INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL 1.0 1.

1 Definition: Inspection is the process of measuring the quality of a product or service in terms of established standards. Quality: It is fitness for purpose at lowest cost It is the degree of perfection It is the degree to which it fulfills the requirements of the customer. Quality control: It is the control of quality during manufacturing and design. It is the technique by means of which products of uniform acceptable quality are manufactured by effectively controlling the application of materials, men, machines, process and working conditions. QC is concerned with making things right rather than discovering and rejecting those made wrong. QC is everybodys business- not only of the inspectors. QC v/s Inspection: 1. Inspection sorts out good and defective pieces 2. QC looks into the causes for variations and seeks solutions and remedial action 3. Effective QC reduces the amount of inspection 4. QC verifies the effectiveness of the process and process capability 5. Qc is concerned not only with the quality of the product but also with the method of manufacture 6. Both inspection and QC try to assure quality Objectives of inspection: 1. Ensuring the adequate quality of a product 2. Timely detection of defects in raw materials, in-process items and final products 3. Preventing further work on defective components 4. Ensures the safe working of products 5. Improving the reputation of the firm 6. Helps in reducing the customer complaints Kinds of inspection: 1. Roving, process, patrolling or floor inspection 2. Fixed 3. Key point 4. Final 5. Incoming materials 6. In-process 7. Finished goods 8. Tools inspection 9. First piece inspection 10. Random inspection 11. Pilot piece inspection

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Statistical Quality Control It is the quality control system using the statistical techniques for controlling the quality and solving quality problems. The fundamental basis of SQC is the theory of probability and the distribution pattern. Evaluates the batch quality Controls the quality of processes and products The variations in the product parameters may be due to 1. Assignable causes. - Mistakes are assignable Posses greater magnitude Easily traceable 2. Random or chance causes - Errors are random No control over them Characteristic to the process / machine Effects each component in separate way They may cancel effects of each other They will be close to the middle of the extreme values Probability 1. Additional law: for mutually exclusive (only one event can occur at a time) p = p1 + p2 p1= probability of occurrence of event 1

p2= probability of occurrence of event 2 p = probability of occurrence of event 1 or 2 2. Multiplication law: for mutually independent ( not exclusive) p = p1.p2 3. Binomial theorem: Where p = probability of a component defective q = probability of a component Non-defective p+q=1 The probability of achieving r successes is given by the term p (r) of the above binomial expansion 1.7.1 Distribution pattern: 1. Normal distribution curve Symmetrical Skewed - pulled to one side Lepto kurtic - Peak higher than normal curve Platy kurtic - Peak lower than normal curve 2. Bimodal - Has 2 peaks ( may be made on 2 m/cs.) 3. Triangular - May be due to defective m/c. p= probability of occurrence of event 1And 2

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Techniques used by SQC: 1. Sampling inspection 2. Analysis of the data 3. Control charts 100% inspection v/s Sampling inspection: 100% Inspection Sampling inspection Very tiring and expensive Represents the lot in quality Prone to errors Saving in labor & cost Can not assure 100% accuracy controls the average outgoing quality Only way for destructive tests Sampling inspection: Def: It is a technique to determine whether the lot should be accepted or rejected on the basis of the number of defective parts found in randomly selected samples from the lot. Sample: A sample may be defined as the number of items, parts or component drawn from a lot, batch or population for the purpose of inspection to estimate the quality of the lo from which it is drawn. Sampling: It is an act of drawing the samples from the batch on random basis which represents the lot truly. Sample size: The number of samples drawn from the lot for accurately estimating the quality of the lot and depends on the size of the lot and the degree of the quality required. Advantages: 1. Less amount of inspection 2. Saving in time and cost 3. Reduced fatigue and boredom of inspectors 4. Accuracy can be expected 5. Less handling of the lot 6. Only possible way for destructive tests 7. Risk of rejection ensures care and attention Types: Sampling by attributes: Defective non-defective No quantitative measurement Compares Go No-Go gauging Involves % of defects Sampling by variables: Measuring quality characteristics Involves average of measurements Generates more information and trend Lot by lot: Divided into No. of lots Suitable for batch production

