MATERIALS AND MATERIALS PROPERTIES

MATERIALS There are several ways to classify materials. For instance by the type of bonding between the atoms. One way of classifying materials are : 1. Ceramics, 2. Metals and 3. Polymers based on atomic structure and chemical composition. 4. Composite materials 5. Carbon 6. Biomaterials 7. Nanomaterials 8. Semiconductors 9. Thin Film 10. Refractory New materials has resulted in more classes. Traditional classification of materials are: 1. Ceramics A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.[1] Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the noncrystalline glasses. Example usage of ceramics products: Bricks, Pipes, Tiles, Refractories(Kiln Lining, Steel making crucibles), Tableware, Sanitaryware, Disc Brakes, etc.. 2. Metals A metal is an element, compound, or alloy that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat. Metals are usually malleable and shiny, that is they reflect most of incident light. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for the conductivity. The solid thus produced is held by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud, which are called metallic bonds.

Category of metals: a) Base Metals: Iron, Nickel, Lead, Zinc, Cooper, etc..(refer to periodic table) b) Ferrous metals: (Containing Iron). This can include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are oftenly magnetic. c) Noble metals : Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation.e.g. Tantalum, Gold, Platinum Silver, Rhodium. d) Precious metals: A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value. Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high luster and high electrical conductivity. E.g. Gold, Silver, Platinum, Palladium. Etc. Metals Alloys An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the major component is a metal. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use. Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon will produce cast irons, while the addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels. Steel Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.[1] Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and the form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but such steel is also less ductile than iron. Alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point and good castability.[1] Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron, which can contain a small amount of carbon, but it is included in the form of slag inclusions. Two distinguishing factors are steel's increased rust resistance and better weldability. Unified Numbering system (UNS)
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The unified numbering system (UNS) is an alloy designation system widely accepted in North America. It consists of a prefix letter and five digits designating a material composition. A prefix of S indicates stainless steel alloys, C for copper, brass, or bronze alloys, T for tool steels, etc. The first three digits often match older three-digit numbering systems, while the last two digits indicate more modern variations. For example, Copper Alloy No. 377 (forging brass) in the original three-digit system became C37700 in the UNS System. The UNS is managed jointly by the ASTM International and SAE International. A UNS number alone does not constitute a full material specification because it establishes no requirements for material properties, heat treatment, form, or quality. Some common materials and translations to other standards: UNS K11547 is T2 tool steel UNS S17400 is ASTM grade 630, Cr-Ni 17-4PH precipitation hardening stainless steel UNS S30400 is SAE 304, Cr/Ni 18/10, Euronorm 1.4301 stainless steel UNS S31600 is SAE 316 UNS S31603 is 316L, a low carbon version of 316 UNS categories[1] Metal type(s) Aluminum and aluminum alloys Copper and copper alloys Specified mechanical property steels Rare earth and rare earthlike metals and alloys Cast irons AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels (except tool steels) AISI and SAE H-steels Cast steels (except tool steels) Miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys Low-melting metals and alloys Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys Nickel and nickel alloys Precious metals and alloys Reactive and refractory metals and alloys Heat and corrosion resistant (stainless) steels Tool steels, wrought and cast Welding filler metals Zinc and zinc alloys

UNS series A00001 to A99999 C00001 to C99999 D00001 to D99999 E00001 to E99999 F00001 to F99999 G00001 to G99999 H00001 to H99999 J00001 to J99999 K00001 to K99999 L00001 to L99999 M00001 to M99999 N00001 to N99999 P00001 to P99999 R00001 to R99999 S00001 to S99999 T00001 to T99999 W00001 to W99999 Z00001 to Z99999

