RECENT ADVANCES IN MICROMACHINING PROCESSES

Rajurkar K.P and Sundaram M.M Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska, USA 68588

Abstract:
The rapidly increasing demand for miniaturized components from diverse industries such as aerospace, biomedical, automobile, healthcare and consumer electronics has necessitated the need for innovative micromachining processes. Micromachining over the years has matured to become an indispensable technology that offers reliable solutions to produce complex shaped micro parts made of metals, ceramics, polymers and composites. This paper presents an overview of the micromachining processes and techniques being practiced worldwide. A general classification of micromachining processes is provided. Capabilities of individual micromachining processes are discussed. A comparison of the major micromachining processes and emerging trends in this field is reported. Recent research results of microElectrical Discharge machining (micro-EDM), micro-Electrochemical Machining (Micro-ECM) and micro Ultra Sonic Machining (micro-USM) projects (funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation) are presented. Related issues such as education and environmental aspects are also briefly discussed.

Keywords: micromachining, micro-manufacturing

1. Introduction
Miniaturized systems, products and components offer multiple benefits. Smaller components occupy lesser space and have better portability. They consume lesser quantity of raw materials and can be operated with lesser energy. Since smaller parts can be made with smaller machines, it is possible to accommodate more machines in less space to achieve dense machining by massive parallel processing. Since the smaller machines have lesser inertial effects and can operate at higher machining speed, the productivity increases. The net result of miniaturization is the cost reduction. An added attraction is the multi-functionality of the products made with smaller components. Hence, there is a strong demand for the miniaturized components from diverse industries such as aerospace, biomedical, automobile, healthcare and consumer electronics. Specific applications include medical implants, diagnostic and remediation devices, micro-scale batteries and fuel cells, fluidic micro-chemical reactors requiring micro-scale pumps, valves and mixing devices, micro-fluidic systems, micro-holes for fiber optics, micronozzles for high-temperature jets, micro-

molds and deep X-ray lithography masks and optical lenses. Extensive research efforts in electronics industry provided the initial breakthrough (1980s) in micromachining. Various silicon based lithographic and etching techniques such as surface micromachining and bulk micromachining (etching, UV-lithography, photolithography, etc.) were developed to fabricate micro components in the sizes of micrometers and sub-micrometers for microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS). These lithography based MEMS fabrication technologies today have been well commercialized and continue to enjoy a good market share. However, these techniques have some limitations. These techniques can use only semiconductors such as silicon and a few metals as work materials. The related geometries of generated features are mainly limited to two or two and a half dimensions. These techniques also require very expensive installations and cleanroom environment. Moreover, they involve time consuming mask preparations. The etchants used in these processes also cause environmental concern. Hence, researchers worldwide have resorted to either invent innovative

micromachining processes or downscale existing macro machining processes. Following aspects were the motivation for these research efforts. Miniaturized parts made of various materials: Functional requirements of micro products and application demand the use of a wide variety of engineering materials such as steels, titanium, brass, aluminum, platinum, iridium, ceramics, polymers, and composites. Complex structures: Geometrical features with dimensions of few micrometers are often found in micro components. Real three-dimensional (3D) microstructures with curved surfaces and several hundred micrometers in height are required in many modern applications such as micro-mechanics, micro-optics, microsensors and micro-actuators. Micro features on macro components: The generation of micro features on larger-than-mesoscale components is another area of applications of micromachining. Cooling vents in jet engines, computers, medical implants and instruments are some applications of this type. The micromachining techniques developed to cater to the above mentioned requirements such as micro electro discharge machining and micro milling are collectively known as complementary micromachining techniques or nonlithography based (NLB) techniques. Contemporarily, developments were also made in lithography based techniques. For example, LIGA (Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung) a German acronym for lithography, electroforming, and molding was developed to produce high aspect ratio micro parts. All these processes over the years have matured to become indispensable techniques which offer reliable solutions to produce complex shaped micro parts made of metals, ceramics, polymers and composites. This paper presents an overview of these micromachining processes. It also includes the worldwide developments in these techniques [1] and contributions made by the primary authors research group especially in the developments of nontraditional micromachining processes [2].

A general classification of micromachining processes is provided in the next section. Subsequently, capabilities of individual micromachining processes has been discussed. A comparison of the major micromachining processes and emerging trends in this field has been reported. Related issues such as education and environmental aspects have also been briefly discussed.