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Continuous: During mass and continuous production samples are drawn at some regular intervals Sampling by attributes: Steps involved in inspection by Attributes: 1. Select a sampling plan No. of samples to be selected (n) No. of defective parts that can be tolerated to accept the lot (c or a) (Acceptance number) Acceptable quality level (AQL): It indicates a small proportion of bad components in a lot such that the lots having less than the proportion of bad components have a high probability of getting accepted. Lot Tolerance Perfect Defective (LTPD): (Limiting Quality) It indicates a small proportion of bad components some what larger than AQL in a lot such that the lots having more than this proportion of defective components have a small probability of getting accepted. Manufacturers Risk: It is the small probability of a batch being good or even better than AQL but yielding a bad sample and thus getting rejected. Purchasers Risk: It is the probability of a lot being bad or even worse than LTPD but yielding a good sample and thus getting accepted. 2. Determine the Operating Characteristic Curve for the chosen plan Draw the graph of Probability of acceptance (Pa) of he lot v/s actual Percent Defectives (p) present in the lot. Probability of acceptance can be calculated for various distribution models like Binomial, Poissons and Normal etc. P(a) = d=0 n! . pd (1-p)n-d / d!. (n-d)!- for binomial distribution P(a) = d=0 d . e- / d! where = n.p - for Poissons P(a) = d=0 e-1/2(d-/)2 / .2 where =n.p; = (n.p(1-p))1/2 for Normal Distribution The OC curve for a particular combination of n and c shows how well the sampling plan discriminates the good and bad lots.

OC curve 1.10 Sampling by variables: The inspection is carried out by measuring the quality characteristics of a product. Ex.: Dimensions, weight etc. Variables involve the averages of measurement. Attributes deal with the % of parts rejected Inspection by variables is more detailed and contains more information, Involves higher inspection and cost per unit. Attributes A discrete distribution such as binomial or Poissons is used. Variables Continuous distribution such as Normal is used. 1.10.1 Sampling Plans: 1. Single 2. Double 3. Multiple 4. Sequential

Single sampling Plan: A lot is accepted or rejected on the basis of a sample drawn from the lot. Method: Draw a single sample of size n parts depending on the size of the lot and the AQL. The size can be found from the tables available. Inspect the sample and find the No. of defective parts If the defective parts exceed the acceptance No. C the lot is rejected. In case of rejection inspect each and every piece of the lot and replace the defectives or salvage and correct the defects. Characteristics: 1. Easy to design. 2. Lower cost of inspection 3. Accurately estimates the lot quality. Double Sampling Plan; If it is not possible to decide the fate of the lot on the basis of a single sample, a second sample is drawn out of the same lot and decision is taken on the basis of the combined results of both the samples. Steps: Let C1 and C2 are the acceptance numbers. (C2>C1) Inspect a sample of size N1 Count the defectives K1 If K1 >C2 Reject the lot If C1<K1<C2 Draw a second sample of size N2 ( Total sample size = N1+N2 ) If K1 C1 Accept the lot

Count the defective parts (K1+K2) If (K1+K2) >C2 If (K1+K2) C2 Reject the lot Accept the lot Characteristics: 1. More expensive 2. Involves less inspection than single sampling 3. A second chance is given to the lot 4. Involves more overheads 5. Involves more records 6. Not as accurate as of single sampling plan

Multiple sampling Plan: A lot is accepted or rejected based upon the results obtained from a several samples drawn from the lot. It involves smaller first sample as compared to single & double sampling plans. Sequential sampling Plan: It involves increasing the sample size by one part at a time till the size becomes sufficiently large and contain sufficient No. of defects to take a decision to accept or reject. 1.11 Control Charts: Control chart is a graphical presentation of the measured or otherwise judged quality characteristics of the items or the samples, being manufactured on day to day basis. The chart show the trend of variations while production is going on, thus helping to take corrective action at appropriate time. Purpose and advantages: 1. Indicates whether the process is under control or out of control. 2. Determines the process variability and detects unusual variations. 3. Gives warning signal if the process is affected by attributable causes. 4. Ensures the process capability and Quality level. 5. Increases the reputation of the firm. 1.1.1 Types: Control charts Variables control charts _ X- Chart R- Chart - Chart Attribute control charts p- Chart np-chart c-Chart U-Chart

_ 1.11.2 X & R Charts: These two chats are used together. The charts are drawn to show the mean _ X and the range R against the sample numbers on respective graphs. Sample size : No. of samples: n S _ Mean of the sample : X = Mean of the means: X Range of the values : R = Max. Min. in the sample _ Mean of Ranges :R _ For X chart: = _ UCL: Upper control limit = X +A2.R = _ LCL: Upper control limit = X A2.R For R- chart: _ UCL: Upper control limit = D4.R _ LCL: Upper control limit = D3.R A2, D3, D4 are constants based on normal distribution and are available in tables depending on the sample size. Table: Sample size (No. of items in each sample) 2 3 4 5 6 8 A2 ( Limit average ) 1.88 1.02 0.73 0.58 0.48 0.37 D3 D4 (Range lower limit) ( Range upper limit) 0 0 0 0 0 0.14 3.27 2.57 2.28 2.11 2.00 1.86

