Geometry

Geometry
Geometry is all about shapes and their properties.
If you like playing with objects, or like drawing, then geometry is for you!
Geometry can be divided into:
Plane Geometry is about flat shapes like lines, circles and triangles ... shapes that can be drawn on a piece of paper
Solid Geometry is about three dimensional objects like cubes, prisms and pyramids.
Plane
A plane is a flat surface with no thickness.
Our world has three dimensions, but there are only two dimensions on a plane. Examples: length and height, or x and y
And it goes on forever.
Examples
It is actually hard to give a real example!
When we draw something on a flat piece of paper we are drawing on a plane ... ... except that the paper itself is not a plane, because it has thickness! And it should extend forever, too.
So the very top of a perfect piece of paper that goes on forever is the right idea!
Also, the top of a table, the floor and a whiteboard are all like a plane.
Regular 2-D Shapes - Polygons

Move the mouse over the shapes to discover their properties.
Triangle
Square
Pentagon
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Nonagon
Decagon
Hendecagon
Dodecagon
These shapes are known as regular polygons. A polygon is a many sided shape with straight sides. To be a regular polygon all the sides and angles must be the same.
Perimeter
Perimeter is the distance around a two-dimensional shape. Example 1: the perimeter of this rectangle is 7+3+7+3 = 20
Example 2: the perimeter of this regular pentagon is 3+3+3+3+3 = 53 = 15
The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference:
Triangles
A triangle has three sides and three angles The three angles always add to 180
Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene

There are three special names given to triangles that tell how many sides (or angles) are equal. There can be 3, 2 or no equal sides/angles:
Equilateral Triangle
Three equal sides Three equal angles, always 60
Isosceles Triangle
Two equal sides Two equal angles
Scalene Triangle
No equal sides No equal angles
What Type of Angle?

Triangles can also have names that tell you what type of angle is inside:
Acute Triangle
All angles are less than 90
Right Triangle
Has a right angle (90)
Obtuse Triangle
Has an angle more than 90
Combining the Names

Sometimes a triangle will have two names, for example:
Right Isosceles Triangle

Has a right angle (90), and also two equal angles Can you guess what the equal angles are?
Area
The area is half of the base times height. "b" is the distance along the base "h" is the height (measured at right angles to the base)
Area = bh
The formula works for all triangles. Another way of writing the formula is bh/2
Example: What is the area of this triangle?
Height = h = 12 Base = b = 20 Area = bh/2 = 20 12 / 2 = 120 Just make sure that the "h" is measured at right angles to the "b".
Right Angled Triangles

A right angled triangle is (you guessed it), a triangle which has a right angle (90) in it. The little square in
the corner tells us that it is a right angled triangle (I wrote 90, but you don't need to!)
Two Types
There are two types of right angled triangle: An isosceles right angled triangle A scalene right angled triangle
Isosceles right angled triangle

One right angle Two other equal angles always of 45 Two equal sides
Scalene right angled triangle

One right angle Two other unequal angles No equal sides
The 3,4,5 Triangle

The "3,4,5 Triangle" has a right angle: (It is a scalene right angled triangle) A very useful triangle to draw if you need a right angle!
Triangles Contain 180

In a triangle, the three angles always add to 180:
A + B + C = 180
We can use that fact to find a missing angle in a triangle
Example: Find the Missing Angle "C"
Start With: Fill in what we know: Rearrange Calculate:
A + B + C = 180 38 + 85 + C = 180 C = 180 - 38 - 85 C = 57
Proof
This is a proof that the angles in a triangle equal 180:
The top line (that touches the top of the triangle) is running parallel to the base of the triangle. So:
A are the same angles B are the same

angles
And you can easily see that A + C + B does a complete rotation from one side of the straight line to the other, or 180
Pythagoras' Theorem
Years ago, a man named Pythagoras found an amazing fact about triangles:
If the triangle had a right angle (90) ... ... and you made a square on each of the three sides, then ...
... the biggest square had the exact same area as the other two squares put together!
It is called "Pythagoras' Theorem" and can be written in one short equation:
a2 + b2 = c2
Note: c is the longest side of the triangle a and b are the other two sides
Definition
The longest side of the triangle is called the "hypotenuse", so the formal definition is: In a right angled triangle: the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Sure ... ?
Let's see if it really works using an example.
Example: A "3,4,5" triangle has a right angle in it.
Let's check if the areas are the same:
32 + 42 = 52
Calculating this becomes:
9 + 16 = 25
It works ... like Magic!
Why Is This Useful?

If we know the lengths of two sides of a right angled triangle, we can find the length of the third side. (But remember it only works on right angled triangles!)
How Do I Use it?

Write it down as an equation:
a2 + b2 = c2
Now you can use algebra to find any missing value, as in the following examples:
Example: Solve this triangle. a2 + b2 = c2 52 + 122 = c2 25 + 144 = c2 169 = c2 c2 = 169 c = 169 c = 13

You can also read about Squares and Square Roots to find out why 169 = 13
Example: Solve this triangle. a2 + b2 = c2 92 + b2 = 152 81 + b2 = 225

Take 81 from both sides:
b2 = 144 b = 144 b = 12 Example: What is the diagonal distance across a square of size 1? a2 + b2 = c2 12 + 12 = c2 1 + 1 = c2 2 = c2 c2 = 2 c = 2 = 1.4142...
It works the other way around, too: when the three sides of a triangle make b2 = c2, then the triangle is right angled.
a2 +
Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?

Does
a2 + b2 = c2 ?
a2 + b2 = 102 + 242 = 100 + 576 = 676 c2 = 262 = 676
They are equal, so ...
Yes, it does have a Right Angle!
Example: Does an 8, 15, 16 triangle have a Right Angle? Does 82 + 152 = 162 ?
82 + 152 = 64 + 225 = 289, but 162 = 256
So, NO, it does not have a Right Angle Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?
Does
a2 + b2 = c2 ? Does (3)2 + (5)2 = (8)2 ? Does 3 + 5 = 8 ? Yes, it does!
So this is a right-angled triangle
Pythagorean Triples
A "Pythagorean Triple" is a set of positive integers, a, b and c that fits the rule:
a2 + b2 = c2
Example: The smallest Pythagorean Triple is 3, 4 and 5.
Let's check it:
32 + 42 = 52
Calculating this becomes:
9 + 16 = 25
And that is true
Triangles
And when you make a triangle with sides a, b and c it will be a right angled triangle (see Pythagoras' Theorem for more details):
Note: c is the longest side of the triangle, called the "hypotenuse" a and b are the other two sides
Example: The Pythagorean Triple of 3, 4 and 5 makes a Right Angled Triangle:
Here are some more examples:
5, 12, 13
9, 40, 41
Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry (from Greek trigonon "triangle" + metron "measure")
Want to Learn Trigonometry? Here are the basics! Follow the links for more, or go to Trigonometry Index
Trigonometry ... is all about triangles.
Right Angled Triangle

A right-angled triangle (the right angle is shown by the little box in the corner) has names for each side: Adjacent is adjacent to the angle "", Opposite is opposite the angle, and the longest side is the Hypotenuse.
Angles
Angles (such as the angle "" above) can be in Degrees or Radians. Here are some examples:
Angle
Right Angle __ Straight Angle Full Rotation
Degrees
90 180 360
Radians
/2
2
"Sine, Cosine and Tangent"

The three most common functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent. You will use them a lot!
They are simply one side of a triangle divided by another. For any angle "": Sine Function: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine Function: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent Function: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent
Example: What is the sine of 35?

Using this triangle (lengths are only to one decimal place):
sin(35) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8/4.9 = 0.57...
Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreivated to
sin, cos and tan.
Try It!
Have a try! Drag the corner around to see how different angles affect sine, cosine and tangent And you will also see why trigonometry is also about circles! Notice that the sides can be positive or negative according to the rules of cartesian coordinates. This makes the sine, cosine and tangent vary between positive and negative also.
View Larger
Unit Circle
What we have just been playing with is the Unit Circle. It is just a circle with a radius of 1 with its center at 0. Because the radius is 1, it is easy to measure sine, cosine and tangent.
Here you can see the sine function being made by the unit circle:
You can see the nice graphs made by sine, cosine and tangent.
Repeating Pattern
Because the angle is rotating around and around the circle the Sine, Cosine and Tangent functions repeat once every full rotation. When you need to calculate the function for an angle larger than a full rotation of 2 (360) just subtract as many full rotations as you need to bring it back below 2 (360): Example: what is the cosine of 370? 370 is greater than 360 so let us subtract 360 370 - 360 = 10 cos(370) = cos(10) = 0.985 (to 3 decimal places)
Likewise if the angle is less than zero, just add full rotations. Example: what is the sine of -3 radians? -3 is less than 0 so let us add 2 radians -3 + 2 = -3 + 6.283 = 3.283 radians sin(-3) = sin(3.283) = -0.141 (to 3 decimal places)
Solving Triangles
A big part of Trigonometry is Solving Triangles. By "solving" I mean finding missing sides and angles.
Example: Find the Missing Angle "C"
It's easy to find angle C by using angles of a triangle add to 180: So C = 180 - 76 - 34 = 70
It is also possible to find missing side lengths and more. The general rule is: If you know any 3 of the sides or angles you can find the other 3 (except for the three angles case) See Solving Triangles for more details.
Other Functions (Cotangent, Secant, Cosecant)

Similar to Sine, Cosine and Tangent, there are three other trigonometric functions which are made by dividing one side by another: Cosecant Function: csc() = Hypotenuse / Opposite Secant Function: sec() = Hypotenuse / Adjacent Cotangent Function: cot() = Adjacent / Opposite
Trigonometric and Triangle Identities

The Trigonometric Identities are equations that are true for all right-angled triangles.
The Triangle Identities are equations that are true for all triangles (they don't have to have a right angle).
Why is the Area "Half of bh"?

Imagine you "doubled" the triangle (flip it around one of the upper edges) to make a square-like shape (it would be a "parallelogram" actually), THEN the whole area would be bh (that would be for both triangles, so just one is bh), like this:
Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Three Functions, but same idea.
Right Triangle
Sine, Cosine and Tangent are all based on a Right-Angled Triangle Before getting stuck into the functions, it helps to give a name to each side of a right triangle:
"Opposite" is opposite to the angle "Adjacent" is adjacent (next to) to the angle "Hypotenuse" is the long one
Adjacent is always next to the angle And Opposite is opposite the angle

The three main functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent. They are often shortened to sin, cos and tan. To calculate them:
Divide the length of one side by another side ... but you must know which sides!
For a triangle with an angle , the functions are calculated this way:
Sine Function: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine Function: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent Function: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent

sin(35) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8 / 4.9 = 0.57...
Good calculators have sin, cos and tan on them, to make it easy for you. Just put in the angle and press the button. But you still need to remember what they mean!
"Why didn't sin and tan go to the party?" "... just cos!"
Examples
Example: what are the sine, cosine and tangent of 30 ?
The classic 30 triangle has a hypotenuse of length 2, an opposite side of length 1 and an adjacent side of (3):
Now we know the lengths, we can calculate the functions: Sine sin(30) = 1 / 2 = 0.5 Cosine Tangent cos(30) = 1.732 / 2 = 0.866... tan(30) = 1 / 1.732 = 0.577...
(get your calculator out and check them!)

The classic 45 triangle has two sides of 1 and a hypotenuse of (2):
Sine Cosine Tangent
sin(45) = 1 / 1.414 = 0.707... cos(45) = 1 / 1.414 = 0.707... tan(45) = 1 / 1 = 1
Sohcahtoa
Sohca...what? Just an easy way to remember which side to divide by which! Like this:
Soh... ...cah... ...toa
Sine = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent = Opposite / Adjacent
You can read more about sohcahtoa ... ... but please remember "sohcahtoa" - it could help in an exam !
Why?
Why are these functions important? Because they let you work out angles when you know sides And they let you work out sides when you know angles
Example: Use the sine function to find "d"

We know * The angle the cable makes with the seabed is 39 * The cable's length is 30 m. And we want to know "d" (the distance down).
Start with: Swap Sides: Use a calculator to find sin 39: Multiply both sides by 30:
sin 39 = opposite/hypotenuse = d/30 d/30 = sin 39 d/30 = 0.6293 d = 0.6293 x 30 = 18.88 to 2 decimal places.
The depth "d" is 18.88 m
Sohcahtoa
"Sohcahtoa" is the easy way to remember how Sine, Cosine and Tangent work.
Sohcahtoa
Sohca...what? Just an easy way to remember how Sine, Cosine and Tangent work: Soh... ...cah... ...toa Sine = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent = Opposite / Adjacent
Right Triangle
The names Opposite, Adjacent and Hypotenuse come from the right triangle:
"Opposite" is opposite to the angle "Adjacent" is adjacent (next to) to the angle "Hypotenuse" is the long one
Adjacent is always next to the angle (andopposite is opposite the angle):

And the names Sine, Cosine and Tangent are the three main functions in trigonometry.
The calculation is simply one side divided by another side ... you just have to know which sides! For a triangle with an angle , the functions are calculated this way Sine Function: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine Function: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent Function: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent
How to Remember
Well, "sohcahtoa" may be easy for you to remember ... but heres another way to help you remember: Sailors Often Have Curly Auburn Hair Till Old Age. Or perhaps you prefer one of these: Some Old Horses Can Always Hear Their Owners Approach. Some Old Hen Caught Another Hen Taking One Away.
Example
How do you use it?

The classic 30 triangle has a hypotenuse of length 2, an opposite side of length 1 and an adjacent side of (3):
Now we know the lengths, we can calculate the functions: Sine soh... sin(30) = 1 / 2 = 0.5
Cosine Tangent
...cah... ...toa
cos(30) = 1.732 / 2 = 0.866 tan(30) = 1 / 1.732 = 0.577
(get your calculator out and check them!)
Sine Function - Graph Exercise
The Sine Function produces a very beautiful curve, but don't take our word for it, make your own!
Sine Function
First, read our page on Sine, Cosine and Tangent Now you will know that the sine of any angle is simply the length of the far side of the triangle (the "opposite") divided by the long side (the "hypotenuse"):
Sine of = Opposite / Hypotenuse
Draw Triangles
To make the graph, we need to calculate the sine for different angles, then put those points on a graph, and then "join the dots".
Step 1: Draw the Angled Lines

Place a mark at the center of a piece of paper, then, using a protractor, mark every 15 degrees from 0 to 180 in a semi-circle. Then rotate the protractor and mark from 180 around to the start again. Then draw lines radiating from the center to each of your marks so that you end up with an illustration like this:
Lines at 15 (click to enlarge) Or, you can click on the above illustration, then print out the result.
Step 2: Draw and Measure the Triangles

We can now turn each of those lines into a triangle, example:
Measure Triangles
When you have completed each triangle, it is simply a matter of measuring the lines. Remember that the sine is the length of the line opposite the angle divided by the hypotenuse (which should all be the same length if you have drawn it well)
Write all your measurements in a table. This is what I got, but your measurements may be different: Angle 0 15 30 Opposite 0 mm 22 mm 43 mm Hypotenuse 86 mm 86 mm 86 mm etc ... Opposite / Hypotenuse 0.00 0.26 0.50
You can print a table ready to fill in here. Important: When the "opposite" line goes downwards it is negative. Tip: if you have drawn it well, you can take advantage of the symmetry of 0-90, 90180, 180-270 and 270-360.
Graph The Results

Get some graph paper and prepare it by scaling off 0 to 360 in 15 increments along the x-axis, and scaling off -1 to +1 on the y-axis. You can use your own graph paper, or print out this graph paper Now plot each point from the table on the graph. Then join the dots as neatly as you can.
Result
The result should look something like the graph at the very top. But you have done much more than draw a nice curve. You have : learned about one of the most important functions in mathematics learned that you don't have to believe what people say - you can try it for yourself. had experience plotting graphs learned how symmetry can save effort
Hope you enjoyed !
Graphs of Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Here are some nice graphs to look at ...
Plot of Sine
The Sine Function has this beautiful up-down curve (which repeats every 2 radians, or 360). It starts at 0, heads up to 1 by /2 radians (90) and then heads down to -1.
Plot of Cosine
Cosine is just like Sine, but it starts at 1 and heads down until radians (180) and then heads up again.
Plot of Sine and Cosine

In fact Sine and Cosine are like good friends: they follow each other, exactly "/2" radians, or 90, apart.
Plot of the Tangent Function

The Tangent function has a completely different shape ... it goes between negative and positiveInfinity, crossing through 0 (every radians, or 180), as shown on this plot. At /2 radians, or 90 (and -/2, 3/2, etc) the function is officially undefined, because it could be positive Infinity or negative Infinity.
Inverse Sine, Cosine and Tangent

The Inverse Sine, Cosine and Tangent graphs are:
Inverse Sine
Inverse Cosine
Inverse Tangent Mirror Images

Here is Cosine and Inverse Cosine plotted on the same graph:
Cosine and Inverse Cosine

They are mirror images (about the diagonal)! The same is true for Sine and Inverse Sine and for Tangent and Inverse Tangent. Can you see this in the graphs above?
Unit Circle
The "Unit Circle" is just a circle with a radius of 1.
Being so simple, it is a great way to learn and talk about lengths and angles. The center is put on a graph where the x axis and y axis cross, so we get this neat arrangement here.

Because the radius is 1, you can directly measure sine, cosine and tangent. What happens when the angle, is 0? cos=1, sin=0 and tan=0
What happens when is 90? cos=0, sin=1 and tan is undefined
Try It!
Have a try! Drag the corner around to see how different angles (inradians or degrees) affect sine, cosine and tangent Notice that the "sides" can be positive or negative according to the rules of cartesian coordinates. This makes the sine, cosine and tangent change between positive and negative values also.
Also try the Interactive Unit Circle.