2. Classification
Present day micromachining is a result of multiple approaches as shown in Figure 1. Downscaling of macro machining processes such as mechanical micromachining (turning, milling etc) involve the use of either micro tools or miniaturized machines themselves [3, 4]. Lithography based techniques as well as use of their related techniques like LIGA is another approach to micromachining [5]. Application of finishing technologies such as ELID Grinding (Electrolytic In-process Dressing) and magneto abrasive finishing are yet another approach to micromachining [6]. Adaptation of layer manufacturing techniques such as selective layer sintering and 3D printing can also produce micro parts [7].
Down Scaling of Macro Machining Processes

Finishing Techniques

Micro Machining
Lithography and Etching Techniques

Layer Manufacturing Processes

Fig. 1 Approaches to micromachining Similar to macro machining, micromachining can also be classified into three main typessubtractive, near-net-shape, and additive based on how the desired shape is achieved as shown schematically in Figure 2. Individual processes under each of these categories are discussed in the following sections.

Subtractive Process

Additive Process

Material to be removed Desired Near-Net Shape Process Part Punch Die

(a) Stepped shaft [8]

(b) A compound shaped pin [9]

(c) Screw cutting [10]

Fig. 3 Micro turned components Micro milling of brass to produce high aspect ratio walls (25 m thickness and 650 m height) column (30X30X320 m) and micro turbine as shown in Figure 4 has been reported in [11]. A surface roughness value as low as 20 nm in the micro milling of brass has been reported in [12]. A material removal rate of over 3200 m3/s and surface roughness value of 80 100 nm has been reported for the micro milling of PMMA [13]. A two dimensional vibrating system has been reported to improve the surface finish [14]. In the micro milling of copper, a helix angle of 25 has been found to yield higher tool life than 30 helix angle [15]. A monitoring system for micro end milling has been reported in [16]. A monitoring system using acoustic emissions has been reported in [17].

Fig. 2 Three different ways to make a part (Sectional and 3-D views are shown)

3. Subtractive processes
In subtractive processes unwanted portion of bulk material is selectively removed to form a desired shape. The material subtractive processes include mechanical micromachining such as turning, drilling, milling, and grinding; electro-physical and chemical processes such as electrodischarge machining (EDM) and electrochemical machining (ECM); and energybeam machining such as laser, electron, and focus ion beam. 3.1 Mechanical micromachining Mechanical micromachining processes are downscaled versions of the existing macrolevel processes. In these processes, the tools are usually in direct mechanical contact with the workpieces and therefore, a good geometric correlation between the tool path and the machined surface can be obtained. Compared to microelectronic fabrication methods, they have higher material removal rate and the ability to machine complex 2D and 3D microshapes in a variety of engineering materials. The main limitations are i) the high cutting forces which may bend / break the workpiece, ii) heat generation, iii) the difficulty in making the micro tools which itself calls for micromachining, iv) burr removal, and v) tool / spindle run out. Using a diamond tool with tip radius of 50 m, a 10 m diameter aluminum alloy micro shaft as shown in Figure 3 (a) has been turned by keeping the depth of cut to 0.25 m [8]. Micro turning of a compound shaped pin as shown in Figure 3 (b) using CNC codes has been reported in [9]. Figure 3 (c) shows a micro screw threads.

(a) Micro walls

(b) Micro column

(c) Micro turbine

Fig. 4 Micro milled structures [11] 3.2 Electrical micromachining In these processes material is removed by the heat generated due to the applied pulsed electrical current or due to the electrolysis. Accordingly the process is known as electro discharge machining (EDM) and electro chemical machining (ECM). Downsizing of these processes to achieve micromachining involves Reducing the energy supplied Electrical energy used for the micromachining is of the order of micro joules. This reduced energy essentially ensures reduced unit removal of material. Decreasing the tool dimensions Based on the requirements of the applications, the electrode dimensions are typically in the order of micro meters. Using ultra short pulses A major break through especially in ECM is made

possible by using pulsed current with pulse durations in the order of micro to nano seconds. Ultra short pulses confine the electrochemical reactions to those regions where the inter electrode gaps are minimum. This remarkably increases the dimensional and geometrical accuracies of the machined features. Micro shafts as small as 1 m in diameter as shown in Figure 5 (a) can be machined using micro EDM. These shafts are often used as micro tools in other micro machining processes such as micro electrochemical machining, micro ultrasonic machining and in micro EDM itself. Using planetary motion of the tool, high aspect ratio non-circular holes as shown in Figure 5 (b) can be machined. A 3-dimensional shape machined by micro EDM is shown in Figure 5 (c). Figure 5 (d) shows a complex shaped Chinese pagoda machined by micro wire EDM.