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0.31 0.27

0.22 0.28

1.78 1.72

This chart is drawn among the fraction defectives or % defectives and the sample Nos. or the dates of production. Fraction defective p = No. of defectives found No. of items inspected

Percent defectives %p = 100 x p _ Mean = p = p / No. of samples _ _ _ UCL = p + 3 [ p-(1-p) / n] _ _ _ LCL = p - 3 [ p-(1-p) / n] 1.1.1 c- chart: The No. defects in an item, which is big in size, are plotted against No. of items inspected. 1. The sample size is constant. 2. It controls the No. of defects observed per unit. 3. c- chart is preferred for large and complex parts. No. of defects found in a part = c Mean c = c/No. of parts inspected _ _ UCL = c + 3 (c) _ _ UCL = c - 3 (c)

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p-Chart Quality circles:

c- chart

Quality circles (QC) are small groups of employees (8 to 10 in a group), who meet voluntarily for about an hour a week to share the ideas in an attempt to solve job related quality and productivity problems.

Salient features: 1. Group includes foreman as well as workers who perform similar jobs. 2. Members of QC are taught how to collect data and do the statistical Analysis to analyze the causes of quality problem. 3. The recommendations of QC are recognized and acted upon by the management. 4. QC reflects the philosophy that the responsibility for quality rests with all the concerned rather than a few inspectors or supervisors. 5. QC are very successful in Japan. More than 80% of workers are involved in QC.

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Advantages: 1. Improved quality and productivity 2. Reduction defects ( About 2/3 ) 3. Job satisfaction and high morale of workmen 4. Reduction in labour turnover 5. Reduction in absenteeism.

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ISO 900 Quality System: International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was found after world war- 2 The industrialized nations are members of ISO. ISO does not issue independent standards but recommends some of the standards prepared by the member countries.

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Need and Evolution of ISO 9000 Quality system: 1. Shift from Sellers market to Buyers market 2. Economic liberalization and globalization 3. Building customer confidence in suppliers capability to produce Quality products and services. 4. Exports to Europe - ISO 9000 registration is mandatory. 5. Standard quality system. Structure: ISO 9000 Quality management and quality assurance Standards: Part-1 : ISO 9000-1 Guide lines for selection and use. Part-2 : ISO 9000-2 Generic guide lines for the application of ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO 9003. Part-3 : ISO 9000-2 Guide lines for the application of ISO 9001 to the Development, supply and maintenance of soft ware. ISO 9000-x : Quality plan ISO 9000-y : Configuration control. ISO 9001-1994: Quality system Model for quality assurance in design, production, installation and servicing. ISO 9002-1994: Quality system Model for quality assurance in production, Installation and servicing. ISO 9003-1994 : Quality system Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test.

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Requirements of ISO 9001 Quality system: Salient features: 1. Standards on system and not on product. 6.Documented & demonstrable 2. Complementing to product specification. 6. Well defined authority and

3. 20 elements effecting quality responsibility 4. Establish own procedure and implement 7. Quality manual & procedures 5. Management responsibility 8. Need for training 3.3.1 Elements of ISO 9001 Quality system : 1. Management responsibility 2. Quality system 3. Contract review 4. Design control 5. Document & data control 6. Purchasing 7. Control of customer supplied product 8. Product identification & traceability 9. Process control 10. Inspection & testing 11. Control of inspection, measuring and test equipment 12. Inspection & test status 13. Control of non- confirming product 14. Corrective & preventive action 15. Handling, storage, packaging, preservation & delivery 16. Control of quality records 17. Internal quality audits 18. Training 19. Servicing 20. Statistical techniques

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Documentation: 1. Level 1: 2. Level 2: 3. Level 3: 4. Level 4: Quality manual Executive procedures Work instructions Records, log sheets and formats

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Advantages: 1. Reduction of quality costs 2. Improvement in work culture & quality of products 3. Involvement & commitment of management & employees 4. Good communications through audits & reviews 5. Increased market share & customer confidence 6. Dealing with one certification agency 7. Benefits to the organization & society

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Conclusions: Approach : Philosophy: Scope : Scale : Standard : Measure : Theme : Management led Prevention not detection Company wide Everyone Right first time & every time Customer satisfaction Continuous improvement

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Above customer expectation