View Larger
Pythagoras
Pythagoras' Theorem says that for a right angled triangle, the square of the long side equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides:
x2 + y2 = 12
But 12 is just 1, so:
x2 + y2 = 1
(the equation of the unit circle)
Also, since x=cos and y=sin, we get:
cos2 + sin2 = 1
(a useful "identity")
Important Angles: 30, 45 and 60

You should try to remember sin, cos and tan for the angles 30, 45 and 60. Yes, yes, it is a pain to have to remember things, but it will make life easier when you know them, not just in exams, but other times when you need to do quick estimates, etc. These are the values you should remember!
Angle 30 45 60
Sin
Cos
Tan=Sin/Cos
1
/3
How To Remember?
To help you remember, think "1,2,3" : sin(30) = sin(45) = sin(60) =
1 2
/2 = 1/2 (because 1 = 1) /2 3 /2
And cos goes "3,2,1" cos(30) = cos(45) = cos(60) =

3 2
/2 /2 1 /2 = 1/2 (because 1 = 1)
What about tan? tan = sin/cos, so you think "tan of 60 is sin(60)/cos(60) = 3/2 divided by = 3"
Calculating 30, 45 and 60

Where did those values come from? Well, we can use the equation x + y = 1 to find the lengths of x and y (which are equal to cos and sinwhen the radius is 1):
2 2
Sine, Cosine and Tangent in Four Quadrants

The three main functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent.
They are easy to calculate: The length of one side of a right angled triangle, divided by another side
... but you must know which sides!
For a triangle with an angle , the functions are calculated this way: Sine Function: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine Function: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent Function: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent

Cartesian Coordinates
Using Cartesian Coordinates you mark a point on a graph by how far along and how far up it is:
The point (12,5) is 12 units along, and 5 units up.
Four Quadrants
When we include negative values, the x and y axes divide the space up into 4 pieces: Quadrants I, II, III and IV (They are numbered in a counter-clockwise direction)
In Quadrant I both x and y are positive, but ... in Quadrant II x is negative (y is still positive), in Quadrant III both x and y are negative, and in Quadrant IV x is positive again, while y is negative.
Like this:
Quadran X Y Example t (horizontal) (vertical)
I II III IV
Positive Negative Negative Positive
Positive Positive Negative Negative
(3,2)
(-2,-1)
Example: The point "C" (-2,-1) is 2 units along in the negative direction, and 1 unit down (i.e. negative direction). Both x and y are negative, so that point is in "Quadrant III"
Sine, Cosine and Tangent in the Four Quadrants

Now let us look at what happens when we place a 30 triangle in each of the 4 Quadrants. In
Quadrant I everything is normal, and Sine, Cosine and Tangent are all positive:
Example: The sine, cosine and tangent of 30

Sine Cosine Tangent sin(30) = 1 / 2 = 0.5 cos(30) = 1.732 / 2 = 0.866
tan(30) = 1 / 1.732 = 0.577
But in Quadrant become negative:
II, the x direction is negative, and both cosine and tangent

Sine Cosine Tangent sin(150) = 1 / 2 = 0.5 cos(150) = -1.732 / 2 = -0.866 tan(150) = 1 / -1.732 = -0.577
In
Quadrant III, sine and cosine are negative:

Sine Cosine Tangent sin(210) = -1 / 2 = -0.5 cos(210) = -1.732 / 2 = -0.866 tan(210) = -1 / -1.732 = 0.577
Note: Tangent is positive because dividing a negative by a negative gives a positive.
In
Quadrant IV, sine and tangent are negative:

Sine Cosine Tangent sin(330) = -1 / 2 = -0.5 cos(330) = 1.732 / 2 = 0.866 tan(330) = -1 / 1.732 = -0.577
There is a pattern! Look at when they are positive ...
All three of them are positive in Quadrant I Sine only is positive in Quadrant II Tangent only is positive in Quadrant III Cosine only is positive in Quadrant IV
This can be shown even easier by:
Some people like to remember the four letters ASTC by one of these: All Students Take Chemistry All Students Take Calculus All Silly Tom Cats All Stations To Central Add Sugar To Coffee
You can remember one of these, or maybe you could make up your own. Or just remember ASTC.
This graph shows "ASTC" also.
Two Values
Have a look at this graph of the Sine Function::
There are two angles (within the first 360) that have the same value!
And this is also true for Cosine and Tangent. The trouble is: Your calculator will only give you one of those values ... ... but you can use these rules to find the other value: First value Second value Sine Cosine Tangent 180 - 360 - - 180
And if any angle is less than 0, then add 360. We can now solve equations for angles between 0 and 360 (using Inverse Sine Cosine and Tangent)
Example: Solve sin = 0.5

We get the first solution from the calculator = sin-1(0.5) = 30 (it is in Quadrant I) The other solution is 180 - 30 = 150 (Quadrant II)
Example: Solve tan = -1.3
We get the first solution from the calculator = tan-1(-1.3) = -52.4 This is less than 0, so we add 360: -52.4 + 360 = 307.6 (Quadrant IV) The other solution is 307.6 - 180 = 127.6 (Quadrant II)
Example: Solve cos = -0.85

We get the first solution from the calculator = cos-1(-0.85) = 148.2 (Quadrant II) The other solution is 360 - 148.2 = 211.8 (Quadrant III)
45 Degrees
For 45 degrees, x and y are equal, so y=x:
x2 + x2 = 1 2x2 = 1 x2 = x = y =
60 Degrees
Take an equilateral triangle (all sides are equal and all angles are 60) and split it down the middle. The "x" side is now , And the "y" side will be:
()2 + y2 = 1 + y2 = 1 y2 = 1- = y = 30 Degrees
30 is just 60 with x and y swapped, so x = and y =
Summary
is usually changed to this:
And is usually changed to this:
So we get the table we saw before:
Angle 30 45 60
Sin
Cos
Tan=Sin/Cos
1
/3
Putting it All Together

And here they are for every quadrant. With the correct sign (plus or minus) as per Cartesian Coordinates. Note that cos is first and sin is second, so it goes (cos, sin):
And this is the same Unit Circle in radians.
Inverse Sine, Cosine, Tangent

Sine, Cosine and Tangent are all based on a Right-Angled Triangle
And they are very similar functions ... so we will look at the Sine Function and then Inverse Sine to learn what it is all about.
Sine Function
The Sine of angle is: the length of the side Opposite angle divided by the length of the Hypotenuse
Or more simply:
sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Example: What is the sine of 35?

The Sine Function can help us solve things like this:
Example: Use the sine function to find "d"

We know * The angle the cable makes with the seabed is 39 * The cable's length is 30 m. And we want to know "d" (the distance down).
Start with: Swap Sides: Use a calculator to find sin 39: Multiply both sides by 30:
sin 39 = opposite/hypotenuse = d/30 d/30 = sin 39 d/30 = 0.6293 d = 0.6293 x 30 = 18.88 to 2 decimal places.
The depth "d" is 18.88 m
Inverse Sine
But what if we don't know the angle? This is where "Inverse Sine" comes in.
It answers the question "what angle has sine equal to opposite/hypotenuse?"

Note: the symbol for inverse sine is sin-1
Example: Find the angle "a"

We know * The distance down is 18.88 m. * The cable's length is 30 m. And we want to know the angle "a"
Start with: sin a = opposite/hypotenuse = 18.88/30 Calculate 18.88/30: sin a = 0.6293...
What angle has sine equal to 0.6293...? The Inverse Sine will tell us. Inverse Sine: a = sin-1(0.6293...)
Use a calculator to find sin-1(0.6293...): a = 39.0 (to 1 decimal place)
The angle "a" is 39.0
They Are Like Forward and Backwards!
The Sine function sin takes an angle and gives us the ratio opposite/hypotenuse Inverse Sine the angle.
sin-1 takes the ratio opposite/hypotenuse and gives us
Example:
Sine Function: Inverse Sine: sin(30) = 0.5 sin-1(0.5) = 30
Calculator
On the calculator you would press one of the following (depending on your brand of calculator): either '2ndF sin' or 'shift sin'. On your calculator, try using
sin and then sin-1 to see what happens
More Than One Angle!

Inverse Sine only shows you one angle ... but there are more angles that could work.
Example: Here are two angles where opposite/hypotenuse = 0.5
In fact there are infinitely many angles, because you can keep adding (or subtracting) 360:
Remember this, because there are times when you actually need one of the other angles!
Summary
The Sine of angle is:
sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse

And Inverse Sine is :
sin-1 (Opposite / Hypotenuse) =
What About "cos" and "tan" ... ?

Exactly the same idea.
The Cosine of angle is:
cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

And Inverse Cosine is :
cos-1 (Adjacent / Hypotenuse) =
Example: Find the size of angle a

cos a = Adjacent / Hypotenuse cos a = 6,750/8,100 = 0.8333... a = cos-1 (0.8333...) = 33.6 (to 1 decimal place)
The Tangent of angle is:
tan() = Opposite / Adjacent

So Inverse Tangent is :
tan-1 (Opposite / Adjacent) =
Example: Find the size of angle x

tan x = Opposite / Adjacent tan x = 300/400 = 0.75 x = tan-1 (0.75) = 36.9 (correct to 1 decimal place)
Other Names
Sometimes sin-1 is called asin or arcsin. Likewise cos-1 is called acos or arccos And tan-1 is called atan or arctan.
The Graphs
And lastly, here are the graphs of Sine, Inverse Sine, Cosine and Inverse Cosine:
Sine
Inverse Sine
Cosine Inverse Cosine

Did you notice anything about the graphs?
They look similar somehow, right? But the Inverse Sine and Inverse Cosine don't "go on forever" like Sine and Cosine do ...
Let us look at the example of Cosine. Here is Cosine and Inverse Cosine plotted on the same graph:
Cosine and Inverse Cosine

They are mirror images (about the diagonal)! But why does Inverse Cosine get chopped off at top and bottom? (I have showed it as dots, but it's not really part of it). Because to be a function it must only give one answer when we ask "what is cos1 (x) ?"
One Answer or Infinitely Many Answers

But we saw earlier that there are infinitely many answers, and the dotted line on the graph shows this. So yes there are infinitely many answers ... ... but imagine you type 0.5 into your calculator, press cos-1 and it gives you a never ending list of possible answers ...
So we have this rule that a function can only give one answer.
So, by chopping it off like that we get just one answer, and you are supposed to know there could be other answers.
Tangent and Inverse Tangent

And here is the tangent function and inverse tangent. Can you see how they are mirror images (about the diagonal) ...?
Inverse Tangent
Tangent
Area of Triangles Without Right Angles

If You Know Base and Height
It is easy to find the area of a right-angled triangle, or any triangle where we are given the base and the height. It is simply half of b times h
Area = bh
(The Triangles page tells you more about this).
Example: What is the area of this triangle?
Height = h = 12 Base = b = 20
Area = bh = 20 12 = 120
If You Know Three Sides

There's also a formula to find the area of any triangle if we know the lengths of all three of its sides. This can be found on the Heron's Formula page.
If You Know Two Sides and the Included Angle
If we know two sides and the included angle (SAS), there is another formula (in fact three equivalent formulas) we can use.
Depending on which sides and angles we know, the formula can be written in three ways: Either Area = ab sin C Or Area = bc sin A Or Area = ac sin B They are really the same formula, just with the sides and angle changed.
Example: Find the area of this triangle:
First of all we must decide what we know.
We know angle C = 25, and sides a = 7 and b = 10. So let's get going: Start with: Area = ab sin C Put in the values we know: Area = 7 10 sin(25) Do some calculator work: Area = 35 0.4226... Area = 14.8 to one decimal place
How to Remember
Just think "abc": Area = a b sin C
How Does it Work?

Well, we know that we can find an area if we know a base and height:
Area = base height

In this triangle: Putting that together gets us: the base is: c the height is: b sin A
Area = (c) (b sin A)

Which is (more simply):
Area = bc sin A
By changing the labels on the triangle we can also get: Area = ab sin C Area = ca sin B
One more example:
Example: Find How Much Land
Farmer Jones owns a triangular piece of land. The length of the fence AB is 150 m. The length of the fence BC is 231 m. The angle between fence AB and fence BC is 123. How much land does Farmer Jones own?
First of all we must decide which lengths and angles we know: AB = c = 150 m, BC = a = 231 m, and angle B = 123
So we use:
Area = ca sinB
Start with: Area = ca sinB Put in the values we know: Area = 150 231 sin(123) m2 Do some calculator work: Area = 17,325 0.838... m2 Area = 14,530 m2
Solving Triangles by Reflection
A 5ft ladder leans against a wall as shown. What is the angle between the ladder and the wall?
This is surprisingly easy to solve by using Reflection:
Here is the triangle with its reflection Together they make an equilateral triangle (all sides equal).
The angles in an equilateral triangle are all 60
So the angle between the ladder and the wall is half of 60
= 30
Finding Length
We can use the same idea to find an unknown length.
Alex has a laser that measures distance. By standing some distance from the tree Alex measures42m to the top of the tree at an angle of 30. What is the height of the tree?
Here is the triangle and its reflection:
Once again the triangle and its reflection make an equilateral triangle. So, we know the height of the tree must be half of 42m
= 21m
These examples show that the same triangle can occur in many different situations!
Finding an Angle in a Right Angled Triangle

You can find the Angle from Any Two Sides
We can find an unknown angle in a right-angled triangle, as long as we know the lengths of two of its sides.
Example
A 5ft ladder leans against a wall as shown. What is the angle between the ladder and the wall? (Note: we also solve this on Solving Triangles by Reflection but now we solve it in a more general way.)
The answer is to use Sine, Cosine or Tangent!

But which one to use? We have a special phrase "SOHCAHTOA" to help us, and we use it like this: Step 1: find the names of the two sides you know
Adjacent is adjacent to the angle, Opposite is opposite the angle, and the longest side is theHypotenuse.
Example: in our ladder example we know the length of: the side Opposite the angle "x" (2.5 ft) the long sloping side, called the Hypotenuse (5 ft) Step 2: now use the first letters of those two sides (Opposite and Hypotenuse) and the phrase "SOHCAHTOA" to find which one of Sine, Cosine or Tangent to use: SOH... ...CAH... ...TOA Sine: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent
In our example that is Opposite and Hypotenuse, and that gives us SOHcahtoa, which tells us we need to use Sine. Step 3: Put our values into the Sine equation:
Sin (x) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.5 / 5 = 0.5

Step 4: Now solve that equation!
sin (x) = 0.5

Next (trust me for the moment) we can re-arrange that into this:
x = sin-1 (0.5)
And then get our calculator, key in 0.5 and use the sin-1 button to get the answer:
x = 30
What is sin-1 ?
But what is the meaning of sin-1 ? Well, the Sine function "sin" takes an angle and gives us the ratio opposite/hypotenuse,
But in this case we know the ratio opposite/hypotenuse but want to know the angle. So we want to go backwards. That is why we we use sin-1, which means inverse sine. Example: Sine Function: sin(30) = 0.5 Inverse Sine Function: sin-1(0.5) = 30
On the calculator you would press one of the following (depending on your brand of calculator): either '2ndF sin' or 'shift sin'. On your calculator, try using "sin" and "sin-1" to see what results you get!
Step By Step
These are the four steps we need to follow: Step 1 Decide which two sides we know out of Opposite, Adjacent and Hypotenuse. Step 2 Use SOHCAHTOA to decide which one of Sine, Cosine or Tangent to use in this question.
Step 3 Use your calculator to calculate the fraction Opposite/Hypotenuse, Adjacent/Hypotenuse orOpposite/Adjacent (whichever is appropriate). Step 4 Find the angle from your calculator, using one of sin-1, cos-1 or tan-1
Examples
Lets look at a couple more examples:
Example
Find the size of the angle of elevation of the plane from point A on the ground.
Step Step Step = 0.75 Step
1 The two sides we know are Opposite (300) and Adjacent (400). 2 SOHCAHTOA tells us we must use Tangent. 3 Use your calculator to calculate Opposite/Adjacent = 300/400 4 Find the angle from your calculator using tan-1
Tan x = opposite/adjacent = 300/400 = 0.75 tan-1 of 0.75 = 36.9 (correct to 1 decimal place) Unless youre told otherwise, angles are usually rounded to one place of decimals.
Example
Find the size of angle a
Step (8,100). Step Step = 0.8333 Step
1 The two sides we know are Adjacent (6,750) and Hypotenuse 2 SOHCAHTOA tells us we must use Cosine. 3 Use your calculator to calculate Adjacent / Hypotenuse = 6,750/8,100 4 Find the angle from your calculator using cos-1 of 0.8333:
cos a = 6,750/8,100 = 0.8333 cos-1 of 0.8333 = 33.6 (to 1 decimal place)
Finding a Side in a Right Angled Triangle

You can find a Side if you know another Side and Angle
We can find an unknown side in a right-angled triangle if we know: one length, and one angle (apart from the right angle, that is).
Example
Find the height of the plane.
We know one length (1000) and one angle (60), so we should be able to solve it, but how?
The answer is to use Sine, Cosine or Tangent!

