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in stationary conditions
A. Ghadimi
1
r
1
r
2
r
1
r
2
2W
d1
W
d2
In
1 expkx
1 expkx
_ _
W
2
d1
W
2
d2
ln1 exp2kx
_ _
2
where r is the radius of particles, x is an interparticle surface-to-sur-
face distance, and the other symbols have their conventional
meanings.
It is notable that higher potentials (W
d
or f) lead to a bigger po-
tential barrier for agglomeration. In aqueous nanouid of CuO with
0.3 vol.% and PZC of about 8.59.5, the interparticle distance is
about 100 nm for mobility-equivalent spherical particles. At this
condition, the second term in the bracket of above equation is neg-
ligible compared to the rst. Thus, the repulsion energy of the
same-sized particles goes up approximately in proportion to f
2
.
The attraction energy between the same particles is given by
the Hamaker equation: E
A
= A
132
r/(12x). The Hamaker constant
A
132
of metal oxide is typically on the order of 10
20
J. Using the
above equation, the Hamaker equation, and the estimated W
d
, E
tot
is calculated as a function of x at different pHs as shown in Fig. 4. In
this condition, the repulsion barrier gets bigger than the attraction
as pH goes from the PZC, which makes the colloids more stable. At
pH 8 or 10 when W is small, however, the repulsion barrier disap-
pears, and particles are only subjected to the attractions. Strong
particle agglomeration is expected in that situation. Here, we need
to quantify the suspension stability in terms of collision efciency,
Fig. 3. Particle size distributions of nano-suspensions. (a) Al
2
O
3
H
2
O without SDBS, (b) Al
2
O
3
H
2
O with SDBS, (c) CuH
2
O without SDBS and (d) CuH
2
O with SDBS.
Concentration of nanoparticles and SDBS surfactant are 0.05% weight fraction, respectively [29].
Fig. 4. The interaction potentials at various pHs as a function of interparticle
distance [53].
4054 A. Ghadimi et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 40514068
a, which is responsible for colloidal particle growth. The a, a reci-
procal value of stability coefcient W, is related to the rate con-
stant of aggregation, k = ak
diff
= k
diff
/W.
The k
diff
represents the rate constant of the coagulation between
uncharged particles. Then a general relation of stability coefcient
W to total interaction energy E
tot
can be derived [53]
W 2r
_
1
0
exp
E
tot
k
b
T
_ _
dx
2r x
2
3
For example, as the pH of the nanouid goes far from the isoelectric
point, the surface charge increases by applying SDBS surfactant in
CuH
2
O nanouid. Since more frequent attacks occur to the surface
hydroxyl and phenyl sulfonic group by potential-determining ions
(H+, OH and phenyl sulfonic group), zeta potential and the colloi-
dal particles increase. So the suspension gets more stable and even-
tually changes the thermal conductivity of the uid [21].
Lee [56] also worked on different pH of nanouids with Al
2
O
3
.
The experiments indicated that when the nanouid had a pH of
1.7, the agglomerated particle size was reduced by 18% and when
the nanouid had a pH of 7.66, the agglomeration size was in-
creased by 51%. More particles aggregated in pH of 7.66 because
of reduction in electric repulsion force. When Al
2
O
3
particles are
immersed in water, hydroxyl groups (OH) are produced at the
surface of the Al
2
O
3
particle. The relevant reactions depend on
the solution pH. When the pH of the solution is lower than the
PZC, the hydroxyl groups react with H
+
from water which leads
to a positively charged surface. Alternatively, when the pH of the
solution is higher than the PZC, the hydroxyl groups react with
OH
nf
1 UqC
p
Uq
s
C
p;s
7
M
nf
1 UM UM
s
8
The effective thermal conductivity is dened as the ratio of the ther-
mal conductivity of nanouid to that of the base uid. Therefore,
from Eqs. (4) and (5), the generalized form of relative thermal con-
ductivity can be given as:
k
nf
k
C
p;nf
C
p
_ _
a
q
nf
q
_ _
b
M
M
nf
_ _
c
9
In which a, b and c should be dened from experiments and are
equal to 0.023, 1.358 and 0.126, respectively for Al
2
O
3
/water
nanouids. Yimin et al. [81,103] proposed a formula for the effec-
tive thermal conductivity in conjugate with Brownian motion and
DLA theory as follows:
k
eff
k
f
k
p
2k
f
2Uk
f
k
p
k
p
2k
f
Uk
f
k
p
q
p
UC
p
2k
f
k
B
T
3pr
c
g
10
where k
f
, k
p
, q, Cp, T, g, U and r
c
are the actual thermal conductivity
of the base liquid and the nanoparticle, density, specic heat, tem-
perature (K), viscosity, volume concentration and the radius of the
cluster, respectively.
