Multidimensional Measures of Acculturation and Ethnic Identity: Further Empirical Evidence from Australia M.

Yunus Ali and Melissa J. Chaw, Queensland University of Technology Abstract This study contributes to the literature on Ethnic Consumption Behaviour by providing empirical support on multidimensional measures of acculturation and ethnic identity toward resolving the on-going debate on measurement of these two important constructs for explaining consumption behaviour. A 37-item scale measure was developed and tested on a Chinese sample using Factor Analysis. Results support multidimensionality as well as separate measures of these two constructs. Implications and limitations of the study has been discussed and further study suggested. Introduction Recent consumer studies have documented variation in behaviour among ethnic consumers in their shopping orientations, coupon usage, consumer choice, purchase decision making, retail shopping behaviour, and choice of media (Donthu and Cherian 1992, 1994; Eastlick and Lotz 2000; Ho, Ong and Lee 1997; Kang and Kim 1998; Kara and Kara 1996; Khairullah and Khairullah 1999; Lee and Tse 1994). This new paradigm of research has focused on the influences of acculturation and ethnic identity on ethnic migrants consumption behaviour, and has ignited interest in special market analysis, strategy and implementation issues to reach the fast growing ethnic consumers in many western countries. Nonetheless, contradictions exist in explanation of how and why consumption patterns vary as well as in conceptualisation and measurement of acculturation and ethnic identity. Researchers have attempted to develop measures to assess an individuals level of ethnic change and the process in which this occurs. Acculturation and ethnic identity constructs are presumed to comprise a myriad of dimensions. Nevertheless, there has been a lack of agreement and consistency associated with scales developed to measure them, especially whether the concepts are uni-dimensional or multi-dimensional. This perplexity has also led to the contradiction of assuming ethnic identity and acculturation as interchangeable constructs located at the opposite bipolar ends (Donthu and Cherian 1992; Keefe 1992). This conceptualisation has been challenged by other researchers who argue that these two processes are not mutually exclusive (Gim 1994) and should be measured separately (Jun et al. 1993; Landrine and Klonoff 1994; Lorache et al. 1998). Our on-going research examining the effect of acculturation and ethnic identity on consumption patterns of an ethic group in Australia, however, this paper only reports the preliminary results of measurement of these two variables. Literature Review Acculturation and ethnic identity are two dimensions of migrants cultural change process in a new country (Dato-on 2000; Lorache et al 1996). Acculturation refers to the acquisition of cultural traits of the host society by an individual or a group, whereas ethnic identity refers to an ethnic groups or individuals identification with and maintenance of the original ethnic identity (Lorache et al 1998: 418). Some researchers examined these constructs and their effect on consumption through self ascribed measures (Despande et al. 1986; Hirshman 1981; Snowden and Hines 1999) but this narrow and simplified view fails to acknowledge
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individual variation within groups (Chung and Fischer 1999; Laroche et al. 1999). Consequently, researchers are moving away from the straight-line unidimensional measure to a multi-faceted approach (Eastlick and Lotz 2000; Laroche and Kim 1997, 1998; Nguyen et al. 1999; Penaloza 1994; Porter and Washington 1993; Suinn et al. 1992). Nevertheless, few studies exemplify this view as they use independent measures of acculturation (Kara and Kara 1996; Khairullah et al 1996; Suinn et al. 1992; Suinn and Khoo 1995). The most widely used acculturation instrument to assess the level of Asian acculturation, the SL-ASIA (Suinn and Khoo 1995) composed of 21 items covering language, identity, friendship choice, attitude, behaviours, and generation. However, it has been criticised for non-orthogonal approach of the measurement and linearity of the scale. Based on a thorough search of the acculturation literature, Dato-on (2000) proposed a fourdimensional measure of acculturation which includes (1) host language fluency and usage, (2) host society integration, (3) culturally linked habits and customs, and (4) host media utilisation and preference. Szapocznik et al. (1978) developed 24-item measurement scale of acculturation, which has been adopted by subsequent researchers (Kara and Kara 1996; Khairullah et al 1996). Nevertheless, confusion still exists about what actually constitutes dimensions of acculturation. Similar to acculturation, ethnic identity has also been commonly implicated as a unidimensional construct (Chung and Fischer 1999; Deshpande et al. 1986). However, the unidimensional construct commonly neglected to capture its complexity; and consequently, contemporary researchers agreed to the conceptualisation of ethnic identity as a multidimensional construct (Kwan 2000; Laroche et al. 1999; Phinney 1992; Porter and Washington 1993; Whittler et al. 1991). Researchers argued for objective and subjective approaches, as they view ethnicity consists of objective phenomenon (based on phenotypic or cultural characteristics) and subjective identification (based on self-identification) (Jamal and Chapman 2000; Rossiter and Chan 1995; Wagner and Soberon-Ferrer 1990). Kwan (2000) postulated that ethnic identity was characterised by internal and external aspects (cognitive, moral and affective), and his factor analysis revealed four dimensions of ethnic identity: ethnic friendship and affiliation, ethno-communal expression, ethnic food orientation, and family-collectivism. Laroche and colleagues (1999) confirmed the multidimensional construct of ethnic identity when three dimensions were identified in factor analysis of their Italian American sample: Italian social interaction and participation, Italian language use with family members, and Catholicism. However, uncertainty still exists as to what actually constitutes ethnic identity (Bankston and Zhou 1995; Chung 2000; Donthu and Cherian 1994; Driedger 1975; Keefe 1992; Rosenthal and Feldman 1992). Consequently, due to the lack of consensus amongst researchers regarding the measurement and dimensions of these constructs, this research tests whether acculturation and ethnic identity are separate measures as well as tests their multidimensionality. The two proposition tested in this study are: Proposition 1: Acculturation and ethnic identity are two separate measures. Proposition 2: Both acculturation and ethnic identity are multidimensional rather than unidimensional. Methodology An empirical study was designed to test multidimensionality of acculturation and ethnic identity with primary data collected through mail surveys of Chinese migrants in Brisbane,