But which one to use? We have a special phrase "SOHCAHTOA" to help us, and we use it like this: Step 1: find the names of the two sides you are working on: the side you already know, and the side you are trying to find:
Adjacent is adjacent to the angle, Opposite is opposite the angle, and the longest side is theHypotenuse.
In our example: the one we know is the Hypotenuse
the one we are trying to find is Adjacent to the angle (check for yourself that "h" is adjacent to the angle 60) Step 2: now use the first letters of those two sides (Adjacent and Hypotenuse) and the phrase "SOHCAHTOA" to find which one of Sine, Cosine or Tangent to use: SOH... ...CAH... ...TOA Sine: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent
In our example that is Adjacent and Hypotenuse, and that gives us sohCAHtoa, which tells us we need to use Cosine. Step 3: Put our values into the Cosine equation:
cos 60 = Adjacent / Hypotenuse = h / 1000

Step 4: Now solve that equation! But how do we calculate "cos 60" ... ?
You use your calculator! type in 60 and then use the "cos" key. That's easy!
cos 60 = 0.5 (by my calculator)

So now we can put "0.5" instead of "cos 60":
0.5 = h / 1000
Now all that is left is to rearrange it a little bit: Start with: 0.5 = h / 1000 Swap sides: h / 1000 = 0.5 Multiply both sides by 1000: h = 0.5 x 1000 = 500
The height of the plane = 500 meters
Step By Step
These are the four steps to follow:
Step 1 Decide which two sides we are using - one we are trying to find and one we already know out of Opposite, Adjacent and Hypotenuse. Step 2 Use SOHCAHTOA to decide which one of Sine, Cosine or Tangent to use in this question. Step 3 Write down the fraction Opposite/Hypotenuse, Adjacent/Hypotenuse or Opposite/Adjacent, whichever is appropriate (one of the values will be the unknown length) Step 4 Solve using your calculator and your skills with Algebra
Examples
Lets look at a few more examples:
Example: Find the length of the side a:
Step 1 The two sides we are using are Opposite (a) and Adjacent (7). Step 2 SOHCAHTOA tells us we must use Tangent. Step 3 Write down the fraction for tan 53 = Opposite/Adjacent = a/7 Step 4 Solve: Start with: Swap: Calculate tan 53: Multiply both sides by 7: tan 53 = a/7 a/7 = tan 53 a/7 = 1.32704 a = 1.32704 7 = 9.29 (to 2 decimal places)
Side "a" = 9.29
Example 2
The angle the cable makes with the seabed is 39 and the cable's length is 30 m. Find the depth "d" that the anchor ring lies beneath the hole in the ships side.
Step 1 The two sides we are using are Opposite (d) and Hypotenuse (30). Step 2 SOHCAHTOA tells us we must use Sine. Step 3 Write down the fraction for sin 39 = opposite/hypotenuse = d/30 Step 4 Solve: Start with: Swap: Calculate sin 39: Multiply both sides by 30: sin 39 = d/30 d/30 = sin 39 d/30 = 0.6293 d = 0.6293 x 30 = 18.88 to 2 decimal places.
The depth the anchor ring lies beneath the hole is 18.88 m
Example 3
There is a mast that is 70 m high. A wire goes to the top of the mast at an angle of 68. How long is the wire?
Step 1 The two sides we are using are Opposite (70) and Hypotenuse (x). Step 2 SOHCAHTOA tells us we must use Sine.
Step 3 Write down the fraction for sin 68 = 70/w Step 4 Solve:
The unknown length is on the bottom (the denominator) of the fraction! So we need to follow a slightly different approach when solving : Start with: Multiply both sides by w: Divide both sides by "sin 68": Calculate: sin 68 = 70/w w (sin 68) = 70 w = 70 / (sin 68) w = 70 / 0.9271... = 75.5 m (to 1 place)
The length of the wire = 75.5 m
The Law of Sines

The Law of Sines (or Sine Rule) is very useful for solving triangles:
It works for any triangle:
a, b and c are sides. A, B and C are angles. (Side a faces angle A, side b faces angle B and side c faces angle C).
So if you divide side a by the sine of angle A it is equal to side b divided by the sine of angle B, and also equal to side c divided by the sine of angle C
Sure ... ?
Well, let's do the calculations for a triangle I prepared earlier:
a/sin A = 8 / sin (62.2) = 8 / 0.885... = 9.04... b/sin B = 5 / sin (33.5) = 5 / 0.552... = 9.06... c/sin C = 9 / sin (84.3) = 9 / 0.995... = 9.05...
The answers are almost the same! (They would be exactly the same if I used perfect accuracy). So now you can see that:
a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C
How Do I Use It?

Let us see an example:
Example: Calculate side "c"
Law of Sines: a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C Put in the values we know: a/sin A = 7/sin(35) = c/sin(105) Ignore a/sin A (not useful to us): 7/sin(35) = c/sin(105) Now we use our algebra skills to rearrange and solve: Swap sides: c/sin(105) = 7/sin(35)
Multiply both sides by sin(105): c = ( 7 / sin(35) ) sin(105) Calculate: c = ( 7 / 0.574... ) 0.966... Calculate: c = 11.8 (to 1 decimal place)
Finding an Unknown Angle

In the previous example we found an unknown side ... ... but we can also use the Law of Sines to find an unknown angle. In this case it is best to turn the fractions upside down (sin A/a instead of a/sin A, etc):
Example: Calculate angle B
Start with: sin A / a = sin B / b = sin C / c Put in the values we know: sin A / a = sin B / 4.7 = sin(63) / 5.5 Ignore "sin A / a": sin B / 4.7 = sin(63) / 5.5 Multiply both sides by 4.7: sin B = (sin63/5.5) 4.7 Calculate: sin B = 0.7614... Inverse Sine: B = sin-1(0.7614...) B = 49.6
Sometimes There Are Two Answers !

There is one very tricky thing you have to look out for:
Two possible answers.

Let us say you know angle A, and sides a and b. You could swing side a to left or right and come up with two possible results (a small triangle and a much wider triangle) Both answers are right!
This only happens in the "Two Sides and an Angle not between" case, and even then not always, but you have to watch out for it. Just think "could I swing that side the other way to also make a correct answer?"
Example: Calculate angle R
The first thing to notice is that this triangle has different labels: PQR instead of ABC. But that's not a problem. We just use P,Q and R instead of A, B and C in The Law of Sines. Start with: sin R / r = sin Q / q Put in the values we know: sin R / 41 = sin(39)/28 Multiply both sides by 41: sin R = (sin39/28) 41 Calculate: sin R = 0.9215... Inverse Sine: R = sin-1(0.9215...) R = 67.1
But wait! There's another angle that also has a sine equal to 0.9215...
Your calculator won't tell you this but sin(112.9) is also equal to 0.9215... (try it!) So ... how do you discover the vale 112.9? Easy ... take 67.1 away from 180, like this:
180 - 67.1 = 112.9

So there are two possible answers for R: 67.1 and 112.9:
Both are possible! Each one has the 39 angle, and sides of 41 and 28.
So, always check to see whether the alternative answer makes sense.
... sometimes it will (like above) and there will be two solutions ... sometimes it won't (see below) and there is one solution
We looked at this triangle before. As you can see, you can try swinging the "5.5" line around, but no other solution makes sense. So this has only one solution.
The Law of Cosines

The Law of Cosines (also called the Cosine Rule) is very useful for solving triangles:
It works for any triangle:
a, b and c are sides. C is the angle opposite side c
Let's see how to use it in an example:
Example: How long is side "c" ... ?
We know angle C = 37, a = 8 and b = 11 The Law of Cosines says: c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C) Put in the values we know: c2 = 82 + 112 - 2 8 11 cos(37) Do some calculations: c2 = 64 + 121 - 176 0.798 Which gives us: c2 = 44.44... Take the square root: c = 44.44 = 6.67 (to 2 decimal places)
Answer: c = 6.67
How to Remember
How can you remember the formula? Well, it helps to know that it is the Pythagoras Theorem with something extra so it works for all triangles:
Pythagoras Theorem: Law of Cosines: So, to remember it:
a2 + b2 = c2 a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C) = c2
(only for Right-Angled Triangles) (for all triangles)
think "abc": a2 + b2 = c2, then another "abc": 2ab cos(C), and put them together: a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C) = c2
When to Use
The law of cosines is useful for finding:
the third side of a triangle when you know two sides and the angle between them (like the example above)
the angles of a triangle when you know all three sides (as in the following example) Example: What is Angle "C" ...?
The side of length "8" is opposite angle C, so it is side c. The other two sides are a and b. Now let us put what we know into The Law of Cosines: Start with: c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C) Put in a, b and c 82 = 92 + 52 - 2 9 5 cos(C) Calculate: 64 = 81 + 25 - 90 cos(C) Calculate some more: 64 = 106 - 90 cos(C) Now we use our algebra skills to rearrange and solve: Subtract 64 from both sides: 0 = 42 - 90 cos(C) Add "90 cos(C)" to both sides: 90 cos(C) = 42 Divide both sides by 90: cos(C) = 42/90
Inverse cosine: C = cos-1(42/90) Calculator: C = 62.2 (to 1 decimal place)
In Other Forms
Easier Version For Angles
There is a version that is easier to use when finding angles. It is simply a rearrangement of the
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C)
formula like this:
Example: Find Angle "C"
In this triangle we know the three sides: a = 8, b = 6 and c = 7.
Use The Law of Cosines (angle version) to find angle C : cos C = (a + b - c)/2ab = (8 + 6 - 7)/286 = (64 + 36 - 49)/96 = 51/96 = 0.53125 C = cos-1(0.53125) = 57.9 correct to one decimal place.
Versions for a, b and c

Also, you can rewrite the "b
2
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C)
formula into "a
=" and
=" form.
Here are all three:
But it is easier to remember the "c2=" form and change the letters as needed ! As in this example:
Example: Find the distance "z"
The letters are different! But that doesn't matter. We can easily substitute x for a, y for b and z for c Start with: c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C) x for a, y for b and z for c z2 = x2 + y2 - 2xy cos(Z) Put in the values we know: z2 = 9.42 + 6.52 - 29.46.5cos(131) Calculate: z2 = 88.36 + 42.25 - 122.2(-0.656...) z2 = 130.61 + 80.17... z2 = 210.78... z = 210.78... = 14.5 to 1 decimal place.
Answer: z = 14.5
Did you notice that cos(131) is negative and this changes the last sign in the calculation to Circle).
+(plus)? The cosine of an obtuse angle is always negative (see Unit
Heron's Formula
Area of a Triangle from Sides
You can calculate the area of a triangle if you know the lengths of all three sides, using a formula that has been know for nearly 2000 years.
It is called "Heron's Formula" after Hero of Alexandria (see below) Just use this two step process:
Step 1:
Calculate "s" (half of the triangles perimeter) using:
Step 2: Then calculate the Area using:
Example: What is the area of a triangle where every side is 5 long?

Step 1: s = (5+5+5)/2 = 7.5 Step 2: A = (7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5) = (117.1875) = 10.825...
Angles
In the calculator above I have also used a special formula to calculate the angles (to provide a complete solution). The formula is:
Where "C" is the angle opposite side "c".

Hero of Alexandria
The formula is credited to Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria, who was a Greek Engineer and Mathematician in 10 70 AD. Amongst other things, he developed the Aeolipile, the first known steam engine, but it was treated as a toy!
Congruent Triangles
What is "Congruent" ... ?
It means that one shape can become another using Turns, Flips and/or Slides:
Rotation
Turn!
Reflection
Flip!
Translation
Slide!
(see Congruent for more info)
Congruent Triangles
If two triangles are congruent they will have exactly the same three sides and exactly the same three angles. The equal sides and angles may not be in the same position (if there is a turn or a flip), but they will be there.
Same Sides
If the sides are the same then the triangles are congruent. For example:
is congruent to:
and
because they all have exactly the same sides.
But:
is not congruent to:
because the two triangles do not have exactly the same sides.
Same Angles
Does this also work with angles? Not always! Two triangles can have the same angles but be different sizes:
is not congruent to:
because, even though all angles match, one is larger than the other.
But they could be congruent if they are the same size:
is congruent to:
because they are (in this case) the same size

So just having the same angles is no guarantee they are congruent.
Other Combinations
There are other combinations of sides and angles ... read more at How To Find if Triangles are Congruent
Marking
If two triangles are congruent, we often mark corresponding sides and angles like this:
is congruent to:
The sides marked with one line are equal in length. Similarly for the sides marked with two lines and three lines. The angles marked with one arc are equal in size. Similarly for the angles marked with two arcs and three arcs.
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are Similar if the only difference is size (and possibly the need to turn or flip one around). These triangles are all similar:
(Equal angles have been marked with the same number of arcs)
Some of them have different sizes and some of them have been turned or flipped. Similar triangles have: all their angles equal corresponding sides have the same ratio
Corresponding Sides
In similar triangles, the sides facing the equal angles are always in the same ratio. For example:
Triangles R and S are similar. The equal angles are marked with the same numbers of arcs. What are the corresponding lengths? The lengths 7 and a are corresponding (they face the angle marked with one arc) The lengths 8 and 6.4 are corresponding (they face the angle marked with two arcs) The lengths 6 and b are corresponding (they face the angle marked with three arcs)
Calculating the Lengths of Corresponding Sides

It may be possible to calculate lengths we don't know yet. We need to: Step 1: Find the ratio of corresponding sides in pairs of similar triangles. Step 2: Use that ratio to find the unknown lengths.
Step 1:
We know all the sides in Triangle R, and We know the side 6.4 in Triangle S (the other sides we call "a" and "b"). The 6.4 faces the angle marked with two arcs as does the side of length 8 in triangle R. So we can match 6.4 with 8, and so the ratio of sides in triangle S to triangle R is: 6.4 to 8 = 64 : 80 = 4 : 5 Now we know that the lengths of sides in triangle S are all 4/5 times the lengths of sides in triangle R.
Step 2:
And we can then work out a and b: a faces the angle with one arc as does the side of length 7 in triangle R. b faces the angle with three arcs as does the side of length 6 in triangle R.
Therefore: Done! a = 4/5 7 = 28/5 = 5.6 b = 4/5 6 = 24/5 = 4.8
Solving Triangles
By "solving" I mean finding missing sides and angles.
If you know any 3 of the sides or angles ... ... you can find the other 3
(Except for 3 angles, because you need at least one side to find how big the triangle is.)
Six Different Types

If you need to solve a triangle right now, then choose one of the six options below:
Which Sides or Angles do you know already?
(Click on the image, or link)
AAA
AAS
ASA
SAS
SSA
SSS
Three Angles
Two Angles and Two Angles and a a Side between Side notbetween
Two Sides and Two Sides and an an Angle Angle notbetwee between n
Three Sides
... or read on to find out how you can become an expert triangle solver:
Your Solving Toolbox

Want to learn to solve triangles?
Imagine you are "The Solver" ... the one they ask for when a triangle needs solving!
In your solving toolbox (along with your pen, paper and calculator) you have these 3 equations:
1. The angles always add to 180:
A + B + C = 180
When you know two angles you can find the third.
2. Law of Sines (the Sine Rule):
If there is an angle opposite a side, this equation will come to the rescue. Note: angle A is opposite side a, B is opposite b, and C is opposite c.
3. Law of Cosines (the Cosine Rule):
This is the hardest to use (and remember) but it is sometimes needed to get you out of difficult situations. It is an enhanced version of the Pythagoras Theorem that works on any triangle.
Six Different Types (More Detail)

There are SIX different types of puzzles you may need to solve. Get familiar with them:
1. AAA:
This means we are given all three angles of a triangle, but no sides.
A AAA triangle is impossible to solve further since there are is nothing to show us size ... we know the shape but not how big it is. You are going to need to know at least one side to proceed further. See Solving "AAA" Triangles .
2. AAS
This mean we are given two angles of a triangle and one side, which is not the side adjacent to the two given angles.
Such a triangle can be easily solved by using Angles of a Triangle to find the other angle, and The Law of Sinesto find each of the other two sides. See Solving "AAS" Triangles.
3. ASA
This means we are given two angles of a triangle and one side, which is the side adjacent to the two given angles.
In this case we find the third angle by using Angles of a Triangle, then use The Law of Sines to find each of the other two sides. See Solving "ASA" Triangles .
4. SAS
This means we are given two sides and the included angle.
For this type of triangle, we must use The Law of Cosines first to calculate the third side of the triangle; then we can use The Law of Sines to find one of the other two angles, and finally use Angles of a Triangle to find the last angle. See Solving "SAS" Triangles .
5. SSA
This means we are given two sides and one angle that is not the included angle.
In this case, use The Law of Sines first to find either one of the other two angles, then use Angles of a Triangleto find the third angle, then The Law of Sines again to find the last remaining side. See Solving "SSA" Triangles .
6. SSS
This means we are given all three sides of a triangle, but no angles.
In this case, we have no choice. We must use The Law of Cosines first to find any one of the three angles, then we can use The Law of Sines (or use The Law of Cosines again) to find a second angle, and finally Angles of a Triangle to find the third angle. See Solving "SSS" Triangles .
Tips to Solving
Here is some simple advice: If the triangle has a right angle, then use it - that is usually much simpler. If the triangle has no right angle, then the type of triangle will determine whether we use The Law of Sines or The Law of Cosines. Usually The Law of Sines is easier to use than The Law of Cosines; so, if you have a choice, use the former.
Solving AAA Triangles

"AAA" means "Angle, Angle, Angle"
This means we are given all three angles of a triangle, but no sides.
An "AAA" triangle is impossible to solve further since there are is nothing to show us size ... we know the shape but not how big it is. You are going to need to know at least one side to proceed further ... sorry!
Solving AAS Triangles

"AAS" means "Angle, Angle, Side"
This means we are given two angles and one side (which isnot between the angles).
To solve an AAS triangle use the three angles add to 180 to find the other angle then The Law of Sines to find each of the other two sides.
Example 1
In this triangle we know:
angle A = 35 angle C = 62 and side c = 7
It's easy to find angle B by using 'angles of a triangle add to 180': B = 180 - 35 - 62 = 83 We can also find side a by using The Law of Sines: a/sin A = c/sin C a/sin(35) = 7/sin(62) a = (7 sin(35))/sin(62) = 4.55 (to 2 decimal places). Also we can find b by using The Law of Sines: b/sin B = c/sin C b/sin(83) = 7/sin(62) b = (7 sin(83))/sin(62) = 7.87 to 2 decimal places. Now we have completely solved the triangle! Did you notice that we used b/sin B = c/sin C rather than b/sin B = a/sin A for the last calculation? There's a good reason for that. What if we had made a mistake in finding a? Then our answer for b would also be wrong! As a rule, it is always better to use the sides and angles that are given rather than ones we've just worked out.
Example 2
This is also an AAS triangle. First find angle A by using 'angles of a triangle add to 180':
A = 180 - 41 - 105 = 34
Now find side c by using The Law of Sines:
c/sin C = b/sin B
c/sin(41) = 12.6/sin(105) c = (12.6 sin(41))/sin(105) = 8.56 to 2 decimal places.