SAE Steel Grades The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) designates SAE steel grades. These are four digit numbers which represent chemical composition standards for steel specifications. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) originally started a very
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similar system. Over time they used the same numbers to refer to the same alloy, but the AISI system used a letter prefix to denote the steelmaking process. The prefix "C" denoted open-hearth furnace, electric arc furnace or basic oxygen furnace, while "E" denotes electric arc furnace steel.[1][2] Prior to 1995 the AISI was also involved, and the standard was designated the AISI/SAE steel grades. The AISI stopped being involved because it never wrote any of the specifications.[3] Carbon steels and alloy steels are designated by a four digit number, where the first digit indicates the main alloying element(s), the second digit indicates the secondary alloying element(s), and the last two digits indicate the amount of carbon, in hundredths of a percent by weight. For example, a 1060 steel is a plain-carbon steel containing 0.60 wt% C.[4] An "H" suffix can be added to any designation to denote hardenability is a major requirement. The chemical requirements are loosened but hardness values defined for various distances on a Jominy test.[2] Major classifications of steel[1] SAE designation 1xxx 2xxx 3xxx 4xxx 5xxx 6xxx 7xxx 8xxx 9xxx Carbon steels Nickel steels Nickel-chromium steels Molybdenum steels Chromium steels Chromium-vanadium steels Tungsten steels Nickel-chromium-vanadium steels Silicon-manganese steels Carbon and alloy steel grades[5] SAE designation 10xx Plain carbon (Mn 1.00% max) 11xx Resulfurized 12xx Resulfurized and rephosphorized 15xx Plain carbon (Mn 1.00% to 1.65%) Manganese steels 13xx Mn 1.75% Nickel steels
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Type

Type Carbon steels

23xx Ni 3.50% 25xx Ni 5.00% Nickel-chromium steels 31xx Ni 1.25%, Cr 0.65% or 0.80% 32xx Ni 1.25%, Cr 1.07% 33xx Ni 3.50%, Cr 1.50% or 1.57% 34xx Ni 3.00%, Cr 0.77% Molybdenum steels 40xx Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042 S[3] 44xx Mo 0.40% or 0.52% Chromium-molybdenum (Chromoly) steels 41xx Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30% Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels 43xx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25% 43BVxx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.12% or 0.35%, V 0.03% min 47xx Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35% 81xx Ni 0.30%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12% 81Bxx Ni 0.30%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.12%[3] 86xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20% 87xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25% 88xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35% 93xx Ni 3.25%, Cr 1.20%, Mo 0.12% 94xx Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12% 97xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.20%, Mo 0.20% 98xx Ni 1.00%, Cr 0.80%, Mo 0.25% Nickel-molybdenum steels 46xx Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25% 48xx Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25% Chromium steels 50xx Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65% 50xxx Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min 50Bxx Cr 0.28% or 0.50%[3] 51xx Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05% 51xxx Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min 51Bxx Cr 0.80%[3]
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52xxx Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min Chromium-vanadium steels 61xx Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min Tungsten-chromium steels 72xx W 1.75%, Cr 0.75% Silicon-manganese steels 92xx Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65% High-strength low-alloy steels 9xx Various SAE grades xxBxx Boron steels xxLxx Leaded steels

1. Polymers A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. Although the term polymer is sometimes taken to refer to plastics, it actually encompasses a large class comprising both natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties. Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper. The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more. Plastics A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce production costs. Monomers of plastic are either natural or synthetic organic compounds. There are two types of plastics: a) Thermoplastics and Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be moulded again and again; examples are polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). b) Thermosetting polymers.

Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after they have solidified, they stay solid.Examples are Bakelite, Vulcanized Rubber, Melamine resin, Epoxy resin,etc. Examples of engineering plastics include:

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Polycarbonates (PC) Polyamides (PA) Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) Polysulphone (PSU) Polyetherketone (PEK) Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Polyimides Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) Polyoxymethylene plastic (POM)

Examples of commodity plastics: polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE).

1. Composite materials Composite materials, often shortened to composites or called composition materials, are engineered or naturally occurring materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at the macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished structure.

MATERIALS PROPERTIES A material's property is an intensive, often quantitative property of a material, usually with a unit that may be used as a metric of value to compare the benefits of one material versus another to aid in materials selection. Materials properties that relate two different physical phenomena often behave linearly (or approximately so) in a given operating range, and may then be modeled as a constant for that range. This linearization can significantly simplify the differential constitutive equations that the property describes. Materials properties: 1. Acoustical properties 2. Atomic properties 3. Chemical properties 4. Electrical properties 5. Enviromental properties 6. Magnetic properties 7. Manufacturing properties 8. Mechanical properties 9. Optical properties 10. Radiological properties 11. Sensorial properties 12. Thermal properties