Meibodi et al. [104] described the model of thermal barrier
resistance and claimed that the most important factor for thermal
conductivity enhancement of nanouids might be MFP (Mean Free
Path), the distance between particles that can be calculated by
Brownian approach for very low nanoparticle volume fractions
and by effective diameter for micro-particles and/or high particle
volume fractions [104]. The schematic of this model is presented
in Fig. 13. Likewise, Hadjov et al. [55] assumed a ux jump and a
discontinuity between the inclusion and the matrix as well which
is called the thermal conductive interface. This assumption con-
icts with the previous model. They stated that the thermal con-
ductivity depends strongly on the morphology via the kind of
particle packing.
5.1.2. Measurement apparatus
The measurement of thermal conductivity of liquids is a chal-
lenging task. In general, Fouriers law of heat conduction is
exploited for the measurement of thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivity of nanouids can be measured by dif-
ferent methods, including transient hot-wire (THW, also called
transient line heat source method) which are further categorized
into a basic transient hot-wire method, insulated wire method
and liquid metal wire method [5,108,109]. A detailed explanation
of the transient hot wire method in measuring the thermal conduc-
tivity of nanouids is given by Lee et al. [100]. Also, a summary of
the apparatus utilized for thermophysical properties by different
investigators is given in Table 9.
Among the stated techniques, the steady state parallel plate
method used by Wang et al. [80] seems to be least affected by
the particle sedimentation for their thickness of the loaded sample
uid is less than one mm. The sedimentation of nanouids can af-
fect the THW method used by Lee et al. [100]. An increment of the
temperature gradient within the vertical hot wire may be caused
by non-homogeneous nanoparticle concentration which might be
a source of measurement errors. This is also true for the
temperature oscillation technique by Das et al. [101] where the
Fig. 13. Schematic modeling of a homogeneous suspension containing spherical mono-sized particle with resistance model [104].
Table 8
Most applicable models for viscosity of nanouids [31].
No. Model Equation Remarks
1 Einstein
model
l
r
l
nf
l
1 gU
Applicable when U< 1% and when there is no interaction between the particles
2 Batchelor
model
l
r
l
nf
l
1 gU gU
2
Brownian motion of the nanoparticles and the interaction between them was taken into account in this
model and it is an extension of the Einstein model
3 Ward model
l
r
l
nf
l
1 gU gU
2
gU
3
An exponential model for U up to 35%
4 Renewed
Ward model
l
r
l
nf
l
1 gUe gUe
2
gUe
3
The inuence of liquid layering is taken into account to calculate U, U is replaced by U
e
4062 A. Ghadimi et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 40514068
thermocouple that measures the uid temperature oscillation lies
in the upper half of the nanouid chamber [59].
The 3x method is exploited by the small number of investiga-
tors; a thin lm heater is powered by an AC power source so there
is an oscillating heat transfer rate through the material, whose
thermal conductivity is to be measured. The three omega wire
method may be suitable to measure temperature-dependent ther-
mal conductivity [112].
5.2. Viscosity
The viscosity is the other vital factor in designing dynamic
nanouid for heat transfer applications as the pressure drop and
the resulting pumping power depend on it. In comparison with
the works carried out on thermal conductivity of nanouids, only
a few studies have been reported on the rheological behavior of
nanouids. Kang et al. [113] measured the viscosities of UDD
(ultradispersed diamond)/ethylene glycol, silver/water, and silica/
water nanouids and found the viscosity increment of 50%, 30%
and 20% for UDD/EG, silver/water and silica/water nanouids at
volume concentrations of 1%, 2% and 3%, respectively. Prasher
et al. [114] showed the independence of the viscosity to shear rate
for alumina/propylene glycol (PG) nanouids. This proves the
Newtonian nature of nanouid and viscosity growth by increasing
nanoparticle volume concentration. They found a 30% increase in
viscosity at 3% volume concentration and related this phenomenon
to aggregation of the nanoparticles in the nanouid with the size of
the aggregates of around three times the size of the individual
nanoparticles. The effect due to temperature and particle volume
concentration on the dynamic viscosity for an Al
2
O
3
/water nano-
uid has been experimentally investigated by Nguyen et al.