Similarly we can find side a by using The Law of Sines and using the given side b = 12.6 rather than c that we just worked out:
a/sin A = b/sin B a/sin(34) = 12.6/sin(105) a = (12.6 sin(34))/sin(105) = 7.29 to 2 decimal places.

Done!
Solving ASA Triangles

"ASA" means "Angle, Side, Angle"
This means we are given two angles and a side betweenthe angles.
To solve an ASA Triangle find the third angle using the three angles add to 180 then use The Law of Sines to find each of the other two sides.
Example 1
In this triangle we know: angle A = 76 angle B = 34
and c = 9
It's easy to find angle C by using 'angles of a triangle add to 180': So C = 180 - 76 - 34 = 70 We can now find side a by using The Law of Sines: a/sinA = c/sin C a/sin76 = 9/sin70 a = (9 sin76)/sin70 = 9.29 to 2 decimal places. Similarly we can find side b by using The Law of Sines: b/sinB = c/sin C b/sin34 = 9/sin70 b = (9 sin34)/sin70 = 5.36 to 2 decimal places. Now we have completely solved the triangle i.e. we have found all its angles and sides.
Example 2
This is also an ASA triangle. First find angle X by using 'angles of a triangle add to 180': X = 180 - 87 - 42 = 51 Now find side y by using The Law of Sines: y/sinY = x/sin X So y/sin(87) = 18.9/sin(51) So y = (18.9 sin(87))/sin(51) = 24.29 to 2 decimal places. Similarly we can find z by using The Law of Sines: z/sinZ = x/sin X So z/sin(42) = 18.9/sin(51) So a = (18.9 sin(42))/sin(51) = 16.27 to 2 decimal places.
Solving SAS Triangles
"SAS" means "Side, Angle, Side"
To solve an SAS triangle use The Law of Cosines first to calculate the third side of the triangle; then use The Law of Sines to find the smaller of the other two angles, and finally use the three angles add to 180 to find the last angle.
Example 1
In this triangle we know: angle A = 49 b=5 and c = 7
To solve the triangle we need to find side a and angles B and C. Because we don't know the angles facing the other two sides we can't use The Law of Sines, so wemust use The Law of Cosines to find side a first:
a = b + c - 2bc cosA
a2 a2 a2 a2 = = = = 52 + 72 - 2 5 7 cos(49) 25 + 49 - 70 cos(49) 74 - 70 0.6560... 74 - 45.924... = 28.075...
a = 28.075... a = 5.298... = 5.30 to 2 decimal places

Now we use the The Law of Sines to find the smaller of the other two angles Why the smaller angle? Because the inverse sine function gives answers less than 90 even for angles greater than 90. By choosing the smaller angle we avoid this problem (you can't have two angles greater than 90 in a triangle.) Note: the smaller angle is the one facing the shorter side. Choose angle B:
sin B / b = sin A / a
sin B / 5 = sin(49) / 5.298...
Did you notice that we didn't use a = 5.30. That number is rounded to 2 decimal places. It's much better to use the unrounded number 5.298... which you should still have on your calculator from the last calculation.
sin B = (sin(49) 5) / 5.298... = 0.7122... B = sin-1(0.7122...) = 45.4 to one decimal place.

Now we find angle C, which is easy using 'angles of a triangle add to 180':
C = 180 - 49 - 45.4 = 85.6 to one decimal place.

Now we have completely solved the triangle i.e. we have found all its angles and sides.
Example 2
This is also an SAS triangle. First of all we will find r using The Law of Cosines:
r2 = p2 + q2 - 2pq cos R
r2 = 6.92 + 2.62 - 2 6.9 2.6 cos(117) r2 = 47.61 + 6.76 - 35.88 cos(117) r2 = 54.37 - 35.88 (-0.4539...) r2 = 54.37 + 16.289... = 70.659... r = 70.659... r = 8.405... = 8.41 to 2 decimal places
Now The Law of Sines. Choose the smaller angle? We don't have to! Angle R is greater than 90, so angles P and Q must be less than 90.
sin P / p = sin R / r
sin P / 6.9 = sin(117) / 8.405... sin P = ( sin(117) 6.9 ) / 8.405...= 0.7313... P = sin-1(0.7313...) = 47.0 to one decimal place.
Now we will find angle Q using 'angles of a triangle add to 180':
Q = 180 - 117 - 47.0 = 16.0 to one decimal place
Solving SAS Triangles

"SAS" means "Side, Angle, Side"
To solve an SAS triangle use The Law of Cosines first to calculate the third side of the triangle; then use The Law of Sines to find the smaller of the other two angles, and finally use the three angles add to 180 to find the last angle.
Example 1
In this triangle we know: angle A = 49 b=5 and c = 7
To solve the triangle we need to find side a and angles B and C. Because we don't know the angles facing the other two sides we can't use The Law of Sines, so wemust use The Law of Cosines to find side a first:
a = b + c - 2bc cosA
a2 = 52 + 72 - 2 5 7 cos(49) a2 = 25 + 49 - 70 cos(49) a2 = 74 - 70 0.6560... a2 = 74 - 45.924... = 28.075... a = 28.075... a = 5.298... = 5.30 to 2 decimal places
Now we use the The Law of Sines to find the smaller of the other two angles Why the smaller angle? Because the inverse sine function gives answers less than 90 even for angles greater than 90. By choosing the smaller angle we avoid this problem (you can't have two angles greater than 90 in a triangle.) Note: the smaller angle is the one facing the shorter side. Choose angle B:
sin B / b = sin A / a
sin B / 5 = sin(49) / 5.298...
Did you notice that we didn't use a = 5.30. That number is rounded to 2 decimal places. It's much better to use the unrounded number 5.298... which you should still have on your calculator from the last calculation.
sin B = (sin(49) 5) / 5.298... = 0.7122... B = sin-1(0.7122...) = 45.4 to one decimal place.

Now we find angle C, which is easy using 'angles of a triangle add to 180':
C = 180 - 49 - 45.4 = 85.6 to one decimal place.

Now we have completely solved the triangle i.e. we have found all its angles and sides.
Example 2
This is also an SAS triangle. First of all we will find r using The Law of Cosines:
r2 = p2 + q2 - 2pq cos R
r2 = 6.92 + 2.62 - 2 6.9 2.6 cos(117) r2 = 47.61 + 6.76 - 35.88 cos(117) r2 = 54.37 - 35.88 (-0.4539...) r2 = 54.37 + 16.289... = 70.659... r = 70.659... r = 8.405... = 8.41 to 2 decimal places
Now The Law of Sines. Choose the smaller angle? We don't have to! Angle R is greater than 90, so angles P and Q must be less than 90.
sin P / p = sin R / r
sin P / 6.9 = sin(117) / 8.405... sin P = ( sin(117) 6.9 ) / 8.405...= 0.7313... P = sin-1(0.7313...) = 47.0 to one decimal place.
Now we will find angle Q using 'angles of a triangle add to 180':
Q = 180 - 117 - 47.0 = 16.0 to one decimal place
Solving SSA Triangles

"SSA" means "Side, Side, Angle"
This means we are given two sides and an angle that isnot the angle between the sides.
To solve an SSA triangle use The Law of Sines first to calculate one of the other two angles; then use the three angles add to 180 to find the other angle; finally use The Law of Sines again to find the unknown side.
Example 1
In this triangle we know angle B = 31 b=8 and c = 13
In this case, we can use The Law of Sines first to find angle C: sinC/c = sinB/b sinC/13 = sin(31)/8 So sinC = (13sin(31))/8 = 0.8369... So C = sin-1(0.8369...) = 56.818... = 56.8 correct to one decimal place. (*See below) Next, we can use 'angles of a triangle' to find angle A: A = 180 - 31 - 56.818... = 92.181... = 92.2 correct to one decimal place.
Now we can use The Law of Sines again to find a: a/sinA = b/sinB So a/sin(92.181...) = 8/sin(31) Did you notice that we didn't use A = 92.2. That angle is rounded to 1 decimal place. It's much better to use the unrounded number 92.181... which you should still have on your calculator screen from the last calculation. So a = (sin(92.181...) 8)/sin(31) = 15.52 correct to 2 decimal places So, we have completely solved the triangle ...
... or have we?

Back when we calculated: So C = sin-1(0.8369...) = 56.818... We didn't think that sin-1(0.8369...) might have two answers (see Law of Sines)
The other answer for C is 180 - 56.818...

So let's go back and continue our example: The other possible angle is: C = 180 - 56.818... = 123.181... = 123.2 correct to one decimal place With a new value for C we should also re-calculate angle A and side a Use 'angles of a triangle add to 180' to find angle A: A = 180 - 31 - 123.181... = 25.818... = 25.8 correct to one decimal place. Now we can use The Law of Sines again to find a: a/sinA = b/sinB So a/sin25.818... = 8/sin31 So a = (sin25.818...8)/sin31 = 6.76 correct to 2 decimal places Here you can see why we have two possible answers:
By swinging side "8" left and right we can join up with side "a" in two possible locations.
Example 2
This is also an SSA triangle. In this triangle we know angle angle M = 125, m = 12.4 and l = 7.6 We will use The Law of Sines to find angle L first: sinL/l = sinM/m sinL/7.6 = sin125/12.4 So sinL = (7.6sin125)/12.4 = 0.5020... So L = 30.136... = 30.1 correct to one decimal place. Next, we will use 'angles of a triangle' to find angle N: N = 180 - 125 - 30.136... = 24.863... = 24.9 correct to one decimal place. Now we will use The Law of Sines again to find n: n/sinN = m/sinM So n/sin24.863... = 12.4/sin125 So n = (sin24.863...12.4)/sin125 = 6.36 correct to 2 decimal places Note there is only one answer in this case. The "12.4" line only joins up one place. The other "possible" answer for L would be 149.9 which is impossible. We already have M = 125 and we can't have two obtuse angles in a triangle (they would add to more than 180)
Conclusion:
When solving a "Side, Side, Angle" triangle you need to check if there might be another possible answer!
Solving SSS Triangles

"SSS" means "Side, Side, Side"
When you know three sides of the triangle, and want to find the missing angles.
To solve an SSS triangle: use The Law of Cosines first to calculate one of the angles then use The Law of Cosines again to find another angle and finally use angles of a triangle add to 180 to find the last angle.
Example 1
In this triangle we know the three sides: a = 8, b = 6 and c = 7.
Use The Law of Cosines first to find one of the angles. It doesn't matter which one. Let's find angle Afirst: cos A = (b2 + c2 - a2)/2bc = (62 + 72 - 82)/(267) = (36 + 49 - 64)/84 = 21/84 = 0.25 A = cos-1(0.25) = 75.5 correct to one decimal place.
Next we will find another side. We use The Law of Cosines again, this time for angle B: cos B = (c2 + a2 - b2)/2ca = (72 + 82 - 62)/(278) = (49 + 64 - 36)/112 = 77/112 = 0.6875 So B = 46.5674... = 46.6 correct to one decimal place. Finally, we can find angle C by using 'angles of a triangle add to 180': So C = 180 - 75.5224... - 46.5674... = 57.9 correct to one decimal place. Now we have completely solved the triangle i.e. we have found all its angles.
Example 2
This is also an SSS triangle. In this triangle we know the three sides x = 5.1, y = 7.9 and z = 3.5. Use The Law of Cosines to find angle X first: cos X = (y2 + z2 - x2)/2yz = ((7.9)2 + (3.5)2 - (5.1)2)/(27.93.5) = (62.41 + 12.25 - 26.01)/55.3 = 48.65/55.3 = 0.8797... So X = cos-1(0.8797...) = 28.3881... = 28.4 correct to one decimal place. Next we will use The Law of Cosines again to find angle Y: cosY = (z2 + x2 - y2)/2zx = ((3.5)2 + (5.1)2 - (7.9)2)/(23.55.1) = (12.25 + 26.01 - 62.41)/35.7 = -24.15/35.7 = -0.6764... So Y = cos-1(-0.6764...) = 132.5684... = 132.6 correct to one decimal place. Finally, we can find angle Z by using 'angles of a triangle add to 180': So Z = 180 - 28.3881... - 132.5684... = 19.0 correct to one decimal place.
Another Method
Here is another (slightly faster) way to solve an SSS triangle: use The Law of Cosines first to calculate the largest angle then use The Law of Sines to find another angle and finally use angles of a triangle add to 180 to find the last angle.
Largest Angle?
Why do we try to find the largest angle first? That way the other two angles must be acute (less than 90) and the Law of Sines will give correct answers. You see, the Law of Sines is difficult to use with angles above 90. There can be two answers either side of 90 (example: 95 and 85), but your calculator will only give you the smaller one. So by calculating the largest angle first using the Law of Cosines, the remaining angles will be less than 90 and the Law of Sines can be used on either of them without difficulty.
Example 3
B is the largest angle, so find B first using the Law of Cosines:
cos B = (a2 + c2 b2) / 2ac cos B = (11.62 + 7.42 15.22) / (211.67.4) cos B = (134.56 + 54.76 231.04) / 171.68 cos B = -41.72 / 171.68 cos B = -0.2430... B = 104.1
Use the Law of Sines, sinC/c = sinB/b, to find angle A:
sin C / 7.4 = sin 104.1 / 15.2 sin C = (7.4 sin 104.1) / 15.2 = 0.4722... C = 28.2
Find angle A using "angles of a triangle add to 180":
A = 180 - (104.1 + 28.2) A = 180 - 132.3 A = 47.7 Therefore A = 47.7, B = 104.1, and C = 28.2
Theorems about Similar Triangles

1. The Side-Splitter Theorem
If ADE is any triangle and BC is drawn parallel to DE, then AB/BD = AC/CE To show this is true, draw the line BF parallel to AE to complete a parallelogram BCEF:
Triangles ABC and BDF have exactly the same angles and are therefore similar (Why? See the section called AAon the page How To Find if Triangles are Similar.)
Side AB corresponds to side BD and side AC corresponds to side BF. Therefore AB/BD = AC/BF But BF = CE Therefore AB/BD = AC/CE
The Angle Bisector Theorem
If ABC is any triangle and AD bisects the angle BAC, then AB/BD = AC/DC To show this is true, we can label the triangle like this:
Angle BAD = Angle DAC = x Angle ADB = y Angle ADC = (180 - y)
By the Law of Sines in triangle ABD: sin x/BD = sin y/AB Therefore AB sin x = BD sin y Therefore:
AB/BD = sin y/sin x

By the Law of Sines in triangle ACD: sin x/DC = sin(180 - y)/AC Therefore AC sin x = DC sin(180 - y)
Therefore AC/DC = sin(180 - y)/sin x But sin(180 - y) = sin y Therefore:
AC/DC = sin y/sin x

Combining AC/DC = sin y/sin x with AB/BD = sin y/sin x gives:
AC/DC = sin y/sin x = AB/BD

Therefore AB/BD = AC/DC In particular, if triangle ABC is isosceles, then triangles ABD and ACD are congruent triangles
And the same result is true:
AB/BD = AC/DC
3. Area and Similarity

If two similar triangles have sides in the ratio x:y, then their areas are in the ratio x2:y2
Example:
These two triangles are similar with sides in the ratio 2:1 (the sides of one are twice as long as the other):
What can we say about their areas? The answer is simple if we just draw in three more lines:
You can see that the small triangle fits into the big triangle four times. So when the lengths are twice as long, the area is four times as big Therefore the ratio of their areas is 4:1 We can also write 4:1 as
22:1
The General Case:
Triangles ABC and PQR are similar and have sides in the ratio x:y
We can find the areas using the formula from Finding the area of a triangle that has no right angle.
ABC's Area = bc sin A PQR's Area = qr sin P

And we know the lengths of the triangles are in the ratio x:y Therefore q/b = y/x, so: q = by/x and r/c = y/x, so r = cy/x Also, since the triangles are similar, angles A and P are the same: A=P We can now do some calculations: Area of triangle PQR: qr sin P
Put in "q = by/x", "r = cy/x" and "P=A":
(by/x)(cy/x) sin A
Combine (by/x) and (cy/x): Simplify: Rearrange:
(bycy/xx) sin A (bcy2/x2) sin A y2/x2 (bc) sin A
Which is: So we end up this ratio:
y2/x2 Area of Triangle ABC
Area of triangle ABC : Area of triangle PQR = x2 : y2
Trigonometric Identities
You might like to read our page on Trigonometry first!
Right Triangle
The Trigonometric Identities are equations that are true for Right Angled Triangles ...
... if it is not a Right Angled Triangle refer to our Triangle Identities page. Each side of a right triangle has a name:
(Adjacent is adjacent to the angle, and Opposite is opposite ... of course!) Important: We are soon going to be playing with all sorts of functions and it can get quite complex, but remember it all comes back to that simple triangle with: Angle Hypotenuse Adjacent Opposite

The three main functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent. They are just the length of one side divided by another For a right triangle with an angle : Sine Function: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine Function: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent Function: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent
Also, if we divide Sine by Cosine we get:
So we can also say: tan() = sin()/cos() That is our first Trigonometric Identity.
But Wait ... There is More!