abrasive particles (ultrasonic, water jet machining). The material is removed due to deformation or fracture based on migration or multiplication of pre-existing dislocations or by the enlargement of cracks originating from the pre-existing microcracks [26]. A surface roughness of 1-2 nm RMS has been reported for the aspherical lens manufacturing by microgrinding followed by magnetorheological finishing [27]. Using ultra precision diamond turning machine as platform, micro grinding of a 31m micro pin shown in Figure 7(a) was performed to obtain a average surface roughness of 98 nm [28]. A micro lens obtained by loose abrasive blasting is shown in Figure 7 (b) [29]. Micro grinding of V grooves with surface roughness of 40-80 nm has been reported in [30]. A micro channel (width 340 m) machined in silicon by ultrasonic impact grinding is shown in Figure 7 (c) [31]. Micro grinding of 100 m wide high aspect ratio (15:1) micro grooves (Figure 7 (d))using high reversal table speed has been reported in [32].

(a) Micro shaft (1 m) [18]

(b) Noncircular hole [19]

(c) 3-D machining [20]

(d) Structured by wire EDM [21] (a) Micro pin [28] (b) Micro lens [29]

Fig. 5 Components made by micro electro discharge machining. Electrochemical machining of 30 m carbide shaft as shown in Figure 6(a) by deep immersion has been reported in [22]. Dimensions as low as 4 m is possible by this method. A micro hemisphere formed by ECM and micro grooves machined using wire micro ECM are shown in Figure 6 (b) and (c) respectively. A spiral machined in nickel using ultra short pulses is shown in Figure 6 (d).

(c) Micro groove [31]

(d) High aspect ratio grooves [32]

Fig. 7 Examples of micromachining using abrasives 3.4 Micromachining using energy beams Energy beam like laser beam and ion beam can be used for the micromachining of materials by melting, evaporation, ablation or sputtering. Unlike other processes, these processes do not need physical micro tools. They can machine almost any material. In lieu of other expensive micromachining methods (e.g., deep reactive ion etching), energy beam micromachining can be used as a cost effective option for prototyping purposes. Laser widely varies in type, wavelength, power and application as shown in Table 1. The laser power density and interaction time for different applications are shown in Figure 8. In general shorter wavelength involves higher cost and produces better quality [33]. Laser micromachining of depth varying structures by synchronized overlay scanning (SOS) and Eight level multi-width

(a) Micro shaft fabricated by deep immersion [22]

(b) 60 m micro hemisphere [23].

(c) Micro grooves by wire ECM [24].

(d) 5 m deep spiral [25]

Fig. 6 Components produced by electro chemical micromachining. 3.3 Micromachining using abrasives Micromachining can be done by using either fixed abrasives (grinding, honing) or loose

microvasculature network microchannels fabricated by one-step laser direct write for microfluidic applications are shown in Figure 9 (a) and (b) respectively. A complex micro structure produced by synchronised image scanning (SIS) is shown in Figure 9 (c). Metallic micromachining of deep hole drilling using Nd:YAG laser is shown in Figure 9 (d). Focused ion beam machining is capable of localized milling and deposition of conductors and insulators with high precision. It is also used for material deposition, device modification, mask repair, process control and failure analysis [34]. Micro structures formed by FIB are shown in Figure 10. FIB in general is an expensive and very slow process.The sputter yield at low doses shows significant dose dependence and the sidewall angle of sputtered structures is determined by the

Fig. 8 Laser power density and interaction time required for different applications [34] beam shape and angle dependence of the sputter yield [35]. If throughput is not the issue, FIB can be used for the micromachining of structures with resolutions of the order of 1nm [36].
Operating mode Continuous, Pulsed Continuous, Pulsed Pulsed Continuous, Pulsed Pulsed, 10 100 ns Continuous Continuous, Pulsed Continuous, Pulsed Applications Optoelectronics, Pumping light source for solid state lasers Materials processing, dimensional metrology, medicine Dimensional metrology, pulse holography Materials processing, medicine, isotope separation Micromachining, laser chemistry, medicine Dimensional metrology, holography Printing technology, pumping laser for dye laser stimulation, medicine. Dimensional metrology, spectroscopy, medicine

Table 1. Laser types and applications [37].

