmic mode"), where V is small and DS with slope mlin. Then the mobility is: . This equation comes from the approximate equation for a MOSFET in the linear region:

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In practice, this technique may overestimate the true mobility, because if VDS is not small enough and VG is not large enough, the MOSFET may not stay in the linear region. [15]

Doping concentration dependence in heavily-doped silicon

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The charge carriers in semiconductors are electrons and holes. Their numbers are controlled by the concentrations of impurity elements, i.e. doping concentration. Thus doping concentration has great inuence on carrier mobility. While there is considerable scatter in the experimental data, for noncompensated material (no counter doping) for heavily doped substrates (i.e. 1018cm 3 and up), the mobility in silicon is often characterized by the empirical relationship:[16]

where N is the doping concentration (either ND or NA), and Nref and are tting parameters. At room temperature, the above equation becomes: Majority carriers:[17]

Minority carriers:[18]

These equations apply only to silicon, and only under low eld.

See also
Speed of electricity

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References
abcd

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_mobility[]1102/82/11 13:73:30 .

Electron mobility - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1. ^ Chapter 2: Semiconductor Fundamentals . Online textbook by B. Van Zeghbroeck] 2. ^ Electrical properties of silicon , Ioffe Institute Database 3. ^ Harris, J. J.; Foxon, C. T.; Barnham, K. W. J.; Lacklison, D. E.; Hewett, J.; White, C. (1987). "Two-dimensional electron gas structures with mobilities in excess of 3106 cm2 V1 s1". Journal of Applied Physics 61: 1219. Bibcode 1987JAP....61.1219H . doi:10.1063/1.338174 . 4. ^ Drkop, T.; Getty, S. A.; Cobas, Enrique; Fuhrer, M. S. (2004). "Extraordinary Mobility in Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes". Nano Letters 4: 35. Bibcode 2004NanoL...4...35D . doi:10.1021/nl034841q . 5. ^ Bolotin, K; Sikes, K; Jiang, Z; Klima, M; Fudenberg, G; Hone, J; Kim, P; Stormer, H (2008). "Ultrahigh electron mobility in suspended graphene". Solid State Communications 146: 351. arXiv:0802.2389 . Bibcode 2008SSCom.146..351B . doi:10.1016/j.ssc.2008.02.024 . 6. ^ a b Vladimir Vasilevich Mitin; Viacheslav Aleksandrovich Kochelap; Michael A. Stroscio (1999). Quantum heterostructures: microelectronics and optoelectronics . Cambridge University Press. pp. 3079. ISBN 9780521636353. Retrieved 2 March 2011. 7. ^ a b Singh. Electronic Devices And Integrated Circuits Retrieved 1 March 2011. . PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. pp. 77. ISBN 9788120331921.

8. ^ a b c d e f g h Ferry, David K. Semiconductor transport. London: Taylor & Francis, 2000. ISBN 0-7484-0865-7 (hbk.), ISBN 0-7484-0866-5 (pbk.) 9. ^ a b c d Ibach, Harald. ; Luth, Hans. Solid-state physics : an introduction to principles of materials science / Harald Ibach, Hans Luth. New York: Springer, 2009. -(Advanced texts in physics) ISBN 978-3-540-93803-3 10. ^ a b A. Bulusu, D.G. Walker. Review of electronic transport models for thermoelectric materials, Superlattices and Microstructures, Volume 44, Issue 1, July 2008, Pages 1-36, ISSN 0749-6036, DOI: 10.1016/j.spmi.2008.02.008. 11. ^ a b c Bhattacharya, Pallab. Semiconductor optoelectronic devices / Pallab Bhattacharya. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice-Hall, 1997. ISBN 0-13-495656-7 (nid.) 12. ^ Peter Y. Yu; Manuel Cardona (30 May 2010). Fundamentals of Semiconductors: Physics and Materials Properties . Springer. pp. 205. ISBN 9783642007095. Retrieved 1 March 2011. 13. ^ Antonio Luque; Steven Hegedus (9 June 2003). Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering . John Wiley and Sons. p. 79, eq. 3.58. ISBN 9780471491965. Retrieved 2 March 2011. weblink (subscription only) 14. ^ a b c Constance Rost-Bietsch (August 2005). Ambipolar and Light-Emitting Organic Field-Effect Transistors . Cuvillier Verlag. pp. 17. ISBN 9783865375353. Retrieved 1 March 2011.. This reference mistakenly leaves out a factor of 1/VDS in eqn (2.11). The correct version of that equation can be found, e.g., in Stassen, A. F.; De Boer, R. W. I.; Iosad, N. N.; Morpurgo, A. F. (2004). "Inuence of the gate dielectric on the mobility of rubrene single-crystal eld-effect transistors". Applied Physics Letters 85: 3899. arXiv:cond-mat/0407293 . Bibcode 2004ApPhL..85.3899S . doi:10.1063/1.1812368 . 15. ^ a b Constance Rost-Bietsch (August 2005). Ambipolar and Light-Emitting Organic Field-Effect Transistors . Cuvillier Verlag. pp. 19. ISBN 9783865375353. Retrieved 20 April 2011. "Extracting the eld-effect mobility directly from the linear region of the output characteristic may yield larger values for the eld-effect mobility than the actual one, since the drain current is linear only for very small VDS and large VG. In contrast, extracting the eldeffect mobility from the saturated region might yield rather conservative values for the eld-effect mobility, since the drain-current dependence from the gate-voltage becomes sub-quadratic for large VG as well as for small VDS." 16. ^ B. L. Anderson and R. L. Anderson, "Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices, " Mc Graw Hill, 2005 17. ^ Caughey, D.M.; Thomas, R.E. (1967). "Carrier mobilities in silicon empirically related to doping and eld". Proceedings of the IEEE 55: 2192. doi:10.1109/PROC.1967.6123 . 18. ^ Del Alamo, J (1985). "Measuring and modeling minority carrier transport in heavily doped silicon". Solid-State Electronics 28: 47. Bibcode 1985SSEle..28...47D . doi:10.1016/0038-1101(85)90209-6 .

External links
The minority Carrier Lifetime in silicon wafer semiconductor glossary entry for electron mobility Resistivity and Mobility Calculator from the BYU Cleanroom Online lecture- Mobility from an atomistic point of view View page ratings

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