We can also divide "the other way around" (such as Adjacent/Opposite instead of Opposite/Adjacent): Cosecant Function: csc() = Hypotenuse / Opposite Secant Function: sec() = Hypotenuse / Adjacent Cotangent Function: cot() = Adjacent / Opposite
Example: if Opposite = 2 and Hypotenuse = 4 then sin() = 2/4, and csc() = 4/2 Because of all that we can say: sin() = 1/csc() And the other way around: csc() = 1/sin() And we also have: cot() = cos()/sin() sec() = 1/cos() cot() = 1/tan() cos() = 1/sec() tan() = 1/cot()
Pythagoras Theorem
For the next trigonometric identities we start with Pythagoras' Theorem:
The Pythagorean Theorem states that, in a right triangle,the square of a (a) plus the square of b (b) is equal to the square of c (c):
a2 + b2 = c2
Dividing through by c2 gives a2 + c2 This can be simplified to: c2 b2 = c2 c2
Now, a/c is Opposite / Hypotenuse, which is sin() And b/c is Adjacent / Hypotenuse, which is cos() So (a/c)2 + (b/c)2 = 1 can also be written: sin2 + cos2 = 1
Note: writing sin2 means to find the sine of , then square it. If I had written sin 2 I would have meant "square , then do the sine function"
Example: when the angle is 1 radian (approximately 57): sin() = 84.1/100 = 0.841 cos() = 54.0/100 = 0.540 2 0.841 + 0.5402 = 0.707 + 0.292 = 0.999 (Close enough to 1, considering we only used 3 decimal places) Related identities include: sin2 = 1 cos2 cos2 = 1 sin2 tan2 + 1 = sec2 tan2 = sec2 1 1 + cot2 = csc2 cot2 = csc2 1
More Identitites
There are many more identities ... here are some of the more useful ones:
Opposite Angle Identities

sin (-) = - sin () cos (-) = cos () tan (-) = - tan ()
Double Angle Identities
Half Angle Identities

Note that "" means it may be either one, depending on the value of /2
Angle Sum and Difference Identities

Note that means you can use plus or minus, and the opposite sign. means to use the
Triangle Identities
There are also Triangle Identities which apply to all triangles (not just Right Angled Triangles)
Triangle Identities
You might like to read our page on Trigonometry first!
Triangle Identities
The triangle identities are equations that are true for all triangles (they don't have to have a right angle). For the identities involving right angles triangles see Trigonometric Identities.
Law of Sines
The Law of Sines (also known as The Sine Rule) is:
it can also be this way around:
Law of Cosines
The Law of Cosines (also known as The Cosine Rule) is an extension of the Pythagorean Theorem to any triangle:
which can also be re-arranged to:
Law of Tangents
The Law of Tangents is:
Quadrilaterals
Quadrilateral just means "four sides" (quad means four, lateral means side). Any four-sided shape is a Quadrilateral. But the sides have to be straight, and it has to be2-dimensional.
Try for Yourself
View Larger (You can also play with Interactive Quadrilaterals)
Properties
Four sides (or edges)
Four vertices (or corners). The interior angles add up to 360 degrees:
Try drawing a quadrilateral, and measure the angles. They should add to 360
Types of Quadrilaterals
There are special types of quadrilateral:
Some types are also included in the definition of other types! For example a square, rhombus and rectangleare also parallelograms. See below for more details. Let us look at each type in turn:
The Rectangle
means "right angle" and show equal sides
A rectangle is a four-sided shape where every angle is a right angle (90). Also opposite sides are parallel and of equal length.
The Rhombus
A rhombus is a four-sided shape where all sides have equal length. Also opposite sides are parallel and opposite angles are equal. Another interesting thing is that the diagonals (dashed lines in second figure) of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
The Square
means "right angle" show equal sides
A square has equal sides and every angle is a right angle (90) Also opposite sides are parallel. A square also fits the definition of a rectangle (all angles are 90), and a rhombus (all sides are equal length).
The Parallelogram
Opposite sides are parallel and equal in length, and opposite angles are equal (angles "a" are the same, and angles "b" are the same)
NOTE: Squares, Rectangles and Rhombuses are all Parallelograms! Example:

A parallelogram with: all sides equal and angles "a" and "b" as right angles
is a square!
The Trapezoid (UK: Trapezium)
Trapezoid
Isosceles Trapezoid
A trapezoid (called a trapezium in the UK) has one pair of opposite sides parallel. It is called an Isosceles trapezoid if the sides that aren't parallel are equal in length and both angles coming from a parallel side are equal, as shown. Language Note: In the US a "trapezium" is a quadrilateral with NO parallel sides!
The Kite
Hey, it looks like a kite. It has two pairs of sides. Each pair is made up of adjacent sides that are equal in length. The angles are equal where the pairs meet. Diagonals (dashed lines) meet at a right angle, and one of the diagonal bisects (cuts equally in half) the other.
... and that's it for the special quadrilaterals.
Irregular Quadrilaterals
The only regular quadrilateral is a square. So all other quadrilaterals are irregular.
The "Family Tree" Chart

Quadrilateral definitions are inclusive.
Example: a square is also a rectangle.

So we include a square in the definition of a rectangle. (We don't say "A rectangle has all 90 angles, except if it is a square") This may seem odd because in daily life we think of a square as not being a rectangle ... but in mathematics itis. Using the chart below you can answer such questions as: Is a Square a type of Rectangle? (Yes) Is a Rectangle a type of Kite? (No)
Complex Quadrilaterals
Oh Yes! when two sides cross over, you call it a "Complex" or "Self-Intersecting" quadrilateral like these:
They still have 4 sides, but two sides cross over.
Polygon
A quadrilateral is a polygon. In fact it is a 4-sided polygon, just like a triangle is a 3sided polygon, a pentagon is a 5-sided polygon, and so on.
Play with Them

Now that you know the different types, you can play with the Interactive Quadrilaterals.
Other Names
A quadrilateral can sometimes be called:
a Quadrangle ("four angles"), so it sounds like "triangle"
a Tetragon ("four and polygon"), so it sounds like "pentagon", "hexagon", etc.
Circle
A circle is easy to make:
Draw a curve that is "radius" away from a central point.

And so:
All points are the same distance from the center.
You Can Draw It Yourself

Put a pin in a board, put a loop of string around it, and insert a pencil into the loop. Keep the string stretched and draw the circle!
Also, the circle is a plane shape (two dimensional).
Definition
In fact the definition of a circle is: The set of all points on a plane that are a fixed distance from a center.
Radius and Diameter

The Radius is the distance from the center to the edge. The Diameter starts at one side of the circle, goes through the center and ends on the other side. So the Diameter is twice the Radius:
Diameter = 2 Radius
Circumference
The Circumference is the distance around the edge of the circle. It is exactly Pi (the symbol is ) times the Diameter, so:
Circumference =
And so these are also true:
Diameter Radius
Circumference = 2
Circumference / Diameter =
Area
The area of a circle is
times the
2
Radius squared, which is written:
A=
Or, in terms of the Diameter:
A = (/4) D2
It is easy to remember if you think of the area of the square that the circle would fit inside.
Names
Because people have studied circles for thousands of years special names have come about. Nobody wants to say "that line that starts at one side of the circle, goes through the center and ends on the other side" when a word like "Diameter" would do. So here are the most common special names:
Lines
A line that goes from one point to another on the circle's circumference is called a Chord. If that line passes through the center it is called a Diameter. If a line "just touches" the circle as it passes it is called aTangent.
And a part of the circumference is called an Arc.
Slices
There are two main "slices" of a circle The "pizza" slice is called a Sector. And the slice made by a chord is called a Segment.
Common Sectors
The Quadrant and Semicircle are two special types of Sector: Quarter of a circle is called a Quadrant. Half a circle is called a Semicircle.
Inside and Outside

A circle has an inside and an outside (of course!). But it also has an "on", because you could be right on the circle. Example: "A" is outside the circle, "B" is inside the circle and "C" is on the circle.
Pi
Pi (the symbol is the Greek letter ) is:
The ratio of the Circumference to the Diameter of a Circle.

In other words, if you measure the circumference, and then divide by the diameter of the circle you get the number It is approximately equal to:
3.14159265358979323846
The digits go on and on with no pattern. In fact, has been calculated to over one trillion decimal places and still there is no pattern.
Approximation
A quick and easy approximation to
is 22/7
22/7 = 3.1428571...
But as you can see, 22/7 is not exactly right. In fact
is not equal to the ratio of
any two numbers, which makes it an irrational number.
Remembering
I usually just remember "3.14159", but you can also count the letters of:
"May I have a large container of butter today" 314159265
To 100 Decimal Places

Here is
with the first 100 decimal places:
3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751 0 58209749445923078164062862089986280348253421170679. ..
Circle Sector and Segment
Slices
There are two main "slices" of a circle:
The "pizza" slice is called a Sector.
And the slice made by a chord is called a Segment.
Common Sectors
The Quadrant and Semicircle are two special types of Sector: Quarter of a circle is called a Quadrant. Half a circle is called a Semicircle.
Area of a Sector
You can work out the Area of a Sector by comparing its angle to the angle of a full circle. Note: I am using radians for the angles.
This is the reasoning: A circle has an angle of 2 and an Area of: r2 So a Sector with an angle of (instead of 2) must have an area of: (/2) Which can be simplified to: (/2) r2
Area of Sector =
Area of Sector = (
(when
is in radians)
/180) r2
(when is in degrees)
Arc Length
By the same reasoning, the arc length (of a Sector or Segment) is:
L=
(when
is in radians)
L = (
/180) r
Area of Segment
The Area of a Segment is the area of a sector minus the triangular piece (shown in light blue here). There is a lengthy reason, but the result is a slight modification of the Sector formula:
Area of Segment = ( - sin radians)

Area of Segment = ( (
) r
(when
is in
/180) - sin ) r2
Circle Theorems
There are some interesting things about angles and circles that I want to share with you:
Inscribed Angle
First off, a definition: Inscribed Angle: an angle made from points sitting on the circle's circumference.
A and C are "end points" B is the "apex point"
Inscribed Angle Theorems

An inscibed angle
a is half of the central angle 2a
(Called the Angle at the Center Theorem) And (keeping the endpoints fixed) ... ... the angle
a is always the same, no matter where it is on the circumference:
Angle a is the same.

(Called the Angles Subtended by Same Arc Theorem)
Example: What is the size of Angle POQ? (O is circle's center)
Angle POQ = 2 Angle PRQ = 2 62 = 124
Example: What is the size of Angle CBX?
Angle ADB = 32 is the same angle as Angle XCB Now use angles of a triangle add to 180 in triangle BXC
Angle CBX + Angle BXC + Angle XCB = 180 Angle CBX + 85 + 32 = 180 Angle CBX = 63
Angle in a Semicircle
An angle inscribed in a semicircle is always a right angle:
(The end points are either end of a circle's diameter, the apex point can be anywhere on the circumference.)
Why? Because: The inscibed angle 90 is half of the central angle 180 (Using "Angle at the Center Theorem" above)
Another Good Reason Why It Works

We could also rotate the shape around 180 to make a rectangle! It is a rectangle, because all sides are parallel, and both diagonals are equal. And so its internal angles are all right angles (90).
So there you go! No matter where that angle is on the circumference, it is always 90
Example: What is the size of Angle BAC?
The Angle in the Semicircle Theorem tells us that Angle ACB = 90 Now use angles of a triangle add to 180 to find Angle BAC:
Angle BAC + 55 + 90 = 180 Angle BAC = 35
Cyclic Quadrilateral
A "Cyclic" Quadrilateral has every vertex on a circle's circumference:
A Cyclic Quadrilateral's opposite angles add to 180: a + c = 180 b + d = 180
Example: What is the size of Angle WXY?
Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add to 180
Angle WZY + Angle WXY = 180 69 + Angle WXY = 180 Angle WXY = 111
Tangent Angle
A tangent is a line that just touches a circle at one point. It always forms a right angle with the circle's radius, as shown:
Area of a Circle by Cutting into Sectors

Here is a way to find the formula for the area of a circle:
Cut a circle into equal sectors (12 in this example) Divide just one of the sectors into two equal parts. You now have thirteen sectors number them 1 to 13:
Rearrange the 13 sectors like this:
Which resembles a rectangle:
What are the (approximate) height and width of the rectangle? The height is the circle's
radius: just look at sectors 1 and 13 above. When they
were in the circle they were "radius" high. The width (actually one "bumpy" edge) is half of the curved parts along the circle's edge ... in other words it is about half the circumference of the circle. We know that:
Circumference = 2
And so the width is about:
radius radius
Half the Circumference =
And so we have (approximately):
Now we just multply the width by the height to find the area of the rectangle:
Area = ( radius) (radius) =
radius
Note: The rectangle and the "bumpy edged shape" made by the sectors are not an exact match. But we could get a better result if we divided the circle into 25 sectors (23 with an angle of 15 and 2 with an angle of 7.5). And the more we divided the circle up, the closer we would get to being exactly right.
Conclusion
Area of Circle =
Area
The size of a surface! Area is the amount of space inside the boundary of a flat object (such as a square or circle).
Example:
These shapes all have the same area of 9:
Area of Plane Shapes

There are special formulas for certain shapes:
Example: What is the area of this rectangle?
The formula is:
Area = w h
w =width h = height The breadth is 5, and the height is 3, so we know w = 5 and h = 3. So:
Area = 5 3 = 15
Read Area of Plane Shapes for more information.
Finding Area by Counting Squares

You can count the number of squares to find an area.
This rectangle has an area of 15

If each square was 1 cm on a side, then the area would be 15 cm2 (15 square cm)
The squares may not match the shape exactly, so you will need to "approximate" an answer. One way is: more than half a square counts as 1 less than half a square counts as 0
Like this:
This pentagon has an area of approximately 17

Or just use your eyes and count a whole square when the areas seem to add up, like with this circle, where the area marked "4" seems equal to about 1 whole square (also for "8"):
This circle has an area of approximately 14
Area of Plane Shapes

Triangle
Area = b h
b = base h = vertical height Rectangle
Square
Area = a2
a = length of side
Parallelogram
Area = w h
w = width h = height Trapezoid (US) Trapezium (UK)
Area = b h
b = base h = vertical height Circle
Area = (a+b) h
h = vertical height
Area =
r2
Circumference=2r r = radius Sector
Ellipse
Area =
ab
Area = r2
r = radius = angle in radians
Here is an example:
Example: What is the area of this rectangle?
The formula is:
Area = w h
w = width h = height
We know w = 5 and h = 3, so:
Area = 5 3 = 15
Area Calculation Tool

Here is a handy little tool you can use to find the area of common shapes. Choose the shape, enter the lengths, and then click "Calculate Area"
Area = b h
b = base h = vertical height Rectangle
Triangle
Square
Area = a2
a = length of side
Area = w h
w = width h = height Trapezoid (US) Trapezium (UK)
Area = b h
b = base h = vertical height Circle
Parallelogram
Area = (a+b) h
h = vertical height
Area =
r2
Circumference=2r r = radius Sector
Ellipse
Area =
ab
Area = r2
r = radius = angle in radians
For Triangles, Squares, etc: The base "b" or width "w" is: The height "h" is: The length "a" is: For Circle or Sector: The radius "r" is: The angle "" in radians is:
Activity: Garden Area

Have you ever wondered what the area of your garden is? Let us try and find out!
You will need a garden, a tape measure, pen and paper ... and your brains.
I don't have a garden, so what can I do?

If you don't have a garden, I'm sure a friend has one, or your relatives have one, so use theirs.
How accurate should my measurements be?

Try to measure to the nearest centimeter (or half-inch), so the error will be as small as possible. You should get a good estimate, as long as you are careful with your measuring.
Is there a simple way to find the area of my garden?

If your garden is a rectangle, then you have a simple calculation. You just have to measure its width and length and multiply them together:
Rectangle: Area = W L
W = width L = length
But that makes this activity just too easy ... ... so go find another garden with a more interesting shape!
My garden is a difficult shape, so how can I find its area?

Good! This activity just got interesting ... It may be one of the shapes on the page Area of Plane Shapes, then you just have to decide which shape, make the measurements, and use the formula. But you could also break up your difficult shape into triangles:
Then measure the base (b) and height (h) of each triangle:
Write down each measurement carefully so you know which triangle it belongs to. Now go inside and calculate each area (using up.
Area = b h) and add them all
But my garden is different ...

... in fact it's not any shape at all ... it has some straight edges and some curved parts. What should I do?
Maybe it looks something like this:
You could try covering your garden with a grid of squares these could be 1 metre squares or 1 foot squares, something like this:
How do I make a grid?

Try using pegs in the ground and join them up with string. Make sure they are the right distance apart and all angles are right angles.
How does this help? The grid and the outline of the garden don't match. There are lots of corners and curved parts.
Count the squares! There are special methods talked about on the Area page. The simplest method is: more than half a square counts as 1 less than half a square counts as 0
An estimate for this area is 41 m2. This is just an example. Your garden will be different. (If your grid was 1 foot, then the area will be in square feet)
Why should I want to know the area of my garden?

