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1.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................6 1.2 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS (E.F.)..............................................................................8  (852  (PLVVLRQ )DFWRUV  (852  HPLVVLRQ IDFWRUV 1.3 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA).................................................................................................15 1.4 GENERAL COST CONSIDERATIONS .........................................................................................16 1.5 GENERAL REFERENCES ........................................................................................................18  2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9  3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9  4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 &2035(66(' 1$785$/ *$6 &1*  GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT NATURAL GAS ..........................................................................24 ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL GAS ............................................................................................25 DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL GAS........................................................................................25 FUEL/ENGINE INTERACTION (CNG)........................................................................................26 CURRENT STATE OF NG ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY........................................................28 FUTURE TRENDS IN NG ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY.........................................................29 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS FOR CNG.......................................................................30 COST CONSIDERATIONS (CNG).............................................................................................31 REFERENCES (CNG INCLUDING LNG) ...................................................................................32 /,48,),(' 3(752/(80 *$6 /3*  GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT LPG ........................................................................................48 ADVANTAGES OF LPG...........................................................................................................49 DISADVANTAGES OF LPG ......................................................................................................50 FUEL/ENGINE INTERACTION (LPG) ........................................................................................51 CURRENT STATE OF LPG ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY .....................................................52 FUTURE TRENDS IN LPG ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY .......................................................53 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS FOR LPG .......................................................................53 COST CONSIDERATIONS (LPG)..............................................................................................54 REFERENCES (LPG) .............................................................................................................54 ',0(7+</ (7+(5 '0(  GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT DME........................................................................................66 ADVANTAGES OF DME ..........................................................................................................66 DISADVANTAGES OF DME .....................................................................................................67 FUEL/ENGINE INTERACTION (DME)........................................................................................68 CURRENT STATE OF DME ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY .....................................................69 FUTURE TRENDS IN DME ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ......................................................70 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS FOR DME.......................................................................70 FUEL SPECIFICATIONS (DME) ...............................................................................................71 9ROXPH ,,  3DJH 

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COST CONSIDERATIONS (DME).............................................................................................71 REFERENCES (DME) ............................................................................................................72 %,2',(6(/ )$0( GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT BIODIESEL/FAME .....................................................................83 ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL/FAME .......................................................................................83 DISADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL/FAME ..................................................................................84 FUEL/ENGINE INTERACTION (BIODIESEL/FAME).....................................................................85 CURRENT STATE OF BIODIESEL/FAME ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ..................................86 FUTURE TRENDS IN BIODIESEL/FAME ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ...................................86 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS (BIODIESELS/FAME) ......................................................87 COST CONSIDERATIONS (FAME/DIESEL BLENDS) ..................................................................87 REFERENCES (BIODIESEL/FAME AND BLENDS)......................................................................88 %,2(7+$12/ 

6.1 GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT BIOETHANOL AND BLENDS WITH GASOLINE OR DIESEL..............104 6.2 ADVANTAGES OF BIOETHANOL .............................................................................................105 6.3 DISADVANTAGES OF BIOETHANOL ........................................................................................105 6.4 FUEL/ENGINE INTERACTION (BIOETHANOL AND BLENDS).......................................................106  (WKDQRO EOHQGV IRU VSDUNLJQLWLRQ HQJLQHV   (WKDQRO EOHQGV IRU FRPSUHVVLRQLJQLWLRQ HQJLQHV 6.5 CURRENT STATE OF BIOETHANOL BLENDS ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ...........................108  (WKDQRO EOHQGV IRU VSDUNLJQLWLRQ HQJLQHV   (WKDQRO EOHQGV IRU FRPSUHVVLRQLJQLWLRQ HQJLQHV 6.6 FUTURE TRENDS IN BIOETHANOL BLENDS ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ............................109  (WKDQRO EOHQGV IRU VSDUNLJQLWLRQ HQJLQHV   (WKDQRO EOHQGV LQ FRPSUHVVLRQLJQLWLRQ HQJLQHV  6.7 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS (BIOETHANOL BLENDS) .................................................111 6.8 COST CONSIDERATIONS (BIOETHANOL BLENDS)...................................................................111 6.9 REFERENCES (BIOETHANOL AND BLENDS) ...........................................................................112   8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6  9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8  10.1 10.2 %,20(7+$12/ $1' %/(1'6 (7%(*$62/,1( %/(1' GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT ETBE/GASOLINE BLEND .........................................................126 ADVANTAGES OF ETBE/GASOLINE BLEND ...........................................................................126 DISADVANTAGES OF ETBE/GASOLINE BLEND ......................................................................127 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS (ETBE/GASOLINE BLEND) ............................................127 COST CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................................128 REFERENCES (ETBE) .........................................................................................................128 ',(6(/:$7(5 0,;785(  GENERAL COMMENTS ABOUT DIESEL/W ATER MIXTURE ........................................................135 ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL/W ATER EMULSION.........................................................................136 DISADVANTAGES OF DIESEL/W ATER EMULSION ....................................................................136 FUEL/ENGINE INTERACTION (DIESEL/W ATER EMULSION) ......................................................137 CURRENT STATE OF DIESEL/W ATER EMULSION ENGINE/VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ....................138 DERIVATION OF EMISSION FACTORS (DIESEL/W ATER EMULSION)..........................................138 COST CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................................138 REFERENCES (DIESEL/W ATER MIXTURE) .............................................................................139 (9$/8$7,21 2) $/7(51$7,9( )8(/6 EMISSION FACTORS ............................................................................................................145 COST FACTORS ..................................................................................................................146 9ROXPH ,,  3DJH 