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Australia. The sample was randomly selected from a sampling frame of over 6000 Chinese households. Following Chung and Fischer (1999) and Rosenwaike (1994) a list of ethnic Chinese surnames from the Brisbane telephone directory was developed as a sampling frame. Questionnaires and covering letters in English, Cantonese and Mandarin were sent out to 500 randomly selected Chinese residents requesting their participation in the survey. A telephone follow-up with the help of a tri-lingual person fluent in English, Cantonese and Mandarin facilitated a total of 141 responses (a response rate of 28.2%) of which 133 were found complete and usable. Drawing on the literature (Kwan 2000; Laroche et al. 1999; Nesdale and Mak 2000; Nesdale, Rooney and Smith 1997; Phinney 1992; and Suinn and Khoo 1995), measures of acculturation and ethnic identity were developed initially using 37 statements covering an individuals affiliation with the ethnic group, the maintenance of language traditions and cultural practices, and the integration into the host society. A five point Likert scale was used to determine the level of agreement with statements. A self-administered questionnaire was developed and pre-tested to assess its clarity, and test reliability and validity of the instrument. Three items were found ambiguous and were deleted from the final questionnaire. The final questionnaire was then translated into the two main Chinese dialects: Cantonese and Mandarin. Back-translation was used to check any discrepancies and translational congruency amongst the instruments three language versions. Findings and Discussion Factor analysis in SPSS was used to find multidimensional structure of measures. Factor analysis is a useful tool in identifying and describing separate dimensions underlying a set of data whereby the factor loading for each item can provide a convenient and meaningful indication of the contribution and place of that item in a given factor (Hair et al. 1998). The data set satisfied the required assumptions of normality and linearity. A large number of correlation coefficients in the correlation matrix were found above the recommended level of .30 and none of the anti-image correlation was below .50. Both Kaiser-Myer-Olkin MSA (.758) and Bartletts Test of Spherity (Chi-square 1826 sig. at p < .001 with 496 degree of freedom) satisfied factorability assumptions. The 34 items were factor analysed, which extracted nine factors with eigenvalue greater than or equal to1. Two items were excluded for lack of significant loading in any factor. A seven-factor solution was found appropriate after an inspection of the Scree plot, number of variables loaded in, and percent of variance explained by each factor (Hair et al 1998). The seven-factor solution with varimax rotation explained 60.04% of the variances in the data. Results are presented in Table 1. Seven items loaded in Factor 1, which explained 12.5% of the variance. Items loaded in this factor include pride in commitment to remain Chinese, the importance of ensuring future generations recognise their Chinese heritage, and the importance of maintaining a Chinese lifestyle, such as preference for foods and cooking. Each item loaded positively and very highly in this factor (ranged from .76 to .49). It can be interpreted as familial cultural orientation and can be considered a dimension of Ethnic Identity. The factor is consistent with Kwans (2000) factor output emergent from the examination of Internal-External Ethnic Identity measure where 46.26% variance in the data was explained by four factors. Six items relating to the importance of respondents preferences on preserving Chinese heritage, maintaining Chinese practices and association with ancestral roots and customs

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loaded on Factor 2, which explained 10.5% of the variance. Five items loaded with positive sign ranged from .75 to .50. One item loaded with negative loading to indicate respondents disagreement with the statement (I do not feel strong ties to other Chinese members). The factor can be interpreted as cultural maintenance and belongingness, and can be considered as a dimension of Ethnic Identity. The items loading on this factor were consistent with Suinn, et al.s (1992) Affinity for Ethnic Identity and Pride factor and Kwans (2000) EthnoCommunal Expression factor. Table 1: Results of Factor Analysis Factor and Items Loaded in Each Factor
Factor Loading Eigenvalue of Rotated Factors % of Variance Explained