Type Diode Nd: YAG Ruby laser CO2 laser Excimer laser HeNe laser Argon ion laser Dye laser Wavelength Infrared to visible 1.06 m Red (typically nm) 10.6 m 694 Power < 100 W 1 W 3 kW Several MW

1 W 40 kW (100 MW in the pulsed mode) 193, 248 and 308 nm 1 kW 100 MW (& others) 632.8nm (most 1 mW 1 W common) 515 and 458 nm 1 mW 150 W (several) Continuous between 1 mW 1 W infrared and ultraviolet

(a) Depth varying grooves [38]

(b) Eight level multi-width microvasculature network [39]

(c) Structure produced by SIS [40]

Deposition [34]

Micro end mill [42]

3-D micro milling [43]

Groove machining [44]

Fig. 10 Micro structures formed by FIB

4. Additive processes
(d) High aspect ratio (200) micro drilling [41]

Fig. 9 Examples of laser micromachining

Additive processes, as the name suggests, make desired shape of the part by adding material layer by layer or by selective deposition. Table 2 shows the different

additive processes. A brief overview of some of the additive processes is provided in this section. Laser assisted chemical vapor deposition (LCVD) is an atom-by-atom deposition process in which 100 % density of final part is achieved without further sintering [45]. Fabrication of alumina doped silica gradient index lenses by 3-dimensional printing has been reported in [46]. Using a similar process, 3-dimensional structure made of composites has been reported in [47]. The multi-directional metal deposition by laserbased direct metal deposition (LBDMD) allows the part fabrication without a support requirement [48]. Table 2. Types of additive processes.
Thin film deposition [49] Chemical Vapor Deposition Atmospheric pressure Low pressure Plasma enhanced Vapor phase epitaxy Physical Vapor Deposition Vacuum evaporation Molecular beam epitaxy Sputtering Electrochemical Deposition Electroplating Electro-less plating Spin-on Deposition Rapid prototyping [50] Selective Laser Sintering Microstereolithography 3D Printing Laminated ObjectManufacturing Laser Engineered Consolidation Direct Metal Deposition Controlled Metal Buildup Metal Spray

5. Near-net-shape processes
The final part is obtained in near-net-shape processes by shape change of the work material without significant material addition or removal. Microforming is the collective term that represents the near-net-shape processes. These processes in general are suitable for the mass production of microparts. Flow stress, anisotropy, ductility and forming limit, forming forces, spring back, and tribology are some of the many factors that need further study for increasing the performance of microforming processes. An excellent report on the process capabilities and research issues of microforming can be found in [51].

or addition of material layers. The bulk micromachining involves etching deep into the substrate. Surface micromachining is a planar process that removes the sacrificial layer. By adding several layers of material on to the silicon wafer, the desired component is fabricated. Hybrid processes are used to exploit the synergism of constituent processes. Constituent processes may either directly involve the material removal (e.g. abrasive electro discharge grinding) or facilitate better machining conditions (eg. Ultrasonic EDM). MEMS processes and applications are 2 - 2 D and are limited in the engineering materials employed and involve relative accuracies in the 10-1 to 10-2 range. The LIGA technology combines X-ray lithography, electroforming and moulding. LIGA can produce very high aspect ratio (~ 500) micro structures with smooth vertical walls on several materials like metals, plastics and ceramics [52]. Surface roughness of Ra 0.3 nm and minimum feature size of 200 nm are possible using LIGA. The part product can be used either as final product or as mould [53]. An excellent source of information on MEMS and LIGA processes is [54]. Several direct Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) techniques such as 3D Welding, Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Selective Laser Melting and Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS), Selective Laser Cladding, Controlled Metal Buildup (CMB) and Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) have been developed to aid rapid prototyping [55].

7. Micromachining research activities at UNL

The Center for Nontrational Manufacturing Research (CNMR) at University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) is committed to the advancement of cutting edge nontraditional manufacturing practices through theoretical and practical research activities ever since its inception in 1988. The CNMRs research initiatives especially in micromachining are depicted in Figure 11. CAD/CAM integration enables the 3D micromachining by micro EDM and micro ultrasonic machining [56, 57]. Some of the theoretical and experimental investigations in micro ECM and limiting conditions are reported in [58].

6. MEMS, LIGA Hybrid and other processes

The final product in MEMS processes is obtained by selective material removal and /

Micro EDM
Uniform Tool Wear Planetary Tool Motion High Aspect Ratio Machining Study of electrical parameters 3-Dimensional Machining CAD/CAM Integration Process Modeling