1. Acoustical properties:
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a) Acoustical absorption: Acoustic absorption is that property of any material that changes the acoustic energy of sound waves into another form, often heat, which it to some extent retains, as opposed to that sound energy that material reflects or conducts. Acoustic absorption is represented by the symbol A in calculations. Absorption is not a single mechanism of sound attenuation: propagation through a heterogeneous system is affected by scattering as well. b) Speed of sound: The speed of sound is the distance travelled during a unit of time by a sound wave propagating through an elastic medium. In dry air at 20 C (68 F), the speed of sound is 343.2 metres per second (1,126 ft/s). This is 1,236 kilometres per hour (768 mph), or about one kilometer in three seconds or approximately one mile in five seconds 1. Atomic properties: a) Atomic mass The atomic mass (ma) is the mass of a specific isotope, most often expressed in unified atomic mass units. The atomic mass is the total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons in a single atom. b) Atomic number
In chemistry and physics, the atomic number (also known as the proton number) is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, the atomic number is also equal to the number of protons.

c) Atomic weight Atomic weight (symbol: Ar) is a dimensionless physical quantity, the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element (from a given source) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 (known as the unified atomic mass unit).[1][2] The term is usually used, without further qualification, to refer to the standard atomic weights published at regular intervals by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)[3][4] and which are intended to be applicable to normal laboratory materials. These standard atomic weights are reprinted in a wide variety of textbooks, commercial catalogues, wallcharts etc., 1. Chemical properties: a) Corrosion resistance Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common
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use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. Formation of an oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid solution is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion, commonly known as rusting. This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term degradation is more common. b) Hygroscopy Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract and hold water molecules from the surrounding environment. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the absorbing or adsorbing material becoming physically 'changed,' somewhat, by an increase in volume, stickiness, or other physical characteristic of the material, as water molecules become 'suspended' between the material's molecules in the process. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other 'solid' substances attract water, but are not changed in the process (for example, water molecules becoming suspended between the glass molecules). c) pH In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.[1] Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25 C (77 F). Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. pH measurements are important in medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science, environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering and many other applications. d) Reactivity Reactivity in chemistry refers to the chemical reactions of a single substance, the chemical reactions of two or more substances that interact with each other, the systematic study of sets of reactions of these two kinds, methodology that applies to the study of reactivity of chemicals of all kinds, experimental methods that are used to observe these processes, theories to predict and to account for these processes. The chemical reactivity of a single substance (reactant) covers its behaviour in which it decomposes,

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 it forms new substances by addition of atoms from another reactant or reactants, reactions in which it interacts with two or more other reactants to form two or more products. The chemical reactivity of a substance can refer to the variety of circumstances (conditions that include temperature, pressure, presence of catalysts) in which it reacts, in combination with the variety of substances with which it reacts, the equilibrium point of the reaction (i.e. the extent to which all of it reacts), the rate of the reaction. a) Specific internal surface area: Explain the physical adsorption of gas molecules on a solid surface and serves as the basis for an important analysis technique for the measurement of the specific surface area of a material. b) Surface energy Surface energy quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that occur when a surface is created. In the physics of solids, surfaces must be intrinsically less energetically favorable than the bulk of a material, otherwise there would be a driving force for surfaces to be created, removing the bulk of the material (see sublimation). The surface energy may therefore be defined as the excess energy at the surface of a material compared to the bulk. c) Surface tension Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force. It is revealed, for example, in floating of some objects on the surface of water, even though they are denser than water, and in the ability of some insects (e.g. water striders) to run on the water surface. This property is caused by cohesion of similar molecules, and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.

1. Electrical properties a) Conductivity Conductivity may refer to: Electrical conductivity, a measure of a material's ability to conduct an electric current Conductivity (electrolytic), also the specific conductance, is a measurement of the electrical conductance per unit distance in an electrolytic or aqueous solution Ionic conductivity, a measure of the conductivity through ionic charge carriers