[115]. They found a signicant increase in nanouid dynamic vis-
cosity with particle volume concentration and an obvious decline
with a temperature increase. In their experiments, another factor
emerged, which is known as a critical temperature. Beyond that
temperature, the properties of particle suspension seem to be var-
ied, which leads to a hysteresis phenomenon. This fact has raised
serious doubts about the reliability of using nanouids for heat
transfer enhancement purposes. Murshed et al. [48] measured rel-
ative viscosity data for TiO
2
and Al
2
O
3
/water-based nanouids, and
reported a maximum increase of 80% at 4% and 5% particle volume
fraction, respectively. Similar increments in viscosity were re-
ported earlier by Masuda et al. [116] and Wang et al. [80]. Xie
et al. [117] ran experiments for nanoparticles dispersed in organic
uids like EG and showed that the increase for the viscosity of
Al
2
O
3
/EG nanouids is smaller than those of water based suspen-
sions, indicating the important effect of the base uid on nanouid
viscosity. They also studied the dependence of the viscosity on the
pH values. But when the pH value is close to PZC, it causes coagu-
lation of nanoparticles and therefore a viscosity increment. Namb-
uru et al. [118] presented some experiments for rheological
behavior of CuO/EG and water based nanouid over temperatures
ranging from 35 C to 50 C. Kwak and Kim [102] demonstrated
that large thermal conductivity enhancements are accompanied
by sharp viscosity increases at low (<1%) nanoparticle volume frac-
tions, which is a logical consequence of aggregation effects.
There are theoretical models to calculate the ratio of effective
viscosity of nanouids to that of base uid. A few of the frequently
used models [119,120] which have their limitations and applica-
tions are listed in Table 8. Murshed et al. [48] showed that the
measured viscosities of Al
2
O
3
/water and TiO
2
/water nanouids
were under predicted by the KriegerDougherty (KD) model. In
contrast, Chen et al. [121] showed that the viscosity of nanouids
can be predicted by the KriegerDougherty model if the volume
concentration is replaced by the volume concentration of nanopar-
ticle aggregates. In relation to their experiments, for spherical
nanoparticles, an aggregate size of approximately three times the
primary nanoparticle size gives the best t with the experimental
data. Chen et al. [121] proposed a categorization for the rheological
behavior of nanouids into four groups as (i) dilute nanouids
(with volume concentration less than 0.1%) whose viscosity ts
the Einstein equation and there is no visible shear-thinning behav-
ior; (ii) semi-dilute nanouids (with 0.15% volume concentration)
with aggregation of nanoparticles, whose viscosity ts the modi-
ed KD equation and there is no obvious shear-thinning behavior;
(iii) semi-concentrated nanouids (with 510% volume concentra-
tion) with aggregation of nanoparticles whose viscosity ts the
modied KD equation and there is noticeable shear-thinning
behavior; and (iv) concentrated nanouids (with volume concen-
tration more than 10%) with interpenetration of aggregation
and this is out of the normal concentration range of nanouids
[31,63].
There is a concern about different experimental results for vis-
cosity as shown by Pak and Cho [122] for 13 nm particle-size data
are much higher than all other results while Wang et al. [80] data
are relatively low. Nguyen et al. [123] claimed that it is compli-
cated to sketch any certain clarication about such results, apart
from saying that this interesting behavior may be related to vari-
ous factors such as different nanouid preparation methods.
5.2.1. Analytical models
In the case of aqueous nanouid preparation, viscosity data col-
lection should be accompanied with distilled water in which mea-
sured data have to be compared by the following correlation [124]:
Table 9
Equipments used for characteristic measurements.
Investigator Nanouid Thermal conductivity Viscosity Specic heat Density Surface tension
[132] CuO + CT
AB
THW (Assael et al., 2004) Rheometer with coaxial cylinders
(HaakeRheostress RS600)
DSC (Setaram
C80D)
Weighting a known
volume of nanouid
Pendant drop (KSV
CAM 200)
Al
2
O
3
CNT
TiO
2
[31] Al
2
O
3
+ DW KD2 Pro (Decagon
Devices, Inc., USA)
Brookeld cone and plate viscometer
(LVDV-I PRIME C/P)
[12] TiO
2
+ DW THW Bohlin rotational rheometer
[57] Al
2
O
3
+ DW TPS Capillary viscometer
Cu + DW
[49] Cu
2
O + DW KD2 system
[133] KD2 system Bohlin CVO rheometer
[134] KD2 pro Ubbeholder capillary viscometer (Fisher
Scientic)
A. Ghadimi et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 40514068 4063
l
bf
10
4
exp
1:12646 0:039638 T
1 0:00729769 T
_ _
11
where T (K) is the uid temperature and l in cP [123,125].