9. Emerging Trends Related Issues

and

Other

The emerging trends and other issues related to micromachining are listed below: Almost all micromachining processes show a clear trend of moving towards nanomachining. In fact nanomachining capability of some of the processes like mechanical machining [60], energy beam machining [61] and electro machining [62] have already been demonstrated. The trend toward miniaturization of machines is evident with commercialization of desktop machine tools, assembly systems, and measurement systems well underway. Using of CNC machines is the emerging trend in the next generation optics manufacturing [63]. Ultrasonic vibration is increasingly being used to improve different micromachining processes such as micro milling [64], micro grinding [65], micro EDM [66] and micro electroforming [67]. Developments in metrology are moving towards achieving the ability to measure parts within a volume of 1m X 1m X 1m with an accuracy of 1nm [68]. A typical application of laser micromachining is to increase the density of optical storage media such as DVDs. Currently, the track spacing on a DVD is 400 nm, yielding approximately 6 GB of data storage space. The target spacing for the next generation of laser micromachining systems is 100 nm, resulting in 25 GB storage capacity on a DVD. Research is being conducted at the Korean Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM) in the use of a variety of new lasers to generate smaller cutting widths at high speed. Processes performed in a desktop factory (DTF) will have a dramatic impact on society. Sankyo Seiki believes that its DTFs might revive manufacturing in Japan and in Korea the government just started a new desktop factory project. Environmental effects of micromachining are less as they produce less pollutants owing to the lesser volume of materials involved.

Micro ECM
System Design

Micro Ultrasonic

Fig. 11 Micromachining research initiatives at CNMR, UNL Using planetary motion of the tool noncircular micro holes as shown in Figure 5 (b) have been machined micro EDM [19]. A high aspect ratio (18) micro hole machined by micro EDM using planetary tool movement is shown in Figure 12. Using ultrasonic vibrations micro hole with an aspect ratio of 30 has been achieved [59]. Using uniform tool wear method micro EDM of 3-dimensional features has been achieved as shown in Figure 5 (c).

Fig. 12 High aspect ratio (18) micro hole

8. Comparison of micromachining processes

A qualitative and detailed comparison of different types of micro machining processes is given in Table 3 and 4. Figure 13 shows the object size and accuracy achievable by different processes.
Tolerance ~ Object size
106 103

10-3 10-6 10
-3

To ler an ce ~ O bj ec t siz e

CONVENTIONAL & ULTRA CONVENTIONAL & ULTRA PRECISION MANUFACTURING PRECISION MANUFACURING
MICRO/MESO SCALE MICRO/MESO -SCALE MANUFACTURING MANUFACTURING

Object size (m)

MEMS MEM S

NEM S
Object < Atom size Object < Atom size

10

-2

10-1

101

102

103

Relative Accuracy (Feature Tolerance/Object Size)

Fig. 13 Object size and accuracy achievable by different processes (after [1])

Micromachining requires multidisciplinary expertise. Highly educated and skilled people are needed to fulfill this requirement. Serious efforts are needed in curriculum development to cater to this demand. Undergraduate, graduate and professional courses are needed to help disseminate knowledge of these technologies and underlying science for producing meso- and microscale parts.

9. Summary
An overview of the micromachining processes and techniques being practiced worldwide is presented. A general

classification of micromachining processes and capabilities of several individual micromachining processes have been discussed. A comparison of the major micromachining processes and emerging trends in this field have been reported. Related issues such as education and environmental aspects have also been briefly discussed. From these observations it is clear that the micromachining processes have matured to produce reliable micro products. Further advancement of these technologies require multidisciplinary expertise. Serious efforts are needed in curriculum development to cater to this demand.

Table 3. A qualitative comparison of micromachining processes.

Process Type Subtractive Additive Near-net-shape MEMS Hybrid Geometric Complexity + + o + Range of Materials o o o Proto-typing + + + o Fair Mass production o o + + o - Poor Surface quality + o o + + Affordability + + o o

Legend:

+ Good

Table 4. Comparison of individual processes.

Process Turning Milling Grinding EDM ECM Laser FIB MEMS LIGA Forming Work Material Hardness < 40 HRC Hardness < 40 HRC Hardness 30-60 HRC Electrically conductive Electrically conductive Any Mostly Silicon, Polymer Mostly Si based Metals, simple alloys Mostly metals Mechanism Shearing Shearing Shearing, Fracture Melting, Evaporation, Spalling Electrolysis Ablation, Melting, Evaporation Sputtering, Deposition Etching, Curing Multiple Plastic flow Surface Finish Minimum Size Aspect Ratio (Ra) 5-10 nm 20-80 nm < 4 nm 0.1-0.8 m < 0.1 m < 750 nm < 200 nm <1 m ~ 1 m 0.1 m 10 m 4-8 m 100 m 2.3 m < 1 m ~ 130 nm 10-50 nm ~1 m 1.3 m 10 m 12 25 15 25 10 60 20 2-6 380 Process dependent

Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to NSF (Grant # DMI-0355380) and Nebraska Research Initiative Fund for partially supporting this work. References
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