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Hydraulic conductivity, a property of a porous material's ability to transmit water Thermal conductivity, the intensive property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat Rayleigh conductivity, describing the behavior of apertures concerning the flow of a liquid or gas b) Dielectric constant The relative permittivity of a material under given conditions reflects the extent to which it concentrates electrostatic lines of flux. In technical terms, it is the ratio of the amount of electrical energy stored in a material by an applied voltage, relative to that stored in a vacuum. Likewise, it is also the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric, compared to a similar capacitor that has a vacuum as its dielectric. c) Dielectric strength In physics, the term dielectric strength has the following meanings: Of an insulating material, the maximum electric field strength that it can withstand intrinsically without breaking down, i.e., without experiencing failure of its insulating properties. For a given configuration of dielectric material and electrodes, the minimum electric field that produces breakdown. the maximum electric stress the dielectric material can withstand without breakdown. d) Electrical conductivity Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific electrical resistance, or volume resistivity) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electric charge. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre (m). It is commonly represented by the Greek letter (rho). Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal quantity, and measures a material's ability to conduct an electric current. It is commonly represented by the Greek letter (sigma), but (esp. in electrical engineering) or are also occasionally used. Its SI unit is siemens per metre (Sm1) and CGSE unit is reciprocal second (s1): e) Permeability In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the Greek
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letter . The term was coined in September, 1885 by Oliver Heaviside. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity. We can simplify it by saying, the more conductive a material is to a magnetic field, the higher its permeability. In SI units, permeability is measured in the henries per meter (Hm1), or newtons per ampere squared (NA2). The permeability constant (0), also known as the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space, is a measure of the amount of resistance encountered when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum. The magnetic constant has the exact (defined)[1] value 0 = 4107 1.2566370614106 Hm1 or NA2). f) Permittivity In electromagnetism, absolute permittivity is the measure of the resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a medium. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielectric medium. The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric field (more correctly, flux) is 'generated' per unit charge. Less electric flux exists in a medium with a high permittivity (per unit charge) due to polarization effects. Permittivity is directly related to electric susceptibility, which is a measure of how easily a dielectric polarizes in response to an electric field. Thus, permittivity relates to a material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an electric field. In SI units, permittivity is measured in farads per meter (F/m); electric susceptibility is dimensionless. They are related to each other through = r0 = (1 + )0 where r is the relative permittivity of the material, and is the vacuum permittivity. g) Piezoelectric constant Piezoelectricity ( /piezoilktrsti/) is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins)[1] in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein (), which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (), which stands for amber, an ancient source of electric charge.[2] Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.[3] The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical strain resulting from an applied electrical field). For example, lead
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= 8.85 1012 F/m

zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity when their static structure is deformed by about 0.1% of the original dimension. Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of their static dimension when an external electric field is applied to the material. h) Seebeck coefficient The thermopower, or thermoelectric power (also called the Seebeck coefficient) of a material is a measure of the magnitude of an induced thermoelectric voltage in response to a temperature difference across that material.[1] The thermopower has units of volts per kelvin (V/K),[1] although it is more often given in microvolts per kelvin (V/K). The term thermopower is a misnomer since it measures the voltage or electric potential (not the electric power) induced in response to a temperature difference. Note that the unit of thermopower (V/K) is different from the unit of power (watts). The phenomenon quantified by thermopower is called the Seebeck effect. The Seebeck effect and two related phenomena (the Peltier effect and Thomson effect) are together called the "thermoelectric effect". 1. a) b) c) Environmental properties Embodied energy Embodied water RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substance)compliance

There are a variety of other properties to consider in an environmental impact assessment that effect the ecological or human environment that may be difficult to quantify (unlike most of the properties listed on this page) including pollution (extraction, transportation, manufacture), scarcity/abundance, habitat destruction, renewability, recyclability, wars fought over materials, labor exploitation, etc. These can be subjective, dependent on context, or inadequately measured. 1. Magnetic properties a) Curie Point b) Diamagnetism c) Hysterisis d) Permeability 1. Manufacturing properties a) Castability Castability is the ease of forming a casting. Castability can be thought of as how easy is it to cast a quality part. A very castable part design is easily

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developed, incurs minimal tooling costs, requires minimal energy, and has few rejections. b) Extruding temperature and pressure Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired crosssection. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections and work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellent surface finish. c) Hardness Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape change when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity. Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter.