There are a few theoretical formulas that can be used to approx-
imate nanouid viscosities. Almost all such formulas have been de-
rived from the original work of Einstein (1906) which is based on
the assumption of a linearly viscous uid containing a dilute, sus-
pension of spherical particles. The energy dissipated by the uid
ow around a single particle was calculated by Einstein in this arti-
cle, and associated with that the work required moving this parti-
cle relatively to the surrounding uid, he obtained:
l
r
l
nf
l
bf
1 2:5U 12
Einsteins formula was found to be applicable to relatively low par-
ticle volume fractions, U< 2%. Beyond this value, it underestimates
the effective viscosity of the resulting mixture as it ignores particle
particle interaction. Since the publication of Einsteins work, many
researchers have contributed to the correction of his formula.
Based on the assumption of a very slow ow, inertial effect in the
uid has been considered negligible by the authors in most of these
works, which technicality makes linearity for the equations of mo-
tion. Two factors were frequently employed to correct Einsteins
result: the rst is that the particles may not be small, and the sec-
ond is that the structure of the particles within the continuous
phase may also affect the viscosity of the mixture. A brief review
of the relevant works is given below. There exists an extended Ein-
steins formula for use with moderate particle concentrations pro-
posed by Brinkman [126], as follows:
l
nf
l
bf
1
1 U
2:5
13
Frankel and Acrivos [127] proposed the following formula:
l
nf
l
bf
9
8
U=U
m
1=3
1 U=U
m
1=3
_ _
14
where U
m
is the experimental value for the maximum particle vol-
ume fraction. Alternatively, Lundgren [128] has offered the subse-
quent equation as a Taylor series in U:
l
nf
l
bf
1 2:5U
25
4
U
2
0U
3
15
Clearly, if the terms O (U
2
) or higher are neglected, the above for-
mula reduces to that of Einstein. Batchelor [129], in his notional
analysis, considered the effect due to the Brownian motion of parti-
cles on the bulk stress of an approximately isotropic suspension of
rigid and spherical particles. He proposed the following formula:
l
nf
l
bf
1 2:5U6:5U
2
16
Graham [130] has proposed the following formula as a generalized
form of the Frankel and Acrivos [127] formula that agrees well with
Einsteins for small U:
l
nf
l
bf
1 2:5U4:5
1
h
d
P
_ _
2
h
d
P
_ _
1
h
d
P
_ _
2
_
_
_
_ 17
where d
p
is the particle radius and h is the inter-particle spacing.
In fact, practically none of the above mentioned models can de-
scribe the viscosity of nanouids exactly in a wide range of the
nanoparticle volume fractions. Nguyen et al. [115] found that the
conditional formula, including Einsteins formula and the ones pro-
posed by Brinkman[126], Lundgren [128] and Batchelor had all
underestimated the nanouids viscosity even for a relatively low
particle fraction. They also suggested two correlations for Al
2
O
3
aqueous nanouids consisting of 47 and 36 nm nanoparticles as
follows:
l
nf
l
bf
0:904e
0:483U
for 47 nm Al
2
O
3
18
l
nf
l
bf
1 0:025U0:015U
2
for 36 nm Al
2
O
3
19
Lee [73] synthesized aqueous nanouids containing low volume
concentrations of Al
2
O
3
nanoparticles in the 0.010.3 volume per-
centage. His viscosity measurements showed that there was a con-
siderable decline with temperature increase. In addition, the
measured viscosities of the mentioned nanouids showed a nonlin-
ear relation with the concentration even in the low volume concen-
tration (0.010.3%) range, in contrast with the Einstein model which
predicts a linear relation and therefore it severely underestimates
the viscosity.