Familial Cultural Orientation (F1) I wish my children would marry a Chinese Children should be raised in traditional Chinese ways I am married to or would marry a Chinese person I often cook Chinese food I have a strong preference for Chinese foods It is very important for me to live according to the standards and values of my Chinese ethnic group I take pride in telling people that I am Chinese Cultural Maintenance and Belongingness (F2) I believe in the value of maintaining associations with my home country I am aware of the location of my ancestral village in my home country I always participate in cultural practices of my own group, such as special food, music, or customs I do not feel strong ties to other Chinese members I honour Chinese customs such as Chinese New Year I have a strong sense of belonging to my ethnic group Cultural Identity (F3) It is not important to maintain identity with my Chinese culture Chinese children should always keep a commitment to recognise their Chinese background I am very proud of my Chinese cultural background I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group and its accomplishments Chinese culture is worth preserving in my personal life It is important to me that language traditions be followed Host Country Acculturation (F4) I feel sense of belonging to Australia I am proud of Australian history I feel accepted by Australians I am comfortable dealing with Australians Cultures shouldnt mix Cultural Acculturation (F5) It is important that Chinese living in Australia attempt to adopt Australian culture The Chinese would benefit greatly if they adopted many aspects of Australian culture Most of my neighbours are Australian Ethnic Interaction (F6) I have a lot in common with other Chinese Most of my close friends are not Chinese Host Country Integration (F7) I enjoy English language movies over Chinese movies Sometimes I try to hide that I am Chinese I do not adhere strictly to Chinese cultural values .76 .67 .67 .65 .57 .54 .49 .75 .75 .55 -.52 .52 .50 -.68 .66 3.16 .64 .62 .59 .46 .82 .79 .79 .54 -.45 .81 2.50 .79 .75 .69 -.61 .71 .59 .53 1.83 5.54% 7.46% 9.57% 4.11 12.46%

3.47

10.52%

2.98

9.04%

1.81

5.47%

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Six items loaded in Factor 3 explaining 9.6% of the variance. This factor emphasised pride and the importance of maintaining Chinese cultural identity, cultural background and its accomplishments, and preserving them in personal life and amongst children. Five items loaded positively and loading ranged from .68 to .46. The item It is not important to maintain identity with my Chinese culture loaded negatively to indicate respondents disagreement with the statement. This relates to cultural identity and can be considered a dimension of Ethnic Identity. Five items highly loaded in Factor 4, which represents migrants feelings towards home in Australian society, their feelings of being accepted in Australian society, and their belongingness and integration with the host society. The factor can be interpreted as integration to the host culture, and can be considered a dimension of Acculturation. The item Cultures shouldnt mix loaded negatively to indicate disagreement with the statement. The items in this factor were consistently loaded in Nesdale and Mak (2000) measurement of migrants level of integration into host society. Items loaded in Factor 5 are related to the importance of assimilating into the host country and attempting to integrate into Australian life. This factor can be interpreted as cultural adoption, and can be interpreted as a dimension of Acculturation. Items of this factor reflected those in Nesdale and Mak (2000) immigrant acculturation attitudes. Two items loaded in Factor 6 and are related to social interaction situations such as friendship networks, and sharing a common identity within ethnic groups. This factor was interpreted as ethnic interaction and can be considered a dimension of Ethnic Identity. These items are similar to those in factor for Ethnic Interaction in Suinn et al. (1992) and for Ethnic Friendship and Affiliation in Kwan (2000). Three items in Factor 7 indicate adoption and integration into the social activities of the host culture, and represent changing identity. This factor can be interpreted as host country integration and a dimension of Acculturation. Results provide support the propositions of the study. The first proposition is supported as the distinctive nature of the two constructs is identified clearly by non-overlapping factor-based dimensions. Similarly, the second proposition is supported by the emergent three factors for acculturation and four factors for ethnic identity measures. Results are consistent with a number of previous studies where acculturation was found multidimensional rather than unidimensional (Eastlick and Lotz 2000; Hui et al.1992; Laroche and Kim 1997). The factors that emerged from the current study, exhibit a high degree of consistency with other identified dimensions of acculturation, such as friendship networks, in-group friends, traditional celebrations, self-identification, and ethnic organisation (Chung 2000; Donthu and Cherian 1994; Laroche et al. 1999; Rosenthal and Feldman 1992). Furthermore, the multidimensional nature of the ethnic identity construct is in line with other studies (Kwan 2000; Laroche et al. 1999; Phinney 1992). Items in each of the seven factors were found internally consistent to be used as constructs (Chronbachs Alpha was found above .7 for each). Conclusion This study has contributed to the literature toward supporting the multidimensional as well as separate measures for acculturation and ethnic identity in the study of ethnic consumption

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behaviour. A measurement scale was tested on a sample and seven non-overlapping factors emerged in the factor analysis (four for ethnic identity and three for acculturation) to assess acculturation and ethnic identity. Measures were found reliable with good internal consistency, and consistent across studies. The use of acculturation and ethnic identity in a regression equation (not reported in this paper) illustrated the unique explanatory power of the constructs to indicate their separate identity as variables, thus refuting any suggestion of being an alternative to each other and indicating the usefulness of examining the two constructs simultaneously, but independently (Laroche and Kim, 1997). However, readers should be cautious as results are still tentative and need further rigorous tests of validity of the measures.

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