d) Machinability rating The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be machined to an acceptable surface finish. Materials with good machinability require little power to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish, and do not wear the tooling much; such materials are said to be free machining. The factors that typically improve a material's performance often degrade its machinability. Therefore, to manufacture components economically, engineers are challenged to find ways to improve machinability without harming performance. Machinability can be difficult to predict because machining has so many variables. Two sets of factors are the condition of work materials and the physical properties of work materials. The condition of the work material includes eight factors: microstructure, grain size, heat treatment, chemical composition, fabrication, hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength. Physical properties are those of the individual material groups, such as the modulus of elasticity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and work hardening. Other important factors are operating conditions, cutting tool material and geometry, and the machining process parameters. e) Machining speeds and feeds
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The phrase speeds and feeds (or feeds and speeds) refers to two separate velocities in machine tool practice, cutting speed and feed rate. They are often considered as a pair because of their combined effect on the cutting process. Each, however, can also be considered and analyzed in its own right. 1. Mechanical properties a) Compressive strength Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand axially directed pushing forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are crushed. Concrete can be made to have high compressive strength, e.g. many concrete structures have compressive strengths in excess of 50 MPa, whereas a material such as soft sandstone may have a compressive strength as low as 5 or 10 MPa. Measuring the compressive strength of a steel drum Compressive strength is often measured on a universal testing machine; these range from very small table top systems to ones with over 53 MN capacity.[1] Measurements of compressive strength are affected by the specific test method and conditions of measurement. Compressive strengths are usually reported in relationship to a specific technical standard that may, or may not, relate to end-use performance. b) Density The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is (the Greek letter rho). In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is also defined as its weight per unit volume;[1] although, this quantity is more properly called specific weight. Different materials usually have different densities, so density is an important concept regarding buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known metal elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but not the densest materials. Less dense fluids float on more dense fluids if they do not mix. This concept can be extended, with some care, to less dense solids floating on more dense fluids. If the average density (including any air below the waterline) of an object is less than water (1000 kg/m3) it will float in water and if it is more than water's it will sink in water. In some cases density is expressed as the dimensionless quantities specific gravity (SG) or relative density (RD), in which case it is expressed in multiples of the density of some other standard material, usually water or air/gas. (For example, a specific gravity less than one means that the substance floats in water.) The mass density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. (The variance is typically small for solids and liquids and much greater for gasses.) Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and therefore increase its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with some exceptions) decreases its density by increasing the volume of that
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substance. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from bottom to top of the fluid due to the decrease of the density of the heated fluid. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material. c) Ductility In materials science, ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Both of these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a solid material can be plastically deformed without fracture. Also, these material properties are dependent on temperature and pressure. d) Fatigue limit Fatigue limit, endurance limit, and fatigue strength are all expressions used to describe a property of materials: the amplitude (or range) of cyclic stress that can be applied to the material without causing fatigue failure. Ferrous alloys and titanium alloys. have a distinct limit, an amplitude below which there appears to be no number of cycles that will cause failure. Other structural metals such as aluminium and copper, do not have a distinct limit and will eventually fail even from small stress amplitudes. In these cases, a number of cycles (usually 107) is chosen to represent the fatigue life of the material. e) Flexural modulus In mechanics, the flexural modulus is the ratio of stress to strain in flexural deformation, or the tendency for a material to bend. It is determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve produced by a flexural test (such as the ASTM D 790), and uses units of force per area.[1] It is an intensive property. Flexural modulus:

For a 3-point deflection test of a beam, where: w and h are the width and height of the beam, L is the distance between the two outer supports and d is the deflection due to load F applied at the middle of the beam f) Flexural strength g) Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture, bend strength, or fracture strength, a mechanical parameter for brittle material, is defined as a material's ability to resist deformation under load. The transverse bending test is most frequently employed, in which a rod specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross-section is bent until fracture using a three point flexural test technique. The flexural strength represents the highest stress

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experienced within the material at its moment of rupture. It is measured in terms of stress, here given the symbol . h) Fracture toughness In materials science, fracture toughness is a property which describes the ability of a material containing a crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most important properties of any material for virtually all design applications. The fracture toughness of a material is determined from the stress intensity factor (K) at which a thin crack in the material begins to grow. It is denoted KIc and has the units of . The subscript Ic denotes mode I crack opening under a normal tensile stress perpendicular to the crack, since the material can be made deep enough to stand shear (mode II) or tear (mode III). Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present. If a material has much fracture toughness it will probably undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of materials with less fracture toughness.[1] Fracture mechanics, which leads to the concept of fracture toughness, was broadly based on the work of A. A. Griffith who, among other things, studied the behavior of cracks in brittle materials. A related concept is the work of fracture (wof) which is directly proportional to , where E is the Young's modulus of the material.Note that, in SI units, wof is given in J/m2. i) Hardness Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape change when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity. Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter. j) Plasticity k) In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. In engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield.