There might be lots of reasons: You want to re-turf the garden. How much grass should you order? How much will it cost? You want to plant the garden with tomato plants. These have to be planted a certain distance apart. How many plants could you plant? What will be your expected yield of tomatoes? You want to hold a barbeque party. How many people could comfortably fit into your garden? You can now do Activity: Grass for the Garden
I am finished ... what have I learned?

You have learned about measuring, recording data, drawing, and calculating area, well done!
Activity: Dropping a Coin onto a Grid

A few hundred years ago people enjoyed betting on coins tossed on to the floor ... would they cross a line or not?
A man called "Buffon" (see "Buffon's Needle") started thinking about this and worked out how to calculate the probability. Now it is your turn to have a go! You will need:
A small round coin, such as a US penny, a 1c Euro or 5 Rupee.
A sheet of paper with a grid of 30 mm squares.
Steps
Measure the diameter of your coin: ____ mm a US Penny is 19mm, a 1c Euro is 16.25mm, a Rs 5 is 23mm
Also measure the spacing of your grid (it may not print at exactly 30mm): ____ mm
Put your sheet of paper on a flat surface such as a table top or the floor.
From a height of about 5cm, drop the coin onto the paper and record whether it lands:
A: Completely inside a square (not touching any grid lines) B: Crosses one or more lines
The exact height from which you drop the coin is not important, but don't drop it so close to the paper that you are cheating! If the coin rolls completely off the paper, then do not count that turn.
100 Times
Now we will drop the coin 100 times, but first ...
... what percentage do you think will land A, or B?

Make a guess (estimate) before you begin the experiment: Your Guess for "A" (%): Your Guess for "B" (%): OK let's begin. Drop the coin 100 times and record using Tally Marks: Coin lands Tally
A (does not touch a line) or B (touches a line)

Frequency Percentage
B
Totals: 100 100%
Now draw a Bar Graph to illustrate your results. You can create one at Data Graphs (Bar, Line and Pie). Are the bars the same height? Did you expect them to be? How does the result compare with your guess?
We Can Calculate What It Should Be ...

Here are some positions for the coin to land so it does not quite touch one of the lines:
Place your coin on your grid (like above), and then put a mark on the paper where the center of the coin is (just a rough estimate will do).
See how the coin's center is one radius r away from a line. (Read about a Circle's Radius and Diameter.)
Make lots of "center marks" then draw a box connecting them all like below:
d = Coin's diameter (2 r)
When a coin's center is within the yellow box it won't touch any line.
The yellow box is smaller than the grid by two radiuses (= one diameter) of the coin. So what are the areas? The area of the grid square is 30 30 = 900 mm2 The area of the yellow box is (30-d) (30-d) = (30-d)2 mm2
The above calculation was for a 30 mm grid, but we can use S for grid size: The area of the grid square is S S = S2 mm2 The area of the yellow box is (S-d)2 mm2
Example: A 1c Euro (d=16.25 mm) on a 29mm grid (S=29 mm):

Grid Square = 292 = 841 mm2 Yellow Box = (29-16.25)2 = 12.752 = 162 mm2 (to the nearest mm2) So you should expect the coin to land not crossing a line of the grid approximately:
"A" = 162 / 841 = 19.3% of the time

And "B" = 100% - 19.3% = 80.7% Now do the calculations for your own grid size and coin size.
Grid Spacing S (mm): Diameter of Coin d (mm): Area of Grid Square = Area of Yellow Box =
S2 (mm2):
"A" (%): "B" (%):
(S-d)2 (mm2):
How do these theoretical results compare with your experimental results?

It won't be exact (because it is a random thing) but it may be close.
Different Sizes of Coin

Try repeating the experiment using a different sized coin. First calculate the theoretical value ... how does this affect the values for A and B? Then do the experiment to see how close it gets.
What You Have Done

You have (hopefully) had fun running an experiment. You have done some geometry, and had some experience calculating areas and probabilities. And you have seen the relationship between theory and reality.
Pentagon
A pentagon has 5 straight sides
Pentagon
A pentagon is a 5-sided polygon (a flat shape with straight sides).
This is a pentagon:
And this is also a pentagon:
So long as it has 5 straight sides, it is still a pentagon
Regular or Irregular
If all angles are equal and all sides are equal, then it is regular, otherwise it is irregular
Regular Pentagon
Irregular Pentagons
Is it a Pentagon?
A pentagon has 5 straight lines. The shape must also be closed (all the lines connect up).
Pentagon (straight sides)
Not a Pentagon (has a curve)
Not a Pentagon (open, not closed)
Make a Regular Pentagon

You can make a regular pentagon with a strip of paper! Start with a long strip of paper, make sure it is the same width all along (if you want the pentagon to be regular):
Make a "pretzel" knot with the paper.
Carefully tighten the knot while keeping the paper flat.
..... Trim off (or fold back) any excess.
All sides are now of equal length, and all angles should be the same too.
The Pentagram
The Pentagram (or Pentangle) is a 5-pointed star. You may think it has something to do with witchcraft, but in fact it is more famous as a magical symbol and is also a holy symbol in many religions. In fact, this simple figure is quite amazing.
Inside a Pentagram is a Pentagon
You can make a pentagram by first drawing a pentagon, then extending the edges. Or by drawing lines from corner to corner inside a pentagon.
Ratios
But the pentagram has a special number hidden inside called the Golden Ratio, which equals approximately 1.618 a/b = 1.618... b/c = 1.618... c/d = 1.618...
When I drew this, I measured the 4 lengths and I got a=216, b=133, c=82, d=51. So let's check to see what the ratios are: 216/133 = 1.624... 133/82 = 1.622... 82/51 = 1.608...
If I had drawn and measured more accurately, I would have been even closer!
Why not have a go yourself: Draw a regular pentagram Measure the lengths Calculate the ratios
Irregular Pentagram
So far we have only been looking at the regular pentagram (all sides and angles equal), but there are also irregular pentagrams.
Hexagon
A hexagon has 6 straight sides
Hexagon
A hexagon is a 6-sided polygon (a flat shape with straight sides).
This is a hexagon:
And this is also a hexagon:
So long as it has 6 straight sides, it is still a hexagon
Regular or Irregular
If all angles are equal and all sides are equal, then it is regular, otherwise it is irregular
Regular Hexagon
Irregular Hexagons
Is it a Hexagon?
A hexagon has 6 straight lines. The shape must also be closed (all the lines connect up).
Hexagon (straight sides)
Not a Hexagon (has a curve)
Not a Hexagon (open, not closed)
Symbols in Geometry
Common Symbols Used in Geometry
Symbols save time and space when writing. Here are the most common geometrical symbols:
Symbol
Meaning
Triangle Angle Perpendicular
Example
ABC has 3 equal sides ABC is 45 AB CD
In Words
Triangle ABC has three equal sides The angle formed by ABC is 45 degrees. The line AB is perpendicular to line CD
Parallel Degrees Right Angle (90) Line Segment "AB" Line "AB" Ray "AB" Congruent (same shape and size) Similar (same shape, different size) Therefore
EF GH 360 makes a full circle is 90 AB
The line EF is parallel to line GH
A right angle is 90 degrees The line between A and B The infinite line that includes A and B The line that starts at A, goes through B and continues on
ABC DEF a=b
DEF MNO b=a
Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF Triangle DEF is similar to triangle MNO a equals b, therefore b equals a
Naming Angles
For angles the central letter is where the angle is. For example when you see " ABC is 45", then the point "B" is where the angle is.
Short Example
So now, when someone writes: You know they are saying:
In
ABC,
BAC is
"In triangle ABC, the angle BAC is a right angle"
Congruent
If one shape can become another using Turns, Flips and/or Slides, then the two shapes are called Congruent:
Rotation
Turn!
Reflection
Flip!
Translation
Slide!
After any of those transformations (turn, flip or slide), the shape still hasthe same size, area, angles and line lengths.
Examples
These shapes are all Congruent:
Rotated
Reflected and Moved
Reflected and Rotated
Congruent or Similar?
The two shapes need to be the same size to be congruent. When you need to resize one shape to make it the same as the other, the shapes are called Similar.
If you ...
Then the shapes are ...
... only Rotate, Reflect and/or Translate
Congruent Similar
... also need to Resize
Congruent? Why such a funny word that basically means "equal"? Probably because they would only be "equal" if laid on top of each other. Anyway it comes from Latincongruere, "to agree". So the shapes "agree"
Congruent Angles
Congruent Angles have the same angle (in degrees or radians). That is all.
These angles are congruent. They don't have to point in the same direction. They don't have to be on similar sized lines. Just the same angle. Congruent - why such a funny word that basically means "equal"? Probably because they would only be "equal" if laid on top of each other. Anyway it comes from Latin congruere, "to agree". So the angles "agree"
Similar
Two shapes are Similar if the only difference is size (and possibly the need to turn or flip one around).
Resizing is the Key

If one shape can become another using Resizing (also called dilation, contraction, compression, enlargementor even expansion), then the shapes are Similar:
These Shapes are Similar!
There may be Turns, Flips or Slides, Too!

Sometimes it can be hard to see if two shapes are Similar, because you may need to turn, flip or slide one shape as well as resizing it.
Rotation
Turn!
Reflection
Flip!
Translation
Slide!
Examples
These shapes are all Similar:
Resized
Resized and Reflected
Resized and Rotated
Why is it Useful?
When two shapes are similar, then: corresponding angles are equal, and the lines are in proportion.
This can make life a lot easier when solving geometry puzzles, as in this example:
Example: What is the missing length here?
Notice that the red triangle has the same angles as the main triangle ...
... they both have one right angle, and a shared angle in the left corner
In fact you could flip over the red triangle, rotate it a little, then resize it and it would fit exactly on top of the main triangle. So they are similar triangles. So the line lengths will be in proportion, and we can calculate:
? = 80 (130/127) = 81.9
(No fancy calculations, just common sense!)
Congruent or Similar?
But when you don't need to resize to make the shapes the same, they are called Congruent.
So, if the shapes become the same:
When you ...

... only Rotate, Reflect and/or Translate
Then the shapes are ... Congruent Similar
... also need to Resize
Angles
An angle measures the amount of turn
Names of Angles
As the Angle Increases, the Name Changes Type of Angle
Acute Angle Right Angle Obtuse Angle Straight Angle Reflex Angle
Description
an angle that is less than 90 an angle that is 90 exactly an angle that is greater than 90 but less than 180 an angle that is 180 exactly an angle that is greater than 180
Try It Yourself!
View Larger
Be Careful What You Measure
This is an Obtuse Angle.
And this is a Reflex Angle.
But the lines are the same ... so when naming the angles make sure that you know which angle is being asked for!
Parts of an Angle
The corner point of an angle is called the vertex And the two straight sides are called arms The angle is the amount of turn between each arm.
Labelling Angles
There are two main ways to label angles: 1. by giving the angle a name, usually a lower-case letter like a or b, or sometimes a Greek letter like (alpha) or (theta) 2. or by the three letters on the shape that define the angle, with the middle letter being where the angle actually is (its vertex). Example angle "a" is "BAC", and angle "" is "BCD"
Degrees (Angles)
We can measure Angles in Degrees.
There are 360 degrees in one Full Rotation (one complete circle around). (Angles can also be measured in Radians)
(Note: "Degrees" can also mean Temperature, but here we are talking about Angles)
The Degree Symbol:

We use a little circle following the number to mean degrees. For example 90 means 90 degrees
One Degree
This is how large 1 Degree is
The Full Circle

A Full Circle is 360 Half a circle is 180 (called a Straight Angle) Quarter of a circle is 90 (called a Right Angle)
Why 360 degrees? Probably because old calendars (such as the Persian Calendar) used 360 days for a year - when they watched the stars they saw them revolve around the North Star one degree per day.
Measuring Degrees
We often measure degrees using a protractor:
The normal protractor measures 0 to 180
You can also get full-circle protractors. But they are not as commonly used because they are a bit big and don't do anything special.
Acute Angles
Different Angles have different names:
An Acute Angle is less than 90
This is an acute angle

All the angles below are acute angles:
Which Angle?
Remember to look carefully at which angle you are being asked to name:
The acute angle is the small angle which is less than 90.
If you choose the larger angle you would have a Reflex Angle instead:
The smaller angle is an Acute Angle, but the larger angle is a Reflex Angle
Right Angles
A right angle is an internal angle which is equal to 90
This is a right angle

Note the special symbol like a box in the angle. If you see this, it is a right angle. The 90 is rarely written in. If you see the box in the corner, you are being told it is a right angle. All the angles below are right angles:
A right angle can be in any orientation or rotation as long as the internal angle is 90
Types of Angles
Read more about Angles
Obtuse Angles
An Obtuse Angle is more than 90 but less than 180
This is an obtuse angle !

All the angles below are obtuse angles:
Which Angle?
Remember to look carefully at which angle you are being asked to name.
The obtuse angle is the smaller angle. It is more than 90 and less than 180.
If you choose the larger angle you would have a Reflex Angle instead:
The smaller angle is an Obtuse Angle, but the larger angle is a Reflex Angle
Straight Angle
A straight angle is 180 degrees
This is a straight angle A straight angle changes the direction to point the opposite way. Sometimes people say "You did a complete 180 on that!" ... meaning you completely changed your mind, idea or direction.
All the angles below are straight angles:
Reflex Angles
A Reflex Angle is more than 180 but less than 360
This is a reflex angle

All the angles below are reflex angles:
Which Angle?
Remember to look carefully at which angle you are being asked to name.
The reflex angle is the larger angle. It is more than 180 but less than 360
If you choose the smaller angle you might have an Acute Angle, or an Obtuse Angle instead:
The larger angle is a Reflex Angle, but the smaller angle is an Acute Angle
The larger angle is a Reflex Angle, but the smaller angle is an Obtuse Angle
Parallel Lines, and Pairs of Angles
Parallel Lines
Lines are parallel if they are always the same distance apart (called "equidistant"), and will never meet. Just remember:
Always the same distance apart and never touching.

The red line is parallel to the blue line in both these cases:
Example 1 Parallel lines also point in the same direction.
Example 2
Pairs of Angles
When parallel lines get crossed by another line (which is called aTransversal), you can see that many angles are the same, as in this example: These angles can be made into pairs of angles which have special names.
Testing for Parallel Lines

Some of those special pairs of angles can be used to test if lines really are parallel:
If Any Pair Of ...

Corresponding Angles are equal, or Alternate Interior Angles are equal, or Alternate Exterior Angles are equal, or Consecutive Interior Angles add up to 180
Example:
a=e c=f b=g d + f = 180
... then the lines are Parallel
Examples
These lines are parallel, because a pair of Corresponding Anglesare equal.
These lines are not parallel, because a pair of Consecutive Interior Angles do not add up to 180 (81 + 101 =182)
These lines are parallel, because a pair of Alternate Interior Angles are equal
Transversals
A Transversal is a line that crosses at least two other lines.
The red line is the transversal in each example:
Transversal crossing two lines
this Transversal crosses two parallel lines
... and this one cuts across three lines
Supplementary Angles
Two Angles are Supplementary if they add up to 180 degrees.
These two angles (140 and 40) are Supplementary Angles, because they add up to 180. Notice that together they make a straight angle.
But the angles don't have to be together. These two are supplementary because 60 + 120 = 180
If the two angles add to 180, we say they "Supplement" each other. Supplement comes from Latin supplere, to complete or "supply" what is needed.
Spelling: be careful, it is not "Supplimentary Angle" (with an "i")
Complementary vs Supplementary
A related idea is Complementary Angles, they add up to 90 How can you remember which is which? Easy! Think: "C" of Complementary stands for "Corner" (a Right Angle), and "S" of Supplementary stands for "Straight" (180 degrees is a straight line)
You could also think "Supplement" (like a Vitamin Supplement) is something extra, so it it bigger.
Angles Around a Point
Angles around a point will always add up to 360 degrees.
The angles above all add to 360
53 + 80 + 140 + 87 = 360
Because of this, we can find an unknown angle.
Example: What is angle "c"?

To find angle c we take the sum of the known angles and take that from 360 Sum of known angles = 110 + 75 + 50 + 63 Sum of known angles = 298 Angle c = 360 298 Angle c = 62
Angles On One Side of A Straight Line

Angles on one side of a straight line will always add to 180 degrees.
If a line is split into 2 and you know one angle you can always find the other one.
30 + 150 = 180
Example: If we know one angle is 45 what is angle "a" ?
Angle a is 180 45 = 135
This method can be used for several angles on one side of a straight line.
Example: What is angle "b" ?

Angle b is simply 180 less the sum of the other angles. Sum of known angles = 45 + 39 + 24 Sum of known angles = 108 Angle b = 180 108 Angle b = 72
Interior Angle
An Interior Angle is an angle inside a shape.
Note: If you add up the Interior Angle and Exterior Angle you get a straight line, 180. (See Supplementary Angles)
Exterior Angle
The Exterior Angle is the angle between any side of a shape, and a line extended from the next side.
Note: If you add up the Interior Angle and Exterior Angle you get a straight line, 180. (See Supplementary Angles)
Set of All Points That ...