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This investigation has focused on ways to derive future emission factors and cost factors for the following alternative fuels: Compressed natural gas (CNG) Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) Dimethyl ether (DME) Biodiesel/FAME Biofuels (various blends with gasoline or diesel) ETBE/Gasoline blend Diesel/water emulsions One of the main difficulties in evaluating the potential of the various alternative fuels to improve urban and global air quality is the different level of technology and experience in the use of these fuels in transportation. For some, such as LPG and CNG, there are significant numbers of light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles already in the market either as bi-fuel conversions or using single-fuel dedicated engines, and for others such as DME there are only prototype engines/vehicles fuelled with this alternative fuel. However, since the emphasis of the project is in evaluating the future potential of alternative fuels relative to gasoline and diesel, equal weighting was given to each of these alternative fuels concerning their present emissions performance by performing an arithmetic average over data available in the open literature. In addition, some fuel and vehicle cost factors were estimated on the basis of existing, albeit limited in cases, information about fuel costs and engine/vehicle costs relative to todays (EURO 2) gasoline and diesel fuel and vehicle prices. However, in view of a number of uncertainties, no attempt was made to extrapolate todays costs to 2005 as in the case of emission factors.

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3523(57< 81,76&21',7,216 Relative molar mass Carbon content (mass %) Hydrogen content (mass %) Oxygen content (mass %) Carbon-to-hydrogen ratio Relative density(@15C/ 1 bar) Boiling temperature (C/ 1 bar) Autoignition temperature (C) Octane number (RON/MON) Methane number Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (mass) Vapour flammability limits (volume %) Flammability limits (lambda **) Lower heating/calorific value (MJ/kg) Stoichiometric lower heating value (MJ/kg) Methane concentration (volume %) Ethane concentration (volume %) Nitrogen concentration (volume %) Carbon dioxide concentration (volume %) Sulphur concentration (ppm, mass) Specific CO2 formation (g/MJ) Wobbe Index ***(MJ/m3) 9$/8( 17 - 20 * 73.3 * 23.9 * 0.4 * 0.25 0.33 0.72 - 0.81 - 162 540 - 650 120 - 130 69 99 17.2 5 - 15 0.7 - 2.1 38 - 50 2.75 * 80 - 99 2.7 - 4.6 0.1 - 15 1-5 <5 54.8 41 58

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** lambda = excess air factor @ 0C, 1 bar *** Wobbe Index is defined as the ratio of the specific calorific value of the fuel to its density and represents the fuel chemical energy that passes through a specified orifice at a given pressure drop; the variation of Wobbe index with stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is linear, i.e. 10% increase in Wobbe index leads to 10% increase in
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equivalence ratio. Low Wobbe index = 41.28 - 47.38 MJ/m3 High Wobbe index = 48.26 57.87 MJ/m3

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* The left-hand side column represents the emission standard factor based on the legislative limits listed in Table 1.1 and used as reference while the right-hand side column gives the estimated emission factor according to the approached described in Chapter 1. Absence of a value in the left-hand side column implies that the particular pollutant is unregulated. ** Life Cycle Assessment + Since the relevant figures for CNG in the KFB report are based on Danish gas as a result of Sweden having a very limited network, the given factors may not be indicative of the rest of Europe. This implies that the LCA CO2 factor for CNG maybe underestimated giving it an untrue advantage relative to other alternative fuels and, in particular, LPG. It is expected that, in reality, the LCA CO2 factors for CNG and LPG are much closer together than the values provided in the KFB report.

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It has a lower cetane number than diesel which makes bioethanol unsuitable as neat fuel for conventional diesel engines unless a cetane improver is added. It has very high HC evaporative emissions (about 15% for E10G), requiring adjustment of the vapour pressure of the base gasoline to which ethanol is added Because of the low vapour pressure and high latent heat of vaporization of neat ethanol, it makes cold starting in cooler climates more difficult unless it is blended with some gasoline as starting aid or unless some other starting aid is used
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Its combustion leads to increased formation of acetaldehyde but lower emissions of formaldehyde relative to gasoline It has low lubricity and can cause engine corrosion to metals such as iron and steel It has problems of phase stability in the gasoline mixture when water is present Combustion of neat ethanol gives an invisible flame which can cause safety problems E85G vehicles give higher unregulated emissions (ethene and acetaldehyde) than gasoline fuelled vehicles When unburnt ethanol (E95D) reacts on the catalyst surface it may give the characteristic odour of vinegar; the odour situation is improved in new generation of catalysts



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PROPERTY (UNITS/CONDITIONS) ETHANOL Relative molar mass Carbon content (mass %) Hydrogen content (mass %) Oxygen content (mass %) Water content (mass %) Phosphor content (ppm) Sulphur content (ppm) Relative density (@15C/ 1 bar) Boiling temperature (C/ 1 bar) Freezing temperature (C) Autoignition temperature (C) Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (mass) Lower heating/calorific value (MJ/kg) Flash point temperature (C) Vapour pressure @ 38C (kPa) Vapour flammability limits (volume %) Research Octane number (RON) Motor Octane number (MON) Latent heat of vaporisation @ 1 bar (kJ/kg) Specific heat (kJ/kg-k) Cetane number 46.1 52.2 13.1 34.8 <6.2 0.8 0.82 78 - 114 423 9 25 27 13 15.9 4.3 19 108.6 89.7 923 2.4 8 VALUE E85* 56 58 13 14 29 30 2.9 6.6 <0.5 <30 0.78 0.80 49 80 > 257 9.9 27 29 48 103 107 89 836 2.3 E15** 5 0.01% 0.815 <20 41

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The left-hand side column represents the emission standard factor based on the legislative limits listed in Table 1.1 and used as reference while the right-hand side column gives the estimated emission factor according to the approached described in Chapter 1. Absence of a value in the left-hand side column implies that the particular pollutant is unregulated.

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