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l) Poissons ratio Poisson's ratio (), named after Simon Poisson, is the ratio, when a sample object is stretched, of the contraction or transverse strain (perpendicular to the applied load), to the extension or axial strain (in the direction of the applied load). When a material is compressed in one direction, it usually tends to expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. This phenomenon is called the Poisson effect. Poisson's ratio (nu) is a measure of the Poisson effect. The Poisson ratio is the ratio of the fraction (or percent) of expansion divided by the fraction (or percent) of compression, for small values of these changes. m) Shear modulus In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:
[1]

where = shear stress; F is the force which acts A is the area on which the force acts in engineering, = shear strain. Elsewhere, xy = x is the transverse displacement l is the initial length Shear modulus is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or in thousands of pounds per square inch (kpsi). The shear modulus is always positive. n) Shear strain A strain is a normalized measure of deformation representing the displacement between particles in the body relative to a reference length. o) Shear strength Shear strength in engineering is a term used to describe the strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure where the material or component fails in shear. A shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force. When a paper is cut with scissors, the paper fails in shear. In structural and mechanical engineering the shear strength of a component is important for designing the dimensions and materials to be used for the manufacture/construction of the component (e.g. beams, plates, or bolts) In a

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reinforced concrete beam, the main purpose of stirrups is to increase the shear strength. For shear stress applies

where 1 is major principal stress 2 is minor principal stress In general: ductile materials fail in shear (ex. aluminum), whereas brittle materials (ex. cast iron) fail in tension. See tensile strength. To calculate: Given total force at failure and the force-resisting area (e.g. the cross-section of a bolt loaded in shear), shear strength is:

p) Softness Softness may refer to: The opposite of one of the many types of hardness. A texture which is the opposite of roughness. q) Specific modulus Specific modulus is a materials property consisting of the elastic modulus per mass density of a material. It is also known as the stiffness to weight ratio or specific stiffness. High specific modulus materials find wide application in aerospace applications where minimum structural weight is required. The dimensional analysis yields units of distance squared per time squared. r) Specific weight The specific weight (also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of a material. The symbol of specific weight is (the Greek letter Gamma). A commonly used value is the specific weight of water on Earth at 5C which is 62.43 lbf/ft3 or 9807 N/m3. [1] The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density. s) Tensile strength Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength,[1][2] is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different.

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The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress-strain curve is the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood. Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. For some non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the SI system, the unit is pascal (Pa) or, equivalently, newtons per square metre (N/m). The customary unit is pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used for convenience when measuring tensile strengths. t) Yield strength u) The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and nonreversible. In the three-dimensional space of the principal stresses (1,2,3), an infinite number of yield points form together a yield surface. v) Knowledge of the yield point is vital when designing a component since it generally represents an upper limit to the load that can be applied. It is also important for the control of many materials production techniques such as forging, rolling, or pressing. In structural engineering, this is a soft failure mode which does not normally cause catastrophic failure or ultimate failure unless it accelerates buckling. w) Youngs modulus Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's Law holds.[1] In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Young's modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. In anisotropic materials, Young's modulus may have different values depending on the direction of the applied force with respect to the material's structure. It is also commonly called the elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity, because Young's modulus is the most common elastic modulus used, but
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there are other elastic moduli measured, too, such as the bulk modulus and the shear modulus.

1. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) 1. a) b) c) d) 1. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p) q) r) s) t) u) v) w) x)

Optical properties Absorptivity Color Luminosity Photosensitivity Reflectivity Refractive index Scattering Transmittance Sensorial properties Brightness Smell Softness Warmth Thermal properties Autoignition temperature Binary phase diagram Boiling point Coefficient of thermal expansion Critical temperature Curie point Emissivity Eutectic point Flammability Flash point Glass transition temperature Heat of fussion Heat of vaporization Inversion temperature Melting point Phase diagram Pyrophoricity Solidus Specific heat Thermal conductivity Thermal diffusivity Thermal expansion Seebeck coefficient Tripple point
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y) Vapor pressure z) Vicat Softening point.

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