The temperature as another important factor other than the vol-
ume fraction inuences the viscosity of nanouids. There are lim-
ited researches about the dependence of viscosity on temperature;
whereas it is interesting to observe that for particle concentrations
lower than 4%, all tested nanouids exhibit almost constant rela-
tive viscosities that are independent of temperature. Between the
two aluminawater nanouids, just a slight difference in the levels
of relative viscosity arises. Such differences, however, become
much more visible at higher particle fractions, e.g. for 7% and 9%,
where we can observe not only a temperature dependence, but a
particle-size-dependence as well. The effect of particle-size ap-
pears somewhat paradoxical: for a particle fraction of 7% for exam-
ple, viscosities for 36 nm are slightly higher than those of 47 nm;
while for a 9% volume fraction, the reverse behavior is found.
For Al
2
O
3
water and CuOwater nanouids, the following for-
mulas have been proposed to compute the dynamic viscosity for
all three nanouids and particle concentrations tested [123]:
l
nf
l
bf
1:1250 0:0007 T 20
l
nf
l
bf
2:1275 0:0215 T 0:0002 T
2
21
There are also other correlations proposed for dependence of viscos-
ity to temperature by investigators. The correlation of Kulkarni et al.
[131] related the viscosity of CuOwater nanouids with the tem-
perature in the range of 550 C:
lnl
s
A
1
T
_ _
B 22
Here A and B are the functions of volume percentage U. Since this
correlation is obtained for an aqueous solution, it is not valid for
subzero temperature range. Praveen [132] derived an exponential
model for CuOwater nanouids with base uid of 60:40 (by
weight) ethylene glycol and water mixture as follows:
logl
s
Ae
BT
23
where l
s
is the CuO-water nanouid viscosity in (cP), T is the tem-
perature in K and A, B are functions of particle volume percentage
U. It should be noted that some discrepancy appeared among a
few studies on the rheology of nanouids [114,133] which showed
the Newtonian behavior of nanouids while others observed
noticeable non-Newtonian behavior [134]. Prashers results [114]
depicted that the normalized shear viscosity has a linear relation-
ship with the nanoparticle volume fractions, whereas investigations
of Nguyen et al. [115] for particle volume fractions lower than 4%,
the viscosity of CuOwater is approximately the same as that of
4064 A. Ghadimi et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 40514068
the aluminawater nanouids considered earlier, though for higher
particle loading, the increase in viscosity with respect to particle
concentration is clearly much greater. Such great values of viscosity
may result from the intrinsic molecular structure of the mixture it-
self and the particular chemical dispersing agents used.
These discrepancies between investigations might be due to dif-
ferent volume concentration, type of nanoparticles, chemical prop-
erties of base uids and nanoparticle preparation method. As
shown by Ko et al. [135], nanouids prepared by the acid treat-
ment (TCNT) have much lower viscosity than the ones made with
surfactant (PCNT). Also, we can see that the use of the Batchelor
[129] and Brinkman [126] formulas for CuOwater nanouid is
inappropriate. Therefore, the following correlation was proposed
for computing CuOwater viscosity:
l
r
1:475 0:319U0:051U
2
0:009U
3
24
Fullman [136] and Noni et al. [137] derived a formula from the
model of the mean free path for relative viscosity of suspensions
of solid particles in a liquid medium as:
l
r
1 a
1
k
n
25
where the constants a and n depend on material characteristics
while the mean free path (k) is dened as:
k
2
3
d
1 U
U
26
Substituting Eq. (26) in Eq. (25) and for a given particle size,
l
r
1 b
U
1 U
_ _
n
27
This model (Eq. (27)) which considers the mean free path is used to
predict the effective viscosity of Al
2
O
3
/water nanouids [31].
5.3. Density
The key parameters for assessing the heat transfer merits of
nanouids are their thermo physical properties. The mixture prop-
erties of nanouids are normally expressed in volume percent U
while the loading analysis was obtained in weight percent (wt).
The conversion between the weight and volume fractions is done
through the bulk density q
p
U
wq
f
q
P
1 w wq
f
28
5.4. Specic heat
Thermal conductivity studies have been the main focus of nano-
uid investigations, and certain efforts have also been done on the
viscosity of nanouids. The density has been reported to be consis-
tent with the mixing theory. However, the specic heat Cp of nano-
uids has received very little attention [141].
The heat capacity of the nanouid is incorporated into the
energy equation, so it is important to be able to calculate it accu-
rately. Most researchers use one of two correlations, which are in
Eqs. (29) and (30), The rst model is based on the volume fraction
whereas the second model is based on heat capacity concept. Both
models are often cited by a number of researchers for calculating
the specic heat of nanouid.