In Mathematics we often say "the set of all points that ... ". What does it mean?
A set is just a collection of things with some common property. If you collect ALL points that share a property you can end up with a line, surface or other interesting thing. Points can make a line
Example: A Circle is: "the set of all points on a plane that are a fixed distance from a central point".
As you can see, just a few points start to look like a circle, but if you collect ALL the points, you will actually have a circle.
Surface
Now imagine all the points that are a fixed distance from a center (like the circle) but no longer just on a plane, let them be in 3D space ... you would have a sphere!
Locus
The idea of "the set of all points that ..." is used so much it even has a name: Locus. A Locus is a set of points that share a property. So, a circle is "the locus of points on a plane that are a fixed distance from the center". Note: "Locus" usually means that the points make a continuous curve or surface.
Example: An ellipse is the locus of points whose distance from two fixed points add up to a constant. So, no matter where you are on the ellipse, you can add up the distance to point "A" and to point "B" and it will always be the same result. (The points "A" and "B" are called the foci of the ellipse)
The idea of "Locus" can be used to create some weird and wonderful shapes!
Conic Sections
Conic Section: a section (or slice) through a cone.
Did you know that by taking different slices through a cone you can create a circle, an ellipse, a parabola or a hyperbola?
Cones
Circle straight through
Ellipse slight angle
Parabola parallel to edge of cone
Hyperbola steep angle
So all those curves are related!
Focus!
The curves can also be defined using a straight line and a point (called the directrix and focus). If you measure the distance: from the focus to a point on the curve, and perpendicularly from the directrix to that point
the two distances will always be the same ratio. For an ellipse, the ratio is less than 1 For a parabola, the ratio is 1, so the
two distances areequal. For a hyperbola, the ratio is greater than 1
Eccentricity
That ratio above is called the "eccentricity", so we can say that any conic section is:
"all points whose distance to the focus is equal to the eccentricity times the distance to the directrix"
For 0 < eccentricity < 1 we get an ellipse, for eccentricity = 1 a parabola, and for eccentricity > 1 a hyperbola.
A circle has an eccentricity of zero, so the eccentricity shows you how "un-circular" the curve is. The bigger the eccentricity, the less curved it is.
Latus Rectum
The latus rectum (no, it is not a rude word!) runs parallel to the directrix and passes through the focus. Its length: In a parabola, is four times the focal length In a circle, is the diameter In an ellipse, is 2b2/a (where a and b are one half of the major and minor diameter).
Here you can see the major axis andminor axis of an ellipse. There is not just one focus and directrix, but a pair of them (one each side).
General Equation
In fact, we can make an equation that covers all these curves. Because they are plane curves (even though cut out of the solid) we only have to deal with Cartesian ("x" and "y") Coordinates. But these are not straight lines, so just "x" and "y" will not do ... we need to go to the next level, and have: x2 and y2, and also x (without y), y (without x), x and y together (xy) and a constant term.
There, that should do it! And each one needs a factor (A,B,C etc) ... So the general equation that covers all conic sections is:
And from that equation we can create equations for the circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola ... but that is beyond the scope of this page.
Ellipse
An ellipse is like a squashed circle.
Just like a Circle has one center, an ellipse has two "centers" called foci. "F" is a focus, "G" is a focus, and together they are called foci.
The distance f+g is always the same value

In other words, when you go from point "F" to any point on the ellipse and then go on to point "G", you will always travel the same distance.
You Can Draw It Yourself

Put two pins in a board, put a loop of string around them, and insert a pencil into the loop. Keep the string stretched so it forms a triangle, and draw a line ... you will draw an ellipse.
It works because the string naturally forces the same distance from pin-to-pencilto-other-pin.
A Circle is an Ellipse
In fact a Circle is an Ellipse, where both foci are at the same point (the center). In other words, a circle is a "special case" of an ellipse. Ellipses Rule!
Definition
An ellipse is the set of all points on a plane whose distance from two fixed points F and G add up to a constant.
Section of a Cone
You can also get an ellipse when you slice through a cone (but not too steep a slice, or you get a parabola or hyperbola). In fact the ellipse is a conic section (a section of a cone) with an eccentricitybetween 0 and 1.
Calculations Area
The area of an ellipse is a b (If it is a circle, then a and b are equal to the radius, and you get r r = r2, which is right!)
Perimeter Approximation
Rather strangely, the perimeter of an ellipse is very difficult to calculate, so I created a special page for the subject: read Perimeter of an Ellipse for more details. But a simple approximation that is within about 5% of the true value (so long as a is not more than 3 times longer than b) is as follows:
Remember, this is only a rough approximation!
Equation
By placing an ellipse on an x-y graph (with its major axis on the x-axis and minor axis on the y-axis), the equation of the curve is:
x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1
(very similar to the equation of the hyperbola: x2/a2 - y2/b2 = 1, except for a "+" instead of a "-")
Parabola
If you kick a soccer ball (or shoot an arrow, fire a missile or throw a stone) it will arc up into the air and come down again ...
... following the path of a parabola!

(Except for how the air affects it.)
Definition
A parabola is a curve where any point is at an equal distance from: a fixed point (the focus), and a fixed straight line (the directrix)
Get a piece of paper, draw a straight line on it, then make a big dot for the focus (not on the line!). Now play around with some measurements until you have another dot that is exactly the same distance from the focus and the straight line. Keep going until you have lots of little dots, then join the little dots and you will have a parabola!
Names
Here are the important names: the directrix and focus (explained above) the axis of symmetry (goes through the focus, at right angles to the directrix) the vertex (where the parabola makes its sharpest turn) is halfway between the focus and directrix.
Reflector
And a parabola has this amazing property:
Any ray parallel to the axis of symmetry gets reflected off the surface straight to the focus.
So the parabola can be used for: satellite dishes, radar dishes, concentrating the sun's rays to make a hot spot, the reflector on spotlights and torches, etc
And that explains why that dot is called the focus ... because that's where all the rays get focused!
You can also get a parabola when you slice through a cone (the slice must be parallel to the side of the cone). Therefore, the parabola is a conic section (a section of a cone).
Equations
If you place the parabola on the cartesian coordinates (x-y graph) with: its vertex at the origin "O" and its axis of symmetry lying on the x-axis,
then the curve is defined by:
y2 = 4ax
Example: Where is the focus in the equation y2=5x ?

Converting y2 = 5x to y2 = 4ax form, we get y2 = 4 (5/4) x, so a = 5/4, and the focus of y2=5x is: F = (a,0) = (5/4,0) The equations of parabolas in different orientations are as follows:
y2 = 4ax
y2 = -4ax
x2 = 4ay
x2 = -4ay
Measurements for a Parabolic Dish

If you want to build a parabolic dish where the focus is 200 mm above the surface, what measurments do you need? To make it easy to build, let's have it pointing upwards, and so we choose the
x2 =
4ay equation.
And we want "a" to be 200, so the equation becomes:
x2 = 4ay = 4 200 y = 800y

Rearranging so we can calculate heights:
y = x2/800
And here are some height measurments as you run along: Distance Along ("x") 0 mm 100 mm 200 mm 300 mm 400 mm 500 mm 600 mm Height ("y") 0.0 mm 12.5 mm 50.0 mm 112.5 mm 200.0 mm 312.5 mm 450.0 mm
If you build one tell me, and I can include a picture of it!
Hyperbola
Did you know that the orbit of a spacecraft can sometimes be a hyperbola? A spacecraft can use the gravity of a planet to alter its path and propel it at high speed away from the planet and back out into space using a technique called "gravitational slingshot". If this happens, then the path of the spacecraft is a hyperbola. (See this happen in Gravity Freeplay)
Definition
A hyperbola is a curve where the distances of any point from: a fixed point (the focus), and a fixed straight line (the directrix) are always in the same ratio.
This ratio is called the eccentricity, and for a hyperbola it is always greater than 1. The hyperbola is an open curve (has no ends). But that isn't the full story! Because a hyperbola is actually two separate curves in mirror image like this:
On the diagram you can see:
a directrix and a focus (one on each side) an axis of symmetry (that goes through each focus, at right angles to the directrix) two vertices (where each curve makes its sharpest turn)
The "asymptotes" (shown on the diagram) are not part of the hyperbola, but show where the curve would go if continued indefinitely in each of the four directions. And, strictly speaking, there is also another axis of symmetry that reflects the two separate curves of the hyperbola.
Conic Section
You can also get a hyperbola when you slice through a cone (the slice must be steep - steeper than that for a parabola). Therefore, the hyperbola is a conic section (a section of a cone).
Equation
By placing a hyperbola on an x-y graph (centered over the x-axis and y-axis), the equation of the curve is:
x2/a2 - y2/b2 = 1
Also: One vertex is at (a, 0), and the other is at (-a, 0) The asymptotes are the straight lines: y = (b/a)x y = -(b/a)x
And the equation is also similar to the equation of the ellipse: x2/a2+ y2/b2 = 1, except for a "-" instead of a "+")
Eccentricity
We already mentioned the eccentricity (usually shown as the letter "uncurvy" (varying from being a circle) the hyperbola is.
e), it shows how
On this diagram: P is a point on the curve, F is the focus and N is the point on the directrix so that PN is perpendicular to the directrix.
The ratio PF/PN is the eccentricity of the hyperbola (for a hyperbola the eccentricity is always greater than 1). It can also given by the formula:
e=
Using "a" and "b" from the diagram above
Latus Rectum
The Latus Rectum is the line through the focus and parallel to the directrix. The length of the Latus Rectum is 2b2/a.
Transformations
The three main Transformations are:
Rotation
Turn!
Reflection
Flip!
Translation
Slide!
After any of those transformations (turn, flip or slide), the shape still hasthe same size, area, angles and line lengths. If one shape can become another using Turns, Flips and/or Slides, then the two shapes are called Congruent.
Resizing
The other important Transformation is Resizing (also called dilation, contraction, compression, enlargement or even expansion). The shape becomes bigger or smaller:
Resizing
If you have to Resize to make one shape become another then the shapes are not Congruent, but they are Similar.
Congruent or Similar
So, if one shape can become another using transformation, the two shapes might be Congruent or just Similar
If you ...
... only Rotate, Reflect and/or Translate ... need to Resize
Then the shapes are ... Congruent Similar
Rotation
"Rotation" means turning around a center:
The distance from the center to any point on the shape stays the same. Every point makes a circle around the center.
Here a triangle is rotated around the point marked with a "+"
Reflection
Reflections are everywhere ... in mirrors, glass, and here in a lake. ... what do you notice ?
Every point is the
same distance from the central line !

... and ...
The reflection has
the same size
as the original image
The central line is called the Mirror Line ...
Can A Mirror Line Be Vertical?

Yes. Here my dog "Flame" shows a Vertical Mirror Line (with a bit of photo magic)
In fact Mirror Lines can be in any direction. Imagine turning the photo at the top in different directions ... ... the reflected image is always the same size, it just faces the other way:
A reflection is a flip over a line You can try reflecting some shapes about different mirror lines here:
View Larger
How Do I Do It Myself?
Just approach it step-by-step. For each corner of the shape:
1. Measure from the point to 2. Measure the same distance

the mirror line (must hit the mirror line at a right angle) again on the other side and place a dot.
3. Then connect the new

dots up!
Labels
It is common to label each corner with letters, and to use a little dash (called aPrime) to mark each corner of the reflected image. Here the original is ABC and the reflected image is A'B'C'
Some Tricks
X-Axis
If the mirror line is the x-axis, just change each (x,y) into (x,-y)
Y-Axis
If the mirror line is the y-axis, just change each (x,y) into (-x,y)
Fold the Paper

And if all else fails, just fold your sheet of paper along the mirror line and then hold it up to the light !
Translation
In Geometry, "Translation" simply means Moving ...
... without rotating, resizing or anything else, just moving.
To Translate a shape:
Every point of the shape must move: the same distance in the same direction.
To see how this works, try translating different shapes here:
View Larger Note: You can translate either by angle-and-distance, or by x-and-y. Try both to see what happens.
Writing it Down
Sometimes we just want to write down the translation, without showing it on a graph.
Example: if we want to say that the shape gets moved 30 Units in the "X" direction, and 40 Units in the "Y" direction, we can write:
This says "all the x and y coordinates will become x+30 and y+40"
Resizing
When you resize a shape it gets bigger or smaller.
... but it still looks similar:

all angles stay the same relative sizes are the same (for example the face and body are still in proportion)
Note: here we call it resizing, but other people call it dilation, contraction, compression, enlargement or even expansion! Same idea, just different names.)
To resize, just do this for every corner: draw a line from the central point to the corner increase (or decrease) the length of that line put a dot at the new point
Then just connect the dots for the resized shape!
Symmetry
[syn- together + metron measure]
Reflection Symmetry
The simplest symmetry is Reflection Symmetry (sometimes called Line Symmetry or Mirror Symmetry). It is easy to recognise, because one half is the reflection of the other half.
Here my dog "Flame" has her face made perfectly symmetrical with a bit of photo magic. The white line down the center is the Line of Symmetry
The reflection in this lake also has symmetry, but in this case: the Line of Symmetry is the horizon it is not perfect symmetry, because the image is changed a little by the lake surface.
The Line of Symmetry does not have to be up-down or left-right, it can be in any direction. To learn more, go to Reflection Symmetry.
Rotational Symmetry
With Rotational Symmetry, the image is rotated (around a central point) so that it appears 2 or more times. How many times it appears is called the Order. Here are some examples (they were made using Symmetry Artist, and you can try it yourself!)
Order
Example Shape
Artwork
... and there is Order 4, 5, etc ...
Point Symmetry
Point Symmetry is when every part has a matching part: the same distance from the orgin but in in the opposite direction.
(Note: this is the same as "Rotational Symmetry of Order 2" above)
Reflection Symmetry
Reflection Symmetry
Reflection Symmetry (sometimes called Line Symmetry or Mirror Symmetry) is easy to recognise, because one half is the reflection of the other half.
Here my dog "Flame" has her face made perfectly symmetrical with a bit of photo magic. The white line down the center is the Line of Symmetry (also called the "Mirror Line")
The reflection in this lake also has symmetry, but in this case: the Line of Symmetry is the horizon it is not perfect symmetry, because the image is changed a little by the lake surface.
Line of Symmetry
The Line of Symmetry (also called the Mirror Line) does not have to be updown or left-right, it can be in any direction. But there are four common directions, and they are named for the line they make on the standard XY graph. See these examples (the artwork was made using Symmetry Artist) :
Line of Symmetry
Sample Artwork
Example Shape
Plane Shapes
Not all shapes have lines of symmetry, or they may have several lines of symmetry. For example, a Triangle can have 3, or 1 or no lines of symmetry:
Equilateral Triangle (all sides equal, all angles equal)
Isosceles Triangle (two sides equal, two angles equal)
Scalene Triangle (no sides equal, no angles equal)
3 Lines of Symmetry 1 Line of Symmetry No Lines of Symmetry

I have collected some more examples at Lines of Symmetry of Plane Shapes.
Rotational Symmetry
Rotational Symmetry
With Rotational Symmetry, the shape or image can be rotated and it still looks the same.
How many matches there are as you go once around is called the Order. If you think of propeller blades (like below) it makes it easier.
Examples of Different Rotational Symmetry Order

Order Example Shape Artwork
(using Symmetry Artist)
... and there is also Order 5, 6, 7, and ...
... and then there is Order 9, 10, and so on ...
Is there Rotational Symmetry of Order 1 ?

Not really! If a shape only matches itself once as you go around (ie it matches itself after one full rotation) there is really no symmetry at all, because the word "Symmetry" comes from syn- together and metron measure, and there can't be "together" if there is just one thing.
Real World Examples
A Dartboard has Rotational Symmetry of Order 10
The US Bronze Star Medal has Order 5
The London Eye has Order ... oops, I lost count!
Point Symmetry
It looks the same Upside Down! (... or from any two opposite directions*)
Point Symmetry
Point Symmetry is when every part has a matching part: the same distance from the central point but in the opposite direction.
(It is the same as "Rotational Symmetry of Order 2")
Note: Point Symmetry is sometimes called Origin Symmetry, because the "Origin" is the central point about which the shape is symmetrical.
Examples
Playing Cards often have Point Symmetry, so that they look the same from the top or bottom.
These Letters have Point Symmetry, too!
*Same from Opposite Direction?

Yes, pick a direction, and anything with Point Symmetry will look the same from the opposite direction, too. Example: If cut at 45, the two halves of this card are identical. In other words the view from 45, and the opposite direction of 45 (which is 225) are the same.
Lines of Symmetry of Plane Shapes

Line of Symmetry
Here my dog "Flame" has her face made perfectly symmetrical with a bit of photo magic. The white line down the center is theLine of Symmetry
Read more at Reflection Symmetry.
Folding Test
You can find if a shape has a Line of Symmetry by folding it. When the folded part sits perfectly on top (all edges matching), then the fold line is a Line of Symmetry. Here I have folded a rectangle one way, and it didn't work.
So this is not a Line of Symmetry

But when I try it this way, it does work (the folded part sits perfectly on top, all edges matching):
So this is a Line of Symmetry
Triangles
A Triangle can have 3, or 1 or no lines of symmetry:
Equilateral Triangle (all sides equal, all angles equal)
Isosceles Triangle (two sides equal, two angles equal)
Scalene Triangle (no sides equal, no angles equal)
3 Lines of Symmetry 1 Line of Symmetry No Lines of Symmetry
Quadrilaterals
Different types of Quadrilaterals (a 4-sided plane shape):
Square (all sides equal, all angles 90)
Rectangle (opposite sides equal, all angles 90)
Irregular Quadrilateral
4 Lines of Symmetry 2 Lines of Symmetry No Lines of Symmetry
Kite
Rhombus (all sides equal length)
1 Line of Symmetry 2 Lines of Symmetry
Regular Polygons
A regular polygon has all sides equal, and all angles equal:
An Equilateral Triangle (3 sides) has 3 Lines of Symmetry
A Square (4 sides) has 4 Lines of Symmetry
A Regular Pentagon (5 sides) has 5 Lines of Symmetry
A Regular Hexagon (6 sides) has 6 Lines of Symmetry
A Regular Heptagon (7 sides) has 7 Lines of Symmetry
A Regular Octagon (8 sides) has 8 Lines of Symmetry
And the pattern continues: A regular polygon of 9 sides has 9 Lines of Symmetry A regular polygon of 10 sides has 10 Lines of Symmetry ... A regular polygon of "n" sides has "n" Lines of Symmetry
Circle
A line (drawn at any angle) that goes through its center is a Line of Symmetry. So a Circle has infinite Lines of Symmetry.
Cube (Hexahedron)
Cube (Hexahedron) Facts
Notice these interesting things: It has 6 Faces Each face has 4 edges, and is actually a square It has 12 Edges It has 8 Vertices (corner points) and at each vertex 3 edges meet
And for reference: Surface Area = 6 (Edge Length)2 Volume = (Edge Length)3
A cube is called a hexahedron because it is a polyhedron that has 6 (hexameans 6) faces.
Instructions: In "spin" mode it freely spins and will respond to your mouse. In "drag" mode it stops spinning and you can use your mouse to move it. Note: If you have more than one hexahedron they are calledhexahedra (and the plural of cube is cubes of course!)
Cubes make nice 6-sided dice, because they are regular in shape, and each face is the same size. In fact, you can make fair dice out of all of the Platonic Solids.
Cuboids, Rectangular Prisms and Cubes

A cuboid is a box-shaped object.
It has six flat sides and all angles are right angles. And all of its faces are rectangles. It is also a prism because it has the same cross-section along a length. In fact it is a rectangular prism.
Examples of Cuboids
Cuboids are very common in our world, from boxes to buildings we see them everywhere. You can even fit them inside other cuboids!
A box with a slot cut Cuboids in a cuboid room as a handle
Boxes for model trains
Now that's just silly!
Volume and Surface Area

The volume of a cuboid is found using the formula:
Volume = Height Width Length

Which is usually shortened to:
V=hwl
Or more simply:
V = hwl
Surface Area
And the surface area is found using the formula:
A = 2wl + 2lh + 2hw
Example: Find the volume and surface area of this cuboid.
V = 4510 = 200 A = 245 + 2510 + 2104 = 40+100+80 = 220
Square Prism
When at least two of the lengths are equal it can also be called a square prism. (Note: this doesn't stop it from also being called a rectangular prism if you want!)
Cube
If all three lengths are equal it can be called a cube (or hexahedron) and each face will be a square. A cube is still a prism. And a cube is one of the Platonic Solids. So:
A cube is just a special case of a square prism, and A square prism is just a special case of a rectangular prism, They are all cuboids!
and
Note: The name "cuboid" comes from "cube" and -oid (which means "similar to, or resembling") and so indicates "it is like a cube". Another use of -oid is when we talk about the Earth being a spheroid (not exactly a sphere, but close).
Volume of a Cuboid
A cuboid is a 3 dimensional shape. So to work out the volume we need to know 3 measurements.
Look at this shape. There are 3 different measurements:
Height,
The volume is found using the formula:
Width,
Length
Volume = Height Width Length
Which is usually shortened to:
V=hwl
Or more simply:
V = hwl
In Any Order
It doesn't really matter which one is length, width or height, so long as you multiply all three together.
Example: What is the volume:

The volume is:
4 5 10 = 200 units3 10 5 4 = 200 units3
It also works out the same like this:
Platonic Solids
A Platonic Solid is a 3D shape where: each face is the same regular polygon the same number of polygons meet at each vertex (corner)
Example: the Cube is a Platonic Solid

each face is the same-sized square 3 squares meet at each corner
There are only five platonic solids.
The Platonic Solids

For each solid we have two printable nets (with and without tabs). You can make models with them! Print them on a piece of card, cut them out, tape the edges, and you will have your own platonic solids.
Tetrahedron
3 triangles meet at each vertex 4 Faces 4 Vertices 6 Edges Tetrahedron Net Tetrahedron Net (with tabs) Spin a Tetrahedron
Cube
3 squares meet at each vertex 6 Faces 8 Vertices 12 Edges Cube Net Cube Net (with tabs) Spin a Cube
Octahedron
4 triangles meet at each vertex 8 Faces 6 Vertices 12 Edges Octahedron Net Octahedron Net (with tabs) Spin an Octahedron
Dodecahedron
3 pentagons meet at each vertex 12 Faces 20 Vertices 30 Edges Dodecahedron Net Dodecahedron Net (with tabs) Spin a Dodecahedron
Icosahedron
5 triangles meet at each vertex 20 Faces 12 Vertices 30 Edges Icosahedron Net Icosahedron Net (with tabs) Spin an Icosahedron
Prisms
A prism has the same cross section all along its length !
A cross section is the shape you get when cutting straight across an object.
The cross section of this object is atriangle ... .. it has the same cross section all along its length ... ... and so it's a triangular prism.
Try drawing a shape on a piece of paper (using straight lines!), Then imagine it extending up from the sheet of paper, - that's a prism !
No Curves!
A prism is a polyhedron, which means the cross section will be a polygon (a straight-edged figure) ... so all sides will be flat!
No curved sides.
For example, a cylinder is not a prism, because it has curved sides.
These are all Prisms:

Square Prism: Cross-Section:
Cube:
Cross-Section:
(yes, a cube is a prism, because it is a square all along its length) (Also see Rectangular Prisms )
Triangular Prism: Cross-Section:
Pentagonal Prism: Cross-Section:
Regular and Irregular Prisms

All the previous examples are Regular Prisms, because the cross section is regular (in other words it is a shape with equal edge lengths, and equal angles.) Here is an example of an Irregular Prism:
Irregular Pentagonal Prism:
Cross-Section (It is "irregular" because the Pentagon is not "regular"in shape)
Volume of a Prism
The Volume of a prism is simply the area of one end times the length of the prism
Volume = Area Length

Example: What is the volume of a prism whose ends have an area of 25 in2 and which is 12 in long: Answer: Volume = 25 in2 12 in = 300 in3 (Note: we have an Area Calculation Tool)
Other Things to Know

The sides of a prism are parallelograms (flat shapes that have opposites sides parallel).
A prism can lean to one side, making it anoblique prism, but the two ends are still parallel, and the sides are still parallelograms!
But if the two ends are not parallel it is not a prism.
Pyramids
When we think of pyramids we think of the Great Pyramids of Egypt. They are actually Square Pyramids, because their base is a Square.
Parts of a Pyramid
A pyramid is made by connecting a base to an apex
Types of Pyramids
There are many types of Pyramids, and they are named after the shape of their base.
Pyramid
Base
Triangular Pyramid:
Details >>
Square Pyramid:
Details >>
Pentagonal Pyramid:
Details >>
... and so on ...
Right vs Oblique Pyramid

This tells you where the top (apex) of the pyramid is. If the apex is directly above the center of the base, then it is a Right Pyramid, otherwise it is an Oblique Pyramid.
Right Pyramid
Oblique Pyramid
Regular vs Irregular Pyramid

This tells us about the shape of the base. If the base is a regular polygon, then it is a Regular Pyramid, otherwise it is an Irregular Pyramid.
Regular Pyramid
Irregular Pyramid
Base is Regular
Base is Irregular
Area and Volume

The Volume of a Pyramid
/3 [Base Area] Height
The Surface Area of a Pyramid

When all side faces are the same: [Base Area] + 1/2 Perimeter [Slant Length]
When side faces are different: [Base Area] + [Lateral Area]
Notes On Surface Area

The Surface Area has two parts: the area of the base (the Base Area), and the area of the side faces
(the Lateral Area). For Base Area : It depends on the shape, there are different formulas for triangle, square, etc. See Area for formulas, or our Area Calculation Tool For Lateral Area : When all the side faces are the same: Just multiply the perimeter by the "slant length" and divide by 2. This is because the side faces are always triangles and the triangle formula is "base times height divided by 2"
But if the side faces are different (such as an "irregular" pyramid) then add up the area of each triangular shape to find the total lateral area.
Sphere
Sphere Facts
Notice these interesting things:
It is per fec tly It has no edges or vertices (corners) sy m me tric al It is not a polyhedron All points on the surface are the same distance from the center Glass Sphere. Balls and marbles are shaped like spheres.
An d for ref ere nc e:
Su rfa ce Ar ea = 4 Volume = (4/3)
r3
r2
Largest Volume for Smallest Surface

Of all the shapes, a sphere has the smallest surface area for a volume. Or put another way it can contain the greatest volume for a fixed surface area. Example: if you blow up a balloon it naturally forms a sphere because it is trying to hold as much air as possible with as small a surface as possible. Press the Play button to see.
In Nature
The sphere appears in nature whenever a surface wants to be as small as possible. Examples include bubbles and water drops, can you think of more?
The Earth
The Planet Earth, our home, is nearlya sphere, except that it is squashed a little at the poles.
It is a spheroid, which means it just misses out on being a sphere because it isn't perfect in one direction (in the Earth's case: North-South)
Other Cool Spheres
Torus
Torus Facts
It ca n be ma de by rev olv ing a sm all cir cle It has no edges or vertices alo ng a lin e ma de by an oth er cir cle .
It is not a polyhedron
An d for ref er en ce:
Su rfa ce Ar ea = 4 Volume = 2
2 R r2
2
R r
Note: Area and volume formulas only work when the torus has a hole!
And did you know that Torus was the Latin word for a cushion? (This is not a realroman cushion, just an illustration I made)
Torus in the Sky. The Torus is such a beautiful solid, this one would be fun at the beach !
Note: If you have more than one torus they are called tori
More Torus Images

As the small radius (r) gets larger and larger, the torus goes from looking like a Tire to a Donut:
Cylinder
Cylinder Facts
I The base is the same as the top, and also int between h a s a f l a t b a s e a n d a f l a
t t o p It has one curved side Because it has a curved surface it is not a polyhedron.
A n d f o r r e f e r e n c e : Surface Area of One End = r2 Surface Area of Side = 2 r h
S u r f a c e A r e a = 2

r ( r + h ) Volume = r2 h
Instructions: In "spin" mode it freely spins and will respond to your mouse. In "drag" mode it stops spinning and you can use your mouse to move it.
An object shaped like a cylinder is said to be cylindrical
Volume of a Cylinder
Just multiply the area of the circle by the height of the cylinder: Area of the circle: Height:
Volume = Area Height =
There is an easy way to remember:
Imagine you just cooked a pizza. The radius is "z", and the thickness "a" is the same everywhere ... what is the volume? Answer: pi
zza
(we would normally write "pi" as , and z z as z2, but you get the idea!)
It Doesn't Have to Be Circular

Usually when we say Cylinder we mean a Circular Cylinder, but you can also have Elliptical Cylinders, like this one: You can even have stranger cylinders: if the cross-section is curved and is the same from one end to the other, then it will still be a cylinder.
More Cylinders
Cone
Cone Facts
It has a It has one curved side flat base Because it has a curved surface it is not a polyhedron.
An d for refe ren ce:
Surf ace Are a of B Surface Area of Side = r s ase = r2 or Surface Area of Side = r (r2+h2) Volume = r2 (h/3)
In "spin" mode it freely spins and will respond to your mouse. In "drag" spinning and you can use your mouse to move it.
The pointy end of a cone is called the vertex orapex The flat part is the base An object shaped like a cone is said to be conical
A Cone is a Rotated Triangle

A cone is made by rotating a triangle! The triangle has to be a right-angled triangle, and it gets rotated around one of its two short sides. The side it rotates around is the axis of the cone.
Volume of a Cone vs Cylinder

The volume formulas for cones and cylinders are very similar: The volume of a cylinder is: r2 h The volume of a cone is: r2 (h/3) So, the only difference is that a cone's volume is one third (1/3) of a cylinder's. So, in future, order your ice creams in cylinders, not cones, you get 3 times more!
Different Shaped Cones
Vertices, Edges and Faces
A vertex is a corner An edge joins one vertex with another A face is an individual surface
Let us look more closely at each of those:
Vertices
A vertex (plural: vertices) is a point where two or more straight lines meet. It is a Corner. This tetrahedron has 4 vertices.
And this pentagon has 5 vertices
Edges
An edge is a line segment that joins two vertices. This tetrahedron has 6 edges. And this pentagon has 5 edges
It can also be the boundary of a shape. Such as the circumference of a circle.
Faces
A face is any of the individual surfaces of a solid object. This tetrahedron has 4 faces (there is one face you can't see)
Euler's Formula
For many solid shapes the Number of Faces plus the Number of Vertices minus the Number of Edges
always equals 2
This can be written: F + V - E = 2

Try it on the cube: A cube has 6 Faces, 8 Vertices, and 12 Edges, so:
6 + 8 - 12 = 2
(To find out more about this read Euler's Formula.)
Euler's Formula
(There is another "Euler's Formula" about complex numbers, this page is about the one used in Geometry and Graphs)
Euler's Formula
For any polyhedron that doesn't intersect itself, the Number of Faces plus the Number of Vertices (corner points) minus the Number of Edges
always equals 2
This can be written: F + V - E = 2
Try it on the cube: A cube has 6 Faces, 8 Vertices, and 12 Edges, so:
6 + 8 - 12 = 2
To see why this works, imagine taking the cube and adding an edge (say from corner to corner of one face). You will have an extra edge, plus an extra face:
7 + 8 - 13 = 2
Likewise if you included another vertex (say halfway along a line) you would get an extra edge, too.
6 + 9 - 13 = 2.
"No matter what you do, you always end up with 2" (But only for this type of Polyhedron ... read on!)
Example With Platonic Solids

Let's try with the 5 Platonic Solids (Note: Euler's Formula can be used to prove that there are only 5 Platonic Solids):
Name
Tetrahedron
Faces Vertices Edges

4 4 6
F+V-E
2
Cube
12
Octahedron
12
Dodecahedron
12
20
30
Icosahedron
20
12
30
The Sphere
All Platonic Solids (and many other solids) are like a Sphere ... you can reshape them so that they become a Sphere (move their corner points, then curve their faces a bit). For this reason we know that F+V-E = 2 for a sphere
(BE careful, you can not simply say a sphere has 1 face, and 0 vertices and edges, for F+V-E=1) So, the result is 2 again ...
... But Not Always ...

Now that you see how this works, I am going to show you how it doesn't work ...!
What if I joined up two opposite corners of the icosahedron? It is still an icosahedron (but no longer convex). In fact it looks a bit like a drum where someone has stitched the top and bottom together. Now, there would be the same number of edges and faces ... but one less vertex! So:
F+V-E=1
Oh No! It doesn't always add to 2!
The reason it didn't work was that this new shape is basically different ... that joined bit in the middle means that two vertices get reduced to 1.
Euler Characteristic
So, F+V-E can equal 2, or 1, and maybe other values, so the more general formula is
F+V-E=
Where Here are a few examples:
is called the "Euler Characteristic".
Shape
Sphere
Torus
Mobius Strip
And the Euler Characteristic can also be less than zero. This is the "Cubohemioctahedron": It has 10 Faces (it may look like more, but some of the "inside" faces are really just one face), 24 Edges and 12 Vertices, so:
F + V - E = -2
In fact the Euler Characteristic is a basic idea in Topology (the study of the Nature of Space

Geometry

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Geometry

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Geometry

Geometry is all about shapes and their properties.

And it goes on forever.

Regular 2-D Shapes - Polygons

Example 2: the perimeter of this regular pentagon is 3+3+3+3+3 = 53 = 15

The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference:

Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene

No equal sides No equal angles

What Type of Angle?

Combining the Names

Right Isosceles Triangle

Example: What is the area of this triangle?

Right Angled Triangles

Isosceles right angled triangle

Scalene right angled triangle

The 3,4,5 Triangle

Triangles Contain 180

Example: Find the Missing Angle "C"

Start With: Fill in what we know: Rearrange Calculate:

A + B + C = 180 38 + 85 + C = 180 C = 180 - 38 - 85 C = 57

A are the same angles B are the same

It is called "Pythagoras' Theorem" and can be written in one short equation:

Example: A "3,4,5" triangle has a right angle in it.

Let's check if the areas are the same:

Why Is This Useful?

How Do I Use it?

Example: Solve this triangle. a2 + b2 = c2 52 + 122 = c2 25 + 144 = c2 169 = c2 c2 = 169 c = 169 c = 13

Example: Solve this triangle. a2 + b2 = c2 92 + b2 = 152 81 + b2 = 225

Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?

They are equal, so ...

Yes, it does have a Right Angle!

a2 + b2 = c2 ? Does (3)2 + (5)2 = (8)2 ? Does 3 + 5 = 8 ? Yes, it does!

So this is a right-angled triangle

Example: The Pythagorean Triple of 3, 4 and 5 makes a Right Angled Triangle:

Here are some more examples:

Trigonometry ... is all about triangles.

Right Angled Triangle

"Sine, Cosine and Tangent"

Example: What is the sine of 35?

sin(35) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8/4.9 = 0.57...

Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreivated to

sin, cos and tan.

Example: Find the Missing Angle "C"

Other Functions (Cotangent, Secant, Cosecant)

Trigonometric and Triangle Identities

Why is the Area "Half of bh"?

Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Example: What is the sine of 35?

sin(35) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8 / 4.9 = 0.57...

(get your calculator out and check them!)

Example: what are the sine, cosine and tangent of 45 ?

Sine Cosine Tangent

sin(45) = 1 / 1.414 = 0.707... cos(45) = 1 / 1.414 = 0.707... tan(45) = 1 / 1 = 1

Soh... ...cah... ...toa

Sine = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent = Opposite / Adjacent

Example: Use the sine function to find "d"

The depth "d" is 18.88 m

Adjacent is always next to the angle (andopposite is opposite the angle):

Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Example: what are the sine, cosine and tangent of 30 ?

cos(30) = 1.732 / 2 = 0.866 tan(30) = 1 / 1.732 = 0.577

(get your calculator out and check them!)