Pak and Cho model [122]
c 1 Uc
bf
Uc
p
29
and Xuan and Roetzel model [142].
c
1 Uqc
bf
Uqc
p
q
30
Where c is the heat capacity, U is the volume fraction of nanopar-
ticles, and q is the density. The subscript bf refers to properties of
the base uid, and the subscript p refers to properties of the nano-
particles. Eq. (29) is simply the rule of mixtures applied to heat
capacity; while Eq. (30) is an altered form. It clearly shows that
the specic heat decreased with increasing nanoparticle concentra-
tions [10,141].
In some investigations, the inuence of nanoparticles on the
specic heat of nanouid seems too small to be considered due
to the low nanoparticle volume fraction.
6. Conclusion
The present outlook is the rst and inclusive review on the re-
search progress made in the stability of the nanouids. Nanouid
preparation with a single and two-step method would denitely
affect the stability as the two-step method needs a higher nanopar-
ticle concentration to equalize the heat transfer enhancement
reached by single step. A higher concentration causes more sedi-
mentation. However, unfortunately, the single step method is not
industrialized in a wide range so experiments are mostly con-
ducted by two-step method. Therefore, higher costs and lower sta-
bility are inevitable.
Major factors inuencing the extraordinary enhancement of
heat transfer are listed as chemical composition of the solid parti-
cle and the baseuid, particle source and concentration, particle
shape and size, surfactants, temperature, pH value (surface
charge), monodispersity, IEP and elapsed time.
Comparing several studies in the literature, some discrepancies
appear among the results. At this moment, it cannot be clearly ex-
plained why incongruities take place among the measurements of
the nanouid characteristics such as thermal conductivity and vis-
cosity. However, at least we are able to mention that different
sources of measurement uncertainties such as sedimentation and
aggregation of nanoparticle, lack of a standard for nanouid prep-
aration, different source of nanoparticle manufacturing, various
stabilization methods, and time duration between the nanouids
preparation and measurement in which cause the aggregate to
grow with time, could be the most important reasons for the dis-
persed data. Furthermore, the timing for the ultrasonic processes
such as horn processor or ultrasonic bath is not optimized properly
with respect to different nanoparticles and base uids.
There is also another important result regarding stability and
thermal conductivity that more stable nanouid does not necessar-
ily have more enhanced characteristics.
Three methods of homogenization are used by researchers and
bring about various results. It can be mentioned that different
nanoparticles need their own stability method. Sometimes, these
methods have to be combined together while in other cases just
one method would be adequate to obtain the preferred stability.
Surfactant selection in nanouid preparation has an important
role in improving heat transfer. Temperature is considered as a re-
stricted factor in case of nanouid application for exploiting at the
high temperatures. Likewise, the optimum percentage of surfac-
tant should be considered as a factor in stable nanouid prepara-
tion as well.
Ultrasonication method, particularly the more effective one
named horn ultrasonic, attracts much attention for its short timing
preparation among the other homogenization techniques. It has to
be considered that if a critical time is exceeded, it may have an in-
verse effect and cause agglomeration and speedy sedimentation of
nanoparticles.
A. Ghadimi et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 40514068 4065
The pH control, which has an important role in stability control,
places the IEP of the suspension, far from the PZC in order to avoid
coagulation and instability. It should be taking into account that
acidic or alkaline pH is corrosive to metals. Therefore, it can lead
to damage to the piping and instrumentation in long term
applications.
In support of stability measurement, it is better to examine at
least three different tests with the different stability measurement
apparatus to come out with a reasonable result regarding stability.
Furthermore, reproducibility is important in experiments so the
samples have to be run at least three times to meet the require-
ments of uncertainties.
Among the characteristics discussed in the literature, thermal
conductivity and viscosity have a major role in nanouid charac-
terization. To reach the best hypothesis for thermal conductivity
enhancement, different theories were discussed such as Brownian
motion, interfacial layer and aggregation of particles. Additionally,
some researchers discussed nanouid as a two-phase ow mixture
and utilized certain formulas of two-phase mixtures for properties
of nanouid. However, still none of the proposed theories can ex-
actly predict the improvement of thermal conductivity of nano-
uid. Although there are some results regarding the viscosity of
nanouids, none is usable across a wide range of volume fractions
of nano particles so further experiments are required.
Systematic experiments are needed that will show the effect of
the stability on heat transfer mechanism and characteristics
enhancement in stationary condition. Refer to other thermophysi-
cal properties, including, specic heat and density, a few research-
ers conducted tests as the correlations satised the result of